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The Palgrave
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The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism
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Immanuel Ness • Zak Cope
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Encyclopedia of
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Preface
v
vi Preface
aristocracy must entail open or tacit compromise with capital. Those within the
upper echelons of the global working class who aim to determine their destiny
free of capitalist diktat must advocate the abolition of global wage scaling, the
sine qua non of imperialism, even in the certain knowledge that this will mean
a lengthy and considerable reduction in their compatriots’ purchasing power.
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism provides
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the most significant social, cultural, political, and economic aspects of the
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has unfolded, tracing its roots, goals, tactics, influence, and outcomes over
time and space. We have not, unfortunately, been able to include all of the
biographies that we would have liked to (e.g., of such anti-imperialists as Jose
Maria Sison, Bhagat Singh, George Habash, Hassan Nasrallah, Gerry Adams,
Michael Collins, Sitting Bull, Robert Mugabe, Daniel Ortega, Muammar
Gadaffi, Rajani Palme Dutt, Lin Biao, Enver Hoxha, Abimael Guzmán,
Charu Majumdar, and Subhas Chandra Bose, among others), or entries on all
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We hope you enjoy reading it as much as we enjoyed editing it.
ix
Contributors
xi
xii Contributors
judge on Islamic jurisprudence, and farsighted freedom, most tribes were on his side (Abd-el-
dedication for economic progress were certainly Krim 1927, p. 11).
determining factors to attain allegiance. Another Abd-el-Krim was driven by an unshakeable
factor that makes Abd-el-Krim unparalleled is will to fight for a cause: Despite the overwhelming
his successful implementation of socioeconomic imbalance of power stages against him, there is no
reforms based upon Sharia, the Islamic law, and question that Abd-el-Krim had any doubts of win-
its execution through increased numbers of ning the war against the united armies of Spanish
judges and courts (El-Asrouti 2007, p. 103). He and French colonial powers equipped with the
forbade the traditional self-administered justice latest war technology. Despite the dead-end situ-
by appointing a Muslim judge (qadi) – accom- ation of his army vis-à-vis a powerful European
panied by two legal officials (‘udul) – for each army, he still believed strongly that he would have
clan. Until then, the Rifis adhered to common triumphed had his policies been carried out and
law (urf), which in most instances was the Sharia been imposed correctly (Pennell 1986,
contradicting – in particular concerning the p. 231). In a propaganda speech given, he said
rights of women – the Quranic law (El-Asrouti “. . .if you join us, we will be as one. We will
2007, p. 99). In line with his policy to improve defeat the Christians with your help or without
the role of women, his wife endeavored to open a it. . .” (Pennell 1986, p. 83). Abd-el-Krim’s life
girls’ school (Pennell 1987, p. 113). In an inter- and his military achievements are briefly summa-
view with a journalist of the Chicago Tribune, rized in the following.
Abd-el-Krim called upon experts ao to help in
establishing a school system in the Rif (Sasse
2006, p. 311). He had also plans to establish a Abd-el-Krim’s Biography
university combining traditional and modern sci-
ences (Pennell 1986, p. 149). Abd-el-Krim grew up in Spanish Morocco, a sit-
Abd-el-Krim surprised most of European and uation that had been long endorsed by the Sultan
American visitors who met him: Contrary to Moulay Abdelaziz and the members of his family
expectations he was relatively small, slightly whose lifestyle, let alone their political or finan-
plump, and calm. He was always dressed in tradi- cial leadership skills, left much to be desired. It
tional clothes and wore a turban, and his office was a relatively war-torn environment, the causes
was in a rather small clay building. He is of which ranged from claims to the throne in
described as being down-to-earth, intelligent, Morocco to blood feuds between families or tri-
energetic, and a man of practical thinking. West- bes. For this reason, Abd-el-Krim mentions in his
ern journalists interviewing him invariably memoirs that he was used to war and to the smell
express their amazement about his sharp mind of gun powder since early childhood (Abd-el-
and his knowledge about the international politi- Krim 1927, p. 41). Abd-el-Krim’s family, briefly
cal affairs. As a devout Muslim, Abd-el-Krim was referred to as Khattabis here, was from the clan Ait
driven by the fundamental tenet of Islam. He Hattab in the Rif, with the most numerous and
publicly protested against claims of the French powerful tribe Ait Waryiġel under its auspices.
media that he intends to conquer Fes and become Research to date failed to link the line of ancestry
sultan of Morocco or become a khalif. He assured of Khattabis to Ait Waryiġel, but there seems to be
that his aim was to defend independency of the Rif unanimity among researchers that the Khattabis
and to achieve its recognition by other nations settled and ruled in the region of the Ait Waryiġel
(Bode 1926, p. 18). Abd-el-Krim also emphasized clan, for more than, as put by Abd-el-Krim (1927,
repeatedly that the Riffian tribesmen, who p. 39) a 1000 years. Abd-el-Krim claims in
supported him against the Spanish, were driven his memoires that his ancestry originated from
by fear of losing tribal independence and religious the Arabian peninsula and that they had a
custom and not by nationalism (Abd-el-Krim sharifian lineage, i.e., descendants of the Prophet
1927, p. 11). Thus, when he raised the issue of Muhammad.
Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963) 3
Abd-el-Krim’s father was a qadi and governor, Initially, thus both father and son were loyal to
as was his grandfather and his mother was the the Spanish. For this loyalty the Khattabis are
daughter of a qadi (Bode 1926, p. 18). Thus his taunted by researchers in the field: Fleming A
family enjoyed a good reputation and was influ- (1991), e.g., notes that “Abd-el-Krim and his
ential throughout the region (Abd-el-Krim 1927, father also helped organize a Spanish faction in
pp. 10–11). Abd-el-Krim and his brother, Si their home kabyle. For this act, the elder Abd-el-
M’hammed (1893–1967) – who would later play Krim was awarded the Cross of Military Merit and
a significant role in Abd-el-Krim’s successes – an annual pension of fifty pesetas, while the youn-
pursued Islamic studies from a very young age, ger was named qadi al qudat, or chief Islamic
their first teachers being their father and their judge of the Melillan region” (p. 61). Abd-el-
uncle (Abd-el-Krim 1927, p. 39). At the very Krim justified this loyalty with the belief that the
beginnings of the twentieth century, at the age of Spanish would bring economic progress and that
20, Abd-el-Krim moved to Fes and studied for without any foreign involvement this would not
2 years at the madrasas Al-Attarin and Saffarin be possible. In fact, among several other eco-
in order to fulfill the entry requirements for the nomic deficiencies in the region, a major hin-
renowned University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fes, drance to development was poor infrastructure.
which includes – apart from Arabic language Due to its geographical location and surrounding
and grammar – memorization of the Quran in mountain ranges, the region was relatively iso-
full as well as few other texts on Islamic jurispru- lated from the rest of the country. Hence, the Rif
dence. At the University of al-Qarawiyyin, Abd- was relatively poor vis-à-vis the rest of the coun-
el-Krim (then aged 22) begun to advance his try, a phenomenon known as “Mezzogiorno
Quranic studies. Si M’hammed, in turn, became effect.” Terhorst (1925), a German diplomat and
a qualified mining engineer in Spain (Abd-el- eyewitness of those times, describes the Rif region
Krim 1927, p. 10). as follows: “2,000 meter high, gloomy, coarse and
Between 1906/1907 and 1913, Abd-el-Krim steep mountain chain extends along the North
taught at a school set up by the Spanish while African Mediterranean coast between Melilla
simultaneously writing columns for the Arabic and Ceuta. The veil of the unexplored stretches
supplement of the Spanish daily newspaper Tele- mysteriously over this stage-like mountain world.
grama del Rif up until 1915. In 1909 and still The Rif is still a mystery, has still something dark,
during the process of his postgraduate studies of unknown to the European. Two Englishmen tried
Islamic and Spanish law to become an Islamic to move deeper into the mountains; but no one
judge – which he accomplished with an excellent ever heard anything from them. Apparently a
qualification in 1912 at the age of 30 – Abd-el- Frenchmen has managed to cross the Rif in
Krim worked as a Spanish translator and advisor 1600” (p. 154). Yet another reason for their loy-
for the Oficina de Asuntos Indigenas, Department alty to the Spanish was the idea of using the
of Native Affairs, which was set up for greater Spanish as a shield against the French colonial
citizen oversight and, as Abd-el-Krim would later powers. The Khattabis were ardent opponents of
discover, to submit the population. He translated any French involvement in the region. The sultan
for diverse mining companies, which inevitably had signed the Act of the Conference of Algeciras
informed him about economic exploitation plans on 7 April 1906, which had entitled also the
of the colonizers. In 1910 Abd-el-Krim was French to establish a protectorate over Morocco.
appointed by the same department as qadi for Since 1912 France maintained a troop of around
the Melilla region and in 1914 as supreme judge. 75,000 men in Morocco. These were divided into
As a judge, Abd-el-Krim’s work had mainly to do two groups, one into east and the other into west,
with the organization of the protectorate, such as and each was under the command of a division
the legal aspects of rights and title deeds to the general. Two-thirds of the regular army consisted
iron deposits of Beni Tuzin, which bordered on of African nationals including Moroccan (Bode
his own tribal area. 1926, p. 19). Later during the resistance, a
4 Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963)
significant number of indigenous legionnaires strengthen unity among the tribes and to put an
both from the Spanish and French protectorate end to blood feuds, monetary fines charged for
armies would change sides: In July 1921, for murder (haqq) – which had been abolished by the
instance, nearly 5,000 were recorded to have Spanish – were reintroduced and extended to
deserted (Sasse 2006, p. 100). apply to collaborators as well. The Rifis felt the
The loyalty of the Khattabis changed in 1914 reward of unity when they foiled a major attack
when the Spanish gradually began to advance into led by General Manuel Fernández Silvestre (1871
Beni Urriaguel. Abd-el-Krim and his family Cuba – 1921 Annual, Rif) from the sea. Never-
began to experience unfair practices inflicted on theless, the general still managed to enter by using
the locals directly. The French, who had gained a different route later on. Confronted by the immi-
control over the heartland of Morocco, were nent threat of Spanish invasion, Abd-el-Krim’s
equally not in an amicable relationship with the father started a campaign but died unexpectedly
local population. The Spanish authorities began to in August 1919. There were speculations that his
cut the incomes of the tribal leaders, including the father’s death was due to a poison administered by
father of Abd-el-Krim, and instead were paying the Spanish (Abd-el-Krim 1927, p. 57). With his
bribes to tribesmen whom they expected to help in death, the troop (harakah) disintegrated so that
their efforts to expand into the Central Rif more the Spanish could proceed with their plans for
readily. Abd-el-Krim started taking action by crit- invasion without any resistance up until the begin-
icizing such corrupt practices as well as colonial- ning of 1921. Along these developments Abd-el-
ism as a driver for economic progress, first through Krim, together with his brother, continued the
his job as journalist (Ayache 1981, p. 182). In 1915, campaign to form an inter-tribal alliance. Abd-
when questioned by his employer, Abd-el-Krim el-Krim realized that Islamic concept of unity
told that both he and his father were supporters of was the main peacemaking element which could
the Young Turks and were working for the revolt help the Riffians find supratribal consciousness
of Islam against the Allies, particularly the and identity (Pennell 1986, p. 238). He
French. Moreover, he candidly stated that any maintained a tolerant disposition toward tribal
Spanish interference in these schemes would leaders with different ideologies and would
prove to be a fatal error (Abd-el-Krim 1927, endorse the legitimacy of their statuses among
p. 44; Ayache 1981, p. 217). For saying this, their respective tribes as long as they agreed to
Abd-el-Krim was imprisoned on 6 September accept him as a leader. Soon, the brothers’
1915, by the Spanish for almost 1 year. On endeavors bore fruit. Abd-el-Krim, being a char-
23 December 1915, Abd-el-Krim attempted to ismatic leader and an impressive preacher,
escape with a rope far too short at the other end recorded more success than his father or any
but failed after breaking his leg, which would other Berber rebel leaders ever managed to
leave him slightly limping for the rest of his life. achieve: In April 1921, at the age of 39, Abd-el-
He was eventually released in return for his Krim was elected by 50 Sheikhs as their military
father’s support for the landing of the Spanish at leader. Political as well as religious decisions
the Bay of Al Hoceima (Abd-el-Krim 1927, equally fell within the scope of Abd-el-Krim’s
p. 46). duty. An oath of allegiance, consisting of one
The uneasy relationship finally came to an end page, was designed according to a traditional
in 1918 when the Spanish continued to subjugate homage document. It expressed that the signato-
more tribes. Dissent among the population was ries are committed to him with their hearts and
exacerbated by a bad harvest, which was further tongues, that they compliantly obey him with their
complicating the already prevalent poor economic heads and rush to him with their feet, and that they
conditions (Pennell 1986, p. 65). Abd-el-Krim’s will not be disobedient to him, and that they will
father began to initiate an organized resistance not stray from the joint path of the community.
(Abd-el-Krim 1927, p. 41 and 55). In order to The document ends with the sentence: “We pay
Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963) 5
homage to you, we recognize you as the Head, in addition to the regular also the local army and
and entrust you to guide us with justice, kindness estimates the total number of the Rifi Army to
and truthfulness and to judge between us justly” have been around 80,000. The Spanish death toll A
(El-Asrouti 2007, p. 79). In the oath Abd-el-Krim is estimated to have been between 8,000 and
is addressed as khalif although Abd-el-Krim 10,000 (Sasse 2006, p. 40; El-Asrouti 2007,
repeatedly denied that he aspired the status of p. 61). Other historians set the death toll higher,
the khalif. at up to between 13,000 and 19,000 fatalities
Soon after his election, Abd-el-Krim managed including captives (Hart 1976, p. 374). Out of
to unite the various independent and quarrelsome panic and fear, not least induced by General
tribes in the Rif to the point where he could field Silvestre’s decision to retreat the very next day,
an army of some 65,000 men (Abd-el-Krim 1927, many Spanish soldiers fled the battlefield. The
p. 94; Hart 1976, p. 388). Abd-el-Krim’s efforts of general eventually lost his life in this battle.
unification also involved cooperation with other Large amounts of war booty had fallen into the
rebel leaders. One of the most troublesome for the hands of Rifis. About 700 Spanish solders were
imperialist powers was El Raisuli (1871–1925). captured, which were kept for a ransom. Abd-el-
Immediately before Abd-el-Krim’s revolt, Raisuli Krim warned from the start to impose death
had for some years led an ardent resistance against sentences upon those who abused or tortured pris-
the colonial powers in the Jibala region (western oners of war or mutilated dead bodies (Pennell
zone of the Rif occupied by Spain). Raisuli’s war 1986, p. 81). In his memoires Abd-el-Krim states
tactics entailed piracy, in particular maritime. that the death toll of his enemies would have
Raisuli refused Abd- el-Krim’s invitation to join reached hardly conceivable dimensions had he
him. He was captured in 1925 and imprisoned not done this (Abd-el-Krim 1927, p. 72). For the
(Furneaux 1967, p. 133). Eventually he died in Rifis the defeat of their opponents was an “abso-
captivity as a prisoner of Abd-el-Krim in 1925. lute miracle” – as Krim’s brother had called it:
Despite the lack of support from other rebel Abd-el-Krim ordered that Quranic verses be
leaders, Abd-el-Krim recorded two victories on a recited and prayers of thanks performed for the
single day and proved that the oath was well- attained and the upcoming victory over the Span-
deserved: In a surprise attack on 2 June 1921 ish (Pennell 1986, p. 168). The colonial forces, in
launched on Dhar Ubarran, about 600 Spanish turn, dubbed the clash as “the Disaster of Annual.”
soldiers were killed. Similarly, General Silvestre’s The reconquest of the areas lost in the past con-
troops ended with a defeat in Sidi Idris (Pennell tinued, and the Rif Republic was proclaimed on
1986, p. 81). These victories encouraged more 1 February 1923. The humiliating failure of the
and more men to join Abd-el-Krim’s troops. The Spanish military contributed to the instability of
success of the Rifis in the ensuing Battle of the Spanish government, and on 13 September
Annual on July 17, which lasted for 5 days, was 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera (1870–1930)
unprecedented in the history of any battle of this assumed absolute powers as a dictator following
kind. One of the participating soldiers, Chaaib a coup d’état.
Si-Mohand N’aali, reports in a documentary: Bode, a German author, summarizes his
“Abd-el-Krim was our leader. We encircled the impressions in his book on Abd-el-Krim
Spanish troops. They resisted. But they were published in 1926 on how the Muslim world felt
afraid and exhausted. We wiped them out.” about the Rif resistance, namely, that not Mustafa
There are significant discrepancies in the literature Kemal Paşa but Abd-el-Krim became the cham-
concerning the number of troops on both sides: pion of Islam (Bode 1926, p. 55). Abd-el-Krim
The estimated numbers for the Spanish troops received innumerable financial supporters and
range between 25,000 and 30,000 (Hart 1976, collaborators – including Turks and Germans –
p. 374) and for the Rifis 3000 (El-Asrouti 2007; for his cause. Large amounts of monies were
p. 61, 92, 95). Woolman (1968, p. 149) considers collected in Madras, Delhi, Kalkutta, Syria, and
6 Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963)
Lebanon to help “Muslims in Morocco” (Bode atrocity: Not only were the guerilla fighters
1926, p. 24, p. 55). Abd-el-Krim sent letters – their target but also villages and water resources.
through journalists or envoys – to heads of states The Ouergha Valley was largely spared from this
across the world asking for acceptance of his contamination.
newly founded country. Abd-el-Krim also had Under pressure from his people to take action,
plans to abandon the Spanish currency and intro- Abd-el-Krim decided to attack the French. With
duce own currency, namely, “Riffan,” for the this decision, as he later admitted, he made the
Rif instead. Through one of his European greatest strategic mistake since he took up the
collaborateurs, namely, Captain Charles A. P. Gar- leadership of the resistance: He had not foreseen
diner, an English arms smuggler and speculator, that the two competing imperial powers would
the notes were printed in England on the eventually unite their manpower and resources
10 October 1923, but these were disposed off against the Rifi resistance. Initially the French,
into the sea after Abd-el-Krim refused to pay the as the Spanish had earlier, were recording signif-
excessive price Gardiner was asking (Sasse 2006, icant losses. Out of desperation and the fear of
p. 178 and 304). losing even Fes, the French General Lyautey
In July 1924, the Spanish experienced another (1854–1934) saw no other solution than a joint
crushing defeat in Chaouen. As in 1921, this was operation with the Spanish to defeat the Rifis.
also a surprise attack where the Spanish had to Now the Spanish with 200,000 and the French
give up one post after another. Concerning the with 160,000 men supported with the latest war
death toll on both sides during this clash, there technology were confronting the Rifi troops,
are significant disparities in the literature, too. The consisting of about 60,000–80,000 men (Sasse
Spanish, according to one source, lost about 2006, p. 51). Pröbster (1925) makes the following
10,000 soldiers (Pennell 1986, p. 176). statement concerning the number of troops on
But the tide began to turn. Since the beginning each side: “On the 9th July 1925 the French
of 1924, the Rifis were observing problems ini- decided to increase the number of their troops to
tiated now by the French colonial powers: The 150,000. The Spanish army consisted of about
Ouergha Valley, one of the most fertile regions of 100,000 Soldiers. In contrast, the number of the
the Rif, was an important source of supply for Rifis were at most 40,000–50,000. The aim of the
agricultural produce to Rifis, and it began to be of Franco-Spanish army consisting of a quarter mil-
interest to the French, too. Under the excuse of lion men was to destroy the Rif republic founded
rearrangement of plot boundaries, the French by Abd-el-Krim” (p. 154). With regard to the
began to build blockhouses and military posts number of Rifi troops, Pröbster (1925) adds:
around the valley. Food was already short due “Marshal Pétain estimates this figure to be
to embargos, and Abd-el-Krim forbade food between 30,000 and 40,000” (p. 158). The num-
exports and threatened any infringement with ber of dead and missing French soldiers between
hard penalties. There was another reason for April 1925 and May 1926 was 2,162 (Sasse 2006,
food shortage, notably contaminated soil: the p. 56). The territories lost were gradually
Spanish had resorted to using the acutely poison- reconquered, and on 26 May 1926, Mulay
ous chemical warfare agent S-Lost (Yperite) or Muhend, the lion of the Rif, as Abd-el-Krim is
mustard gas by aerochemical method for the first remembered by the Rifis, was forced to surrender
time in history starting in 1921 and on a large to the French forces. After being imprisoned for
scale in 1924 in the Rif (Kunz and Müller 1990, 2 months in Fes, Abd-el-Krim was exiled on the
p. 175). The poison was sourced from Germany 28 August 1926 together with his two wives and
and produced in Spain under the supervision of children, his brother, his uncle, and their families –
the German chemist Hugo G. A. Stoltzenberg altogether 30 people (Malbert 2016) – to the
(1883–1974). No one was spared from this French island La Réunion, located in the east of
Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963) 7
Madagascar. The family lived at several accom- on the 23 May. On 27 May, Eltaher informed King
modations including Chateau Morange – an Farouk (1920–1965) of Egypt, via a telegram,
impressive colonial castle – and then Castel about Abd-el-Krim’s arrival at the Suez Canal A
Fleuri. The Réunionese felt proud having Emir and asked for his support in freeing him, as the
Abd-el-Krim’s arrival, and soon the Riffians ship once in Egyptian waters would lose authority
made friendship – despite initial reservations of from France. On 30 May at Suez harbor, Abd-el-
the authorities – with some members of the Indo- Krim was visited in the night by Eltaher accom-
Muslim community of about 1,500 Gujaratis from panied by few other men from the Arab Maghreb
India (Malbert 2016). Abd-el-Krim remained dis- Bureau and the king’s representatives to discuss
crete, would meet only few families, and had good the escape plan and the king’s proposal of an
relationship with the governor. The authorities asylum in Egypt. Abd-el-Krim showed no reser-
would appoint Ismail Dindar, a tailor, to cater for vations but said that he would also consult the
the families’ traditional clothing and halal food matter with his family and come up with a final
requirements (Malbert 2016). Dindar eventually decision once in Port Said after the ship had
became Abd-el-Krim’s best friend. One year passed the Suez Canal. In Port Said, Abd-el-
before leaving Réunion (in 1946), Abd-el-Krim Krim endorsed his acceptance and left the ship
befriended Raymond Vergès, the leader of the with his family pretending to visit the city.
Réunion Communist Party (Malbert 2016). He Abd-el-Krim lived henceforth in Cairo. In
used to spend his time teaching Arabic and January, 1948, he announced the formation of
Quran, which he knew by heart, to the children the National Liberation Committee of North Afri-
in the family and the children of Dindar, and from cans – supporting the liberation of Morocco,
1937 onward – as by then surveillance of the Algeria, and Tunisia – and presided over it until
family was reduced – also discovering the island his death in 1963. His daughter Meryem el-
and hunting. The family would grow sugar cane, Khattabi stated in an interview in 2013 that Abd-
mango, litchi, and guava in their garden and gera- el-Krim would send fighters on a mission
nium on a large plot of land they had acquired. (Fidayins) for the armed struggle. As during his
The family was granted a pension and would struggle in the Rif, he was counting on support
complement their income by selling geranium oil from Germany to arm Algerian rebels. Abd-el-
in their shop in Saint-Denis (Malbert 2016). In an Krim’s influence seems to have gone beyond the
interview conducted in 2013 Abd-el-Krim’s Maghreb countries, as there are claims that, for
daughter Meryem el-Khattabi (1939–2017) noted instance, Ho Chi Minh and Abd-el-Krim had
that her father used to say to his children that the cooperated during the war in Vietnam against the
island was a kind of “Kindergarten managed by the imperial powers: Minh asked Abd-el-Krim for
French.” support upon which the latter persuaded the
In 1947 a decision was made to relocate Abd- Maghreb soldiers fighting in Indochina on the
el-Krim and his family of about 41 (some sources side of the French to change fronts (Sneevliet
state 52) people to Southern France. The Greek 1942, footnote 2). Similarly, when consulted as
ship “SS Katoomba” was hired for this purpose. to which course of action to take upon the immi-
However, during the transfer, Abd-el-Krim and nent creation of Israel, Abd-el-Krim replied:
his family managed to escape in Egypt. Abd-el- “Don’t worry, do nothing. We cannot win that
Krim’s escape was planned and orchestrated by war for two reasons: We will either be defeated
his admirers: On 23 May 1947, Mohamed Ali by the little Jewish state, and we will become a
Eltaher, the president of the Palestinian Commit- laughing-stock across the world; or we will win,
tee in Egypt, received a telegram from Abdo Hus- and we will have the whole world against us. So
sein Eladhal, briefly informing that the ship with what to do? Let the Jews colonize the Palestinians.
Abd-el-Krim on board had left the harbor of Aden We will be dealing with a classic colonial
8 Abd-el-Krim al-Khattabi (1882–1963)
situation, and the Palestinians will liberate them- own recent history you have Abd-el-Krim. He is
selves, as Moroccans, Tunisians and Algerians of one the most important inspiration sources, of
will one day liberate themselves” (Barrada and which I have learned what the people’s liberations
Sitbon 2004, p. 98). There is also evidence that war exactly is” (Sneevliet 1942, footnote 2). How-
Che had met Abd-el-Krim twice in 1959 in the ever, given the continuous media coverage of the
Moroccan embassy in Cairo (Er 2015). In 1958, Rif War and interviews conducted by the Ameri-
2 years after Morocco became independent, the can journalist Mowrer (in October 1924) –
King of Morocco, Mohammed V, declared Abd-el- published in Chicago Daily News from November
Krim as a national hero, ordered the release of all 1924 to early January 1925 – and Vincent Sheean
his confiscated properties in Ajdir, and invited (in 1925) with his 1926 book An American Among
him during a personal visit in Cairo in 1960 to the Riffi, the biography did not contain much more
return to the Rif. Abd-el-Krim refused this invita- information.
tion, stating that the country had not become fully Books of history tend to avoid mentioning
independent (Woolman 1968, pp. 227–229). wars that went against their interests: Although
Abd-el-Krim and the Rif War made continuous
headlines during the 1920s, it is largely ignored in
Publications on Abd-el-Krim and His the historical literature. Abd-el- Krim’s resistance
Struggle had led to the loss of thousands of lives, and his
ideology was based upon Islamic ideals. Headings
Abd-el-Krim’s resistance made headlines of more recent scholarly literature on the Rif War
throughout the world right from the beginning. involve phrases such as “a forgotten war” or refer-
The continual media coverage on the Rif War is ring to Abd-el-Krim “the unknown or forgotten
certainly associated with the impact of the amaze- leader.” His struggle and his motives were also
ment with which the world had followed the rela- falsified in his home country until recently:
tive success of the Rifis against the technologically Moroccan schoolbooks briefly mention about
far better equipped imperial powers. It should Abd-el-Krim by underlining that he had fought
therefore come as no surprise that his failure and against the colonizers for the Moroccan throne.
capture was covered in newspapers under praise- In contrast to scholarly literature, it is an unprec-
worthy and eulogistic headings such as “Like edented phenomenon that Krim’s resistance con-
Prometheus Chained to a Rock,” (San Francisco tinues to be used generation after generation as a
Chronicle, 24 October 1926). Abd-el-Krim’s setting for novels and films across nations (Er and
biography – based upon a relatively short inter- Rich 2015). Initiated in Hollywood, since its begin-
view – was published very soon after his capture. ning, the Rif War is continuously being portrayed
A French journalist had a rare chance to conduct across nations in the fiction genre, where it is
an interview with him as soon as he was captured generally used as danger setting for adventurers.
and published it in the form of a biography in Now as then, these publications do not purport to
1927. The interview was conducted in French, provide a realistic recount or enact realistic scenes
and as Abd-el-Krim could not speak French, his on the Rif War but to associate it with extreme
brother acted as translator. Given the worldwide brutality and promiscuous behavior purportedly
reputation of Abd-el-Krim, the rather short book justified by Islamic teachings, a system of explana-
was circulated widely. Its German translation tion much rooted in orientalism (Er and Rich
came out in the very same year. The Chinese 2015). These novels and films present their own
communist leader Mao Zedong is said to have thematic settings while giving a false image of
held a copy of it and that he expressed his admi- Abe-el-Krim, namely, as a lover of Western
ration for Abd-el-Krim’s leadership by telling a women. No evidence exists that Abd-el-Krim was
Palestinian delegation of Fatah in 1971 the fol- promiscuous or had any relationship with Western
lowing: “You have come to me to hear me speak- women. According to the norms and traditions of
ing about a people’s liberations war, but in your the time, Abd-el-Krim had two wives called
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Hän piti toisella polvellaan ruorinvartta kiinni pysyäkseen
määrätyssä suunnassa, tarttui kivääriinsä ja laukaisi jonnekin valaan
suuren evän taakse, missä arveli sydämen olevan. Hänen näin
puuhatessaan koira älysi, että jotakin mielenkiintoista oli tekeillä,
hypähti pystyyn, laski etukäpälänsä purren laidalle ja haukkui
vimmatusti tuota outoa mustaa olentoa, joka kieriskeli aalloissa.
Hämäränpeikko.
Tuskin viisi minuuttia ne olivat olleet poissa, kun pikku emo äkkiä
sai päähänsä, että vauvat kaipasivat sitä. Korkeassa kaaressa se
nopeasti kiiti takaisin männyn latvaan, ja peikko, epäröityään hetken,
seurasi sen kintereillä.
Sattumalta oli muuan kärppä, julmat silmät punaisina raivosta ja
verenhimosta, pyydystämässä samassa hongassa. Se oli juuri
kadottanut oravan jäljet, jota oli seurannut niin läheltä, että oli jo
pitänyt sitä omanaan. Se oli jo melkein kuvitellut hampaittensa
olevan pienen raksuttajan kurkussa, kun jonkin yöllisen ihmeen
kautta ‒ villieläinten maailmassa yö on ihmeitä täynnä ‒ saalis ja
jäljet hävisivät. Se oli tapahtunut hongassa, ja raivoisa metsästäjä
juoksenteli kaikkialla puussa kadonneita jälkiä hakemassa päättäen
olla antamatta sisustaan perään. Se juoksi notkeana ja vinhana kuin
käärme pitkin sitä korkeata oksaa, jonka erääseen uloimpaan
haarukkaan pikku yökkö oli jättänyt pienoisensa.
Luullen pääsevänsä ulos yhtä helposti, kuin oli tullut sisään, lensi
peikko kiivaasti kalpeavälkkeistä lasia vastaan. Se huumaantui
hiukan ja hämmästyi aika lailla. Uudelleen ja vielä kerran se koetti
läpäistä kovaa, näkymätöntä estettä, mutta ei sokeasti eikä kauhusta
kiihkeänä, kuten lintu olisi tehnyt. Sillä pysyi pää selvänä tässäkin
säikähdyttävässä ja odottamattomassa kohtauksessa. Sen tarkka
näkö erotti ensi hämmästyksestä saadun täräyksen perästä lasin
sen takaisesta ilmavasta tilasta, ja tyynesti se luopui yrittämästä
mahdotonta. Sitten se rupesi tarkasti tutkimaan huoneen joka
loukkoa ja nurkkaa, mutta niin täsmällinen se nytkin oli näkönsä ja
lentonsa puolesta, että vaikka huone oli täynnä kaikenlaisia
pikkukatuja, ei sen siipien liike häirinnyt mitään. Se meni joka
huonekalun alle, joka kuvan taakse ja tutki väsymättömän
huolellisesti tulenvarjostimen, joka oli kesäksi pantu takan eteen.
Tämän puuhansa ohella se löysi odottamattoman paljon erilaisia
hyönteisiä eikä suinkaan ollut niin hätääntynyt, ettei olisi ahminut
joka makupalaa, mikä sen osalle sattui.
Sitä kyllä oli, vieläpä siekailematta. Suuri rotta, joka asui ladon
lattian alla, oli juuri tulossa kolostaan. Se luuli nähneensä jonkin
putoavan ja vaikkei se tiennyt, mitä se oli, tapsutti se esille hyvin
toivorikkaana. Sen mieleen johtui, että ehkä tuo oli nuori pääskynen,
joka putosi tai tungettiin ulos pesästään, ja se piti nuorista
pääskysistä vaihteen vuoksi.
Äkkiä sen huomion käänsi toisaalle kevyt isku päähän. Yökkö oli
nähtävästi melkein pudonnut sen selkään. Rotta ei suuttunut;
päinvastoin se tunsi tavatonta mieltymystä. Se ei ollut koskaan
syönyt yökköä, vaikka usein oli halunnut, ja nyt näytti tulleen hyvä
onni, sillä tuo yökkö oli nähtävästi saanut vamman tai sairastunut.
Rotta hyppäsi sitä kohti. Tosin yökkö luiskahti rotalta, mutta vähältä
piti, ja se lepatteli vielä heikosti melkein rotan ulottuvilla. Yhä
uudelleen rotta hypähti ylöspäin, ja pitkät valkoiset hampaat
loksahtivat yhteen ilkeästi narskuen, mutta saamatta mitään, kunnes
se vihdoin huomasi olevansa taas nurkassa reiän luona, josta juuri
oli tullut. Silloin rotan kiusaksi heikosti lepatteleva olento, joka oli
tuntunut olevan melkein sen kynsissä, kiiti voimallisilla siivillään pois
kattoon, samalla kuin toinen yökkö kohosi kaarrellen keskeltä lattiaa
kaksi pienokaista kaulassaan.