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Fascinating Life Sciences
Ugyen Tshewang
Jane Gray Morrison
Michael Charles Tobias
Bionomics
in the Dragon
Kingdom
Ecology, Economics and Ethics in Bhutan
Fascinating Life Sciences
This interdisciplinary series brings together the most essential and captivating topics
in the life sciences. They range from the plant sciences to zoology, from the
microbiome to macrobiome, and from basic biology to biotechnology. The series
not only highlights fascinating research; it also discusses major challenges associated
with the life sciences and related disciplines and outlines future research directions.
Individual volumes provide in-depth information, are richly illustrated with
photographs, illustrations, and maps, and feature suggestions for further reading or
glossaries where appropriate.
Interested researchers in all areas of the life sciences, as well as biology enthusiasts,
will find the series’ interdisciplinary focus and highly readable volumes especially
appealing.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword
In 2008, Bhutan was transformed into the world’s newest and most vibrant democ-
racy by the visionary resolve of the Fourth King, His Majesty Jigme Singye
Wangchuck. His action thrust the nation into what many international observers
conclude was a most enviable position. Bhutan had relatively low internal demo-
graphic pressure, nearly 70% of the country’s closed forest canopy was intact, and
thousands of years of Bhutanese and indigenous beliefs strongly upheld an exem-
plary reverence for nature that had not been lost in the many generations leading
into the twenty-first century.
Now, a decade after those first elections, Bhutan’s inviolable ecosystems remain
largely protected and the nation is as robust and inspired as ever. The commitment
to nonviolence and respect for all traditions and for sentient beings defines a conti-
nuity that encompasses the cultural mores and legal values enshrined at every level
of Bhutan’s governance and community life. But as the authors of Bionomics in the
Dragon Kingdom rigorously explore, pragmatic and spiritual sustainability on the
world stage, with all of the competing altruisms and complexities of external pres-
sures upon a land once thought of as a kind of Shangri-la, are not manifested by
remote control. The intense debates, struggles, and legislative deliberations that are
part of ensuring large protected areas, protections of traditional human rights, cus-
toms, and scientific marvels of nature, require a deeply sensitive judicial system and
legal due process that has the strength of character to recognize the immense chal-
lenges presented to an ancient Buddhist kingdom in a tumultuous twenty-first
century.
Tshewang, Morrison, and Tobias have written an important overview of Bhutan’s
cultural, historical, legal, and political issues inherent to the Middle Path approach
to the protection of nature and human rights – what Bhutanese economists have
long thought of as Gross National Happiness.
In a context of the Anthropocene Epoch, as scientists worldwide now call this
current period of extreme ecological tension across the entire planet, the authors
systematically examine Bhutan’s most recent acts of legislation undertaken to fur-
ther protect the country, and by inference, her downstream beneficiaries, with
respect to basic ingredients of any sustainable system: conservation of nonrenewable
v
vi Foreword
resources, animal rights, and an economic system that is shaped by metrics that
fully consider all stakeholders, local communities, indigenous peoples, and their
spiritual beliefs, incorporating natural capital (externalities that have too long been
ignored by so many nations – namely, nature herself) into the ethics of a governing
system whose human constituencies now number over 760,000 people.
Climate change is one of those enormous Anthropocene challenges to Bhutan, as
is internal migration from traditional farming communities into the larger towns and
to the capital city, Thimphu. These, and other pressures on Bhutan’s quest to nurture
one of the most exemplary and ecologically sustainable nations in the world, are
carefully documented and discussed throughout the pages of this important and
timely work, by three leading experts in sustainable governance, the eco-sciences,
and international affairs.
Bionomics in the Dragon Kingdom – Ecology, Economics and Ethics in Bhutan
is the first book of its kind. It is a must read for any serious student of all things
Bhutanese. It should serve as inspiration for young policy makers, scientists, and
social scientists intent on making a positive difference in the world.
Introduction
Ta Dzong, © M. C. Tobias
1
Camps M, Chauhan P (eds) (2009) Sourcebook of Paleolithic transitions methods, theories, and
interpretations. Springer. http://www.springer.com/in/book/9780387764788#aboutBook
vii
viii Introduction
At one point, Bhutan was also known as Lho Jhong Menjong (the southern valley
of medicinal plants),2 Mon Yul (dark country), Lho Mon Khazhi (Southern darkness
with four approaches), and Tshenden Jong (land of the Cypress, “incense tree”).3 At
present, people also refer to Bhutan as Druk Yul, which seems to have been acquired
as far back as thirteenth century CE when Phajo Drugom Zhipo from Tibet came to
Bhutan and established the Drukpa Kagyu sect of Buddhism.
Add to all this the country’s relative isolation from the rest of the world, certainly
until the latter half of the nineteenth century, and indeed, from normal tourism until
as recently as 1974, and one is speaking of a dramatic legacy of Mahayana Buddhist
ethics as well as rich alpine pastoral traditions of many peoples, both from parts of
Tibet to the North, as well as tribal peoples – many still shrouded in the mystery of
their ethnographic origins – arriving from all other cardinal directions. Since 2008,
Bhutan, in addition to maintaining the beautiful and important reality of its historic
royal family, is also one of the newest governmental democracies in the world.
2
Schicklgruber C, Pommaret-Imaeda F (eds) (1997) Bhutan: mountain fortress of the Gods.
Hardcover – October, 1997, 1st edn. Serindia Publications, Chicago.
3
Pradhan LO (2012) Bhutan the roar of the thunder dragon. K Media. ISBN 10: 9993683302 ISBN
13: 9789993683308.
x Introduction
Such topographical differentiations have also given Bhutan the intriguing char-
acteristic of being the most mountainous nation in human history, a boon for alpine
studies touching upon dozens of important scientific and cultural disciplines.
All of these rich ecological and biocultural attributes have translated for the
Bhutanese people into a mantle of intuitive understanding of the natural world, but
also a globally perceived reality that Bhutan proffers: the myriad challenges of eco-
logical citizenship with respect to sustaining what remains one of the most well-
protected nations – in conservation terms – of any country in the world.
Indeed, Bhutan has been regarded as a leader in sustainable development and
environmental stewardship ever since the “sustainability” challenges arose within
the international community of economic and scientist mindsets. Vast paradigm and
accountability shifts in understanding have had the benefit of the Bhutanese
template; a commitment to what has been called Gross National Happiness, in
4
National Statistics Bureau (2014) Bhutan at a glance. http://www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/publica-
tions.php?id=5
Introduction xiii
In July of 2011, Bhutan put forth a UN resolution (“65/309”) that was named
“Happiness: Towards a Holistic Approach to Development.” Sixty-eight nations
joined Bhutan in sponsoring this vision, which was adapted by the United Nations.
And while there are other economic indicators undergoing tremendous research and
application, indices that aspire to more fully incorporate natural capital and human
happiness as key pillars of a sustainable economy, to date, it is unlikely that any
ecological ethic has so successfully infused the moral compass of nations as that of
Bhutanese GNH, both in practice and in theory.
xiv Introduction
The nation has witnessed rapid progress in the living standards of the Bhutanese,
from a GDP of approximately US$300.00 in 1974 to $7668 in 2015.5 But the signifi-
cant challenges of economic development are revealing both telling and troubling
windows on what it takes for a nation as biologically conserved and precious as
Bhutan to maintain economic parity throughout its diverse population of well over
765,000 people (nearly double that of the 1960s) while holding on to the ecological
asset values and astonishing gains it has achieved, without ceding to modernity those
precious customs and traditions that in so many ways are both key to Bhutan’s his-
toric integrity but also to her future avenues of true human wealth and quality of life.
5
International Monetary Fund. World Economic Outlook, April 2016. http://statisticstimes.com/
economy/countries-by-gdp-growth.php. Accessed 13 Aug 2016.
Introduction xv
6
http://www.geoba.se/country.php?cc=BT. Accessed 13 Aug 2016.
xvi Introduction
While many elements for climate action and leadership are already in place,
there is a need for much further action and an accelerated orientation that is prag-
matic and effective in provisioning a unified and wider uptake of climate change
action. Just as with the benefits from environmental conservation, action on climate
change not only provides benefits to the present and future generations of the
Bhutanese people but will also benefit the global and regional community in show-
ing leadership in our efforts toward combating climate change. Such ecological
reciprocities are now inherent to the lingua franca of global climate change
deliberations.
Bhutan’s remarkable history, and present reality, is a true window into the capa-
bilities of human nature under stress. Bhutan’s Fourth King, Jigme Singye
Wangchuck (b.1955), was still a teenager when he envisioned and mandated the
protection of, at the very minimum, 60% of all Bhutanese primary forest canopy at
a time when biodiversity and the Buddhist reverence for all sentient beings was first
and foremost in his mind. This same King chose to retire at a time of his own
remarkable popularity, indeed, devotion, among his constituencies – the entire pop-
ulace of Bhutan. He chose democracy as the fitting embrace of the twenty-first
century for his country, just as he had shown such unique and abundant ecological
wisdom as a young man. The Fourth King and the Fifth King are exemplary world-
wide for their invitation to engage in a meaningful ecological dialogue that recog-
nizes human rights, along with the rights of all life forms in an age now rightly
described as the Anthropocene, to which an entire chapter will be devoted later on
this work.
Bhutan’s commitments to sustainability are already legendary within environ-
mentalist and ecological economics discussions. But Bhutan, like every other
nation, has much work to do, and leaning on past laurels is not enough. The
Bhutanese leadership and people know this. How this beautiful country lodged like
a gemstone in the far-eastern Himalaya manages its affairs in a manner that is benef-
icent to all sentient beings is not only a challenge to contemporary Buddhism, to
every faith and applied ethic, but a reminder that the human species appears to be
headed toward 10, even 11 billion members of what, to date, has been a largely
awkward and inflictive primate species. We have no choice but to imaginatively
embrace those models that shown efficacy in the fact of ecological trauma and
opportunity. Bhutan is one of those intrinsically compelling and pragmatic models.
Contents
xix
xx Contents
xxiii
xxiv Acronyms
Secreted deep within the lush southern slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan is
bordered by two giant neighbors – with India to the south, southwest, and east and
China to the north and northwest. Both demographically and geographically, Bhutan
is a small mountainous and landlocked country, with a total population of 768, 577,
growth rate of 1.3%, average household size of 4.6 people, and an area of
38,394 km2.1 The fragile mountainous ecosystems engender a unique congeries of
landscapes with elevations ranging from 150 m in the southern foothills to about
7500 m toward the snow-bound mountain peaks in the north, within the distance of
170 km from the northern to the southern border. The east-west dimension of the
country measures around 300 km. In general, Bhutan’s geophysical features are
characterized by rugged and high mountains, snow-capped peaks with glaciers and
moraines, deep valleys, ravines, and depressions providing river ways, drainage
basins, and steep waterfalls, as anyone perusing easily accessible GIS systems and
formats instantly discovers for her/himself (e.g., Google Earth).
What is not so obvious from a cursory glimpse of the satellite portraitures is that
Bhutan is predominantly covered by a whopping 70.46% of forest, another 10.43%
thriving beneath the robust mesh of largely native shrubs. Human interventionist
hybrid landscapes are proportionately low, with cultivated agricultural land and
meadows accounting for 2.93% and 4.10% of the overall national borders, respec-
tively. Snow cover constitutes 7.44% of the land base, while so-called bare areas
(nothing is truly bare) constitute 3.20%. Degraded areas, water bodies, built-up sec-
tions, marsh, and marginal lands of a non-built-up nature constitute less than 1%
each.2 Geographically, Bhutan is distinguished into three broad physiographic zones
and features with altitude starting from 150 to 7000 masl (meters above sea level):
the southern belt made up of the rugged Himalayan foothills, alluvial plains – the
varied flatlands along the Indian border with their proliferation of intersecting
1
RGOB (2016) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2016, National Statistical Bureau, Royal
Government of Bhutan.
2
ibid., RGOB.
biomes; the inner Himalayas consisting of steep mountains with deep river valleys,
watersheds; and the high Himalayas featuring alpine meadows and spectacular
snow-capped and glacier-rich mountains (many of which have never had a human
footprint, other than atmospherically).3 Throughout its history, this enormously
diverse geographical entity, Bhutan, has existed as an independent nation.
3
ibid., RGOB.
4
Worden RL, Savada AM (eds) (1991). Chapter 6 – Bhutan: social system. In: Nepal and Bhutan:
country studies, 3rd edn. Federal Research Division, United States Library of Congress. ISBN
0-8444-0777-1. Retrieved 02 Nov 2010.
1 Environment Matters: Himalayan Happiness 3
18th July 2008, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan is both domestically and
internationally understood to be the supreme law for the country’s democratic system.
With the completion of 100 years of absolute monarchy under the farsighted leader-
ship of the Wangchuck dynasty, the country was politically transformed into a dem-
ocratic constitutional monarchy in 2008 under the initiative and guidance of the 4th
King His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck. The first ever parliamentary elections
delivered by the dzongkhag administrations, gewog administrations, and local
elected bodies. The country is administratively divided into 20 dzongkhags (dis-
tricts) and 205 gewogs (district blocks). Judiciary system comprises of a Supreme
Court (apex court), a high court, and 20 district courts and sub-district courts.5 As
the apex judicial body, the Supreme Court is the custodian and interpreter of the
Constitution. National Assembly elections were held on March 24, 2008 in Bhutan
to form a democratic government elected through adult franchise in the country.6
5
RGOB (2008) The Constitution of Bhutan.
6
RGOB (2012).
7
op.cit. (2008) Bhutan: in pursuit of sustainable development. National Report for The United
Nations Conference On Sustainable Development, Royal Government of Bhutan.
4 1 Environment Matters: Himalayan Happiness
Largely determined by the inaccessible mountainous terrain and steep valleys that
restricted interaction and exchange of information in preceding centuries due to lack
of communication, the small country now has a rich mosaic of cultures and local dia-
lects and languages. Such natural conditions have evolved three main ethnic groups,
8
op. cit., RGOB (2012).
9
op.cit., RGOB (2012).
1.1 Socioeconomic Features 5
as well as what might be characterized as small ethnic groups, each belonging to dif-
ferent ecological regions of Bhutan: Sharchops (people from the eastern region),
Ngalongs (people from the western region), and Lhotshampas (people from the south-
ern region). The smaller ethnic communities include Brokpas and Dakpas in the
northeast; Layaps and Lunaps in the northwest; Mangdeps, Khengpas, and Bumthaps
in central Bhutan; Kurtoeps in the east; and Doyas and Nepalese in the south.10
Our Good Friend Benchen Khenpo, Contemporary Bhutanese Elegance Incarnate, © M. C. Tobias
10
op.cit., RGOB (2016).
6 1 Environment Matters: Himalayan Happiness
Predominantly, the Bhutanese communities are still agrarian, with more than
60% of the populations still abiding and largely thriving in the rural areas according
to the national population census conducted in 2005. However, rural-urban migra-
tion is growing at a fast pace with increasing number of students graduating each
year in search of jobs in urban areas. These migrational rates grew from 13.1% to
30.9% of the country’s populated areas between 1998 and 2005. More than 52% of
adult Bhutanese (above 15 years of age) are literate. On average, a Bhutanese lives
up to 66 years, a vast improvement since the mid-1980s when life expectancy was
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