Dr. Radha Bai Govt.

Navin Girls
College Raipur (C.G.)
Department of physics

Session (2023-24)

A Dissertation Submitted To The “Dr. Radha Bai Govt. Navin Girls

College Raipur “ The Partial Fulfillment Of The Degree Of Master Of
Science In Physics By Preeti Verma.

“TO STUDY THE CHARECTERISTICS AND OPERATION OF LOGIC GATES”

Submitted To Under The Guidence By

Preeti Verma Dr. Sanjay Dubey Sir
2210790015 (Asst. Professor)
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “to study the
charecteristics and operation of logic gates” is submitted for partial
fulfillament of the award of degree of master of science in physics. It is
written and submitted by me and it is my own work done the
supervision of Dr. Sanjay Dubey Sir , department of physics, Dr. Radha
Bai Govt Navin Girls College Raipur.

Date Preeti Verma

 Department Of Physics
Dr. Radha Bai Govt. Navin Girls College
Raipur (C.G.)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “study and design of logic
gates” being submitted Preeti Verma in partial fulfilament of the
requirements for the award of the degree of master of science in
physics at Dr. Radha Bai Govt. Navin Girls College, Raipur for the
academic year 2023-24 is an authentic work carried out by his under
my supervision.
To the best of my knowladge, the work embodied in the thesis has not
been submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of any
degree or diploma.

DR. DIPTI JHA

HEAD

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I humbly prostrate myself before the almighty for his grace and
abundant blessing enabled me to complete this successfully.
It gives me great pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude and
regards to my project instructor Prof. Dr. Sanjay Dubey for initiating
me to work in the field of “Study And Design Of Logic Gates” under hid
guidence. His great interest, encouragement and guidence had made
my work fruitful.
I like to express my profound sence of gratitude heartfelt thanks to dr.
C. L dewangan principle of Dr. Radha Bai Govt. Navin Girls College
Raipur .
I am also thankful to Dr. Dipti Jha (Head Of Department), Usha Yadav
(Lecturer), Hemant Sahu (Lecturer) and my classmates of our
department of physics for their inspiration and help.

Date: Preeti Verma

 ABSTRACT

logic gate are an important concept if you are studying electronics.

These are important digital devices that are mainly based on the
Boolean function. Logic gates are used to carry out logical operations
on single or multiple binary inputs and give one binary output. In
simple terms, logic gates are the electronic circuits in a digital system.
 Contents
Declaration
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Component Description
2.1 Resister
2.2 Diode
2.3 Led
Chapter 3 - Observation Table
Result
Conclusion
 Introduction
Logic gates - logic gate are an important concept if you are
studying electronics. These are important digital devices that are
mainly based on the Boolean function. Logic gates are used to carry out
logical operations on single or multiple binary inputs and give one
binary output. In simple terms, logic gates are the electronic circuits in
a digital system.
Logic gate are digital components. They normally work at only two
level voltage, a positive level and zero level. Commonly they work
based on two states: on and off. In the on state, voltage is positive. In
the off state, the voltage is at zero.
Logic gates compare the state at their inputs to decide what the state
at thir output should be. A logic gate is on or active when its rules are
correctly met. At this time , electricity is flowing through the gates ad
the voltage at its output is at the level of its on state.
Logic gates are electronic versions of Boolean logic. Truth table will tell
you what the output will be depending on the inputs.

Types of basic logic gates -

There are ceveral basic logic gates used in performing operation in
digital systems. The common ones are
 And gate
 Or gate
 Not gate
And gate - and gates have two inputs. The output of an and
gate is on only if both inputs are on. If at least one of the inputs is
off, the output will be off.

Symbol –

If A AND B are both in an on state, the output (out) will be an on

state. If either A and B is an off state, the output will also be in an
off stat . A and B Must be on for the output to be on.

Truth table –

Inputs outputs
A B A and B
On on On
on off Off
off on Off
off off Off
Or gate - or gate have two inputs. The output of an or gate will be
on if at least one of the input are on. If both input are off, the output
will be off.

Symbol -

If either A or B is on, the output (out) will also be on. If both A and B
off, the output will be off.

Truth table -

Inputs outputs
A B A or B
On on On
on off On
off on On
off off Off
Not gate - the not gate has only one input. If the input is on then
the output will be off. In other word, the not gate changes the dignal
from on to off or from off to on. It is sometimes called inverter.

Symbol –

Truth table -

input Output
A Not A
Off On
On Off

Common Application of logic gate –

  Digital computer - logic gates from the basis of digital computers,
combinations of logic gates are used to perform arithmetic and logical
operation, enabling the exection of complex task.
 Arithmetic operation - logic gates are used to perform basis arithmetic
operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in
digital circuits.
 Memory units - flip-flop and other memory elements, which are
essential components of digital memory units are constructed using logic
gates.
 Data storage - logic gates are used in various data storage device
including registers, RAM and ROM.
 Microprocessors and microcontrollers - logic gate are integral
components of microprocessor and microcontrollers, which are the brain
of digital system.
 Digital signal processors - digital signal processor use logic gates to
perform signal processing tasks, such as filtering , modulation, and
demodulation.
 communication system - logic gate play a role in the design of
communication system , including encoding and decoding of data in
communication protocols.
 Control system - logic gate are used in control system to implement
logical decision making processes and control signals.
 Automation and robotic - in automation and robotic, logic gates are
used to control and coordinates the action of various components and
device.
 Consumer electronics - logic gates are found in a wide range of
consumer electronics. Including tvs, Audio system, and household
appliances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM -
CHAPTER -2 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION -
 2.1 RESISTER
 2.2 DIODE
 2.3 LED
2.1 RESISTER - A resistor limits the electric current that flows
through a circuit. Resistance is the restriction of current.in a resistor
the energy of the electrons that pass through the resistor are changed
to heat and/or light. For example, in a light bulb, the tungsten filament
acts as a resistor that heats up because of the current going through it,
causing it to glow.
RESISTOR IN SERIES – Resistors are said to be in series when the
current flowing through all the resistors is the same . These resistors
are connrcted from head to tail in series the overall resistance of the
circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistance value.

CALCULATING RESISTANCE -
Series Circuit: Rt=R1+R2+R3+R4...Rn
Resistor in parallel- resistor are said to be in parallel when the
terminals of resistors are connected to the same two nodes. Resistors
in parallel share the same voltage at their terminals.
CALCULATING RESISTANCE -
Parallel Circuit: 1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3...1/Rn
TYPES OF RESISTORS- Resistors are available in different shapes and
sizes. Common types that are available are through – hole and surface
mount. A resistor might be static , standard resistor special , or a pack
of variable resistors.
THERE ARE TWO BASIC TYPES OF RESISTORS AS FOLLOWS-
 LINEAR RESISTOR
 NON LINEAR RESISTOR
LINEAR RESISTORS
The resistors has value change with change in applied temperature and
voltage are known as linear resistor. There are two types of linear
resistors:
Fixed resistors- These resistor have a specific value and these value can
not be changed. Following are the different types of fixed resistors:
 Carbon composition resistors
 Wire wound resistors
 Thin film resistors
 Thick film resistors
Variable resistors- these resistors do not have a specific value and the
value can be changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw. These
resistors find application in radio recevers for controlling volume and
tone. Following are the different types of variable resistors:
 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Trimmers
 NON- LINEAR RESISTORS – The resistors value change
according to the temperature and voltage applied and is not
dependent on ohm’s law. Following are the different types of non-
linear resistors:

 Thermisters
 Varisters
 Photo resistors

Resistor Color Code

Resistor's values are rated by the colors that are painted on the
resistor. The colored bands that are used on the sides of a resistor are
black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, gray, and white.
Each color represents a different number. The black band represents
the number 0, brown band represents the number 1, red is 2 and so on
all the way to white which is the number 9. These numbers are very
important in the electronic field.
A resistor has multiple bands of color on its side. The most common
have four or five but they can range all the way up to 6 per resistor. On
a four band resistor, the last band is usually gold or silver. The gold
band represents a positive or negative 5% tolerance. The silver band on
a resistor represents a positive or negative 10% tolerance. Hold this
band on the right side, and read the colors from left to right.
The first two bands are read as the numbers that they represent in the
color code.
The third band acts as a multiplier for the other bands, so for example,
if the third band was an orange band which is a 3, it would mean you
multiply the two numbers by 1000. In short you add the value of the
color in zeros at the end, so add three zeros .

.
Application of resistor
Following are the application of resistors
 Wire wound resistors find application where balanced current
control, hight sensitivity, and accurate measurement are required
like in shunt with ampere meter.
 Photoresistors find application in flame detector, burglar alarms,
in photographic devices etc.
 Resistors are used for controlling temperature and voltmeter.
 Resistor are used in digital multi-meter, amplifiers,
telecommunication and oscillators.
 They are also used in modulators and transmitters.
2.2 DIODE- A diode is a two terminal electronic component with
two electrodes (connectors) that allows electricity to go through it in
one direction and not the other direction.
Diodes can be used to turn alternating current into direct current
(Diode bridge). They are used in power supplies and sometimes to
decode amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a crystal radio).
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light.
Today, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor
materials such as silicon or sometimes germanium.

History
The first types of diodes were called Fleming valves. They were vacuum
tubes. They were inside a glass tube (much like a lightbulb). Inside the
glass bulb there was a small metal wire and a large metal plate. The
small metal wire would heat up and emit electricity, which was
captured by the plate. The large metal plate was not heated, so
electricity could go in one direction through the tube but not in the
other direction. Fleming valves are not used much anymore because
they have been replaced by semiconductor diodes, which are smaller
than Fleming valves. Thomas Edison also discovered this property
when working on his light bulbs.
Construction
Semiconductor diodes are made of two types of semiconductors
connected to each other. One type has atoms with extra electrons
(called the n-side). The other type has atoms that want electrons
(called the p-side). Because of this, the electricity will flow easily from
the side with too many electrons to the side with too few. However,
electricity will not flow easily in the reverse direction .

These different types are made by doping (semiconductor). Silicon with

arsenic dissolved in it makes a good n-side semiconductor, while silicon
with aluminum dissolved in it makes a good p-side semiconductor.
Other chemicals can also work.
The connector to the n-side is called the cathode, the connector to the
p-side is called the anode.
Positive voltage at p-side
If you give positive voltage to the p-side and negative voltage to the n-
side, the electrons in the n-side will want to go to the positive voltage
at the p-side and the holes of the p-side will want to go to the negative
voltage at the n-side. Because of this, current flow is able to exist, but it
takes a certain amount of voltage to get this started (very small
amount of voltage is not enough to get the electric current to flow).
This is called the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage of a silicon diode is
at about 0.7 V. A germanium diode needs a cut-in voltage at about 0.3
V.

Negative voltage at p-side

If you instead give negative voltage to the p-side and positive voltage
to the n-side, the electrons of the n-side want to go to the positive
voltage source instead of the other side of the diode. Same thing
happens on the p-side. So, current will not flow between the two sides
of the diode. Increasing the voltage will eventually force electric
current to flow (this is the break-down voltage). Many diodes will be
destroyed by a reverse flow but some are made that can survive it.
Influence of temperature
When the temperature increases, the cut-in voltage goes down. This
makes it easier for electricity to pass through the diode.

Types of diodes
There are many types of diodes. Some have very specific uses and
some have a variety of uses
 Diode
 Zener Diode
 Schottky diode
 Tunnel diode
 Light-emitting diode
 Photodiode
 Pn junction diode

This changes A/C (alternating current, like in a wall plug in a house) to

D/C (direct current, used in electronics). The standard rectifier diode
has specific requirements. It should handle high current, not be much
affected by temperature, have a low cut-in voltage and support quick
changes in the direction of current flow. Modern analog and digital
electronics use such rectifiers.
Application Of Diode
Following are the application and uses of diode:
 Diodes as a rectifier
 Diodes in the clipping circuit
 Diodes in clamping circuits
 Diodes in logical gates
 Diode in reverse current protection
2.3 Led- Light-emitting diode (LED) is a widely used standard
source of light in electrical equipment. It has a wide range of
applications ranging from your mobile phone to large advertising
billboards. They mostly find applications in devices that show the
time and display different types of data.

What is LED?
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when an electric current flows through it. When current
passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes
emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the
forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction.

Light Emitting Diode

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on

the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an
LED will emit coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength
when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is
encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can
come out.

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the
addition of two small arrows denoting the emission of light.
Symbol of LED –

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to

regulate the current and voltage.

How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent
from p → n while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the
junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers
increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine
with the majority charges carriers.
Working Of LED

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination.

In standard diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But
in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of
photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an
electric current passed through it. As the forward voltage
increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a
maximum.
What determines the colour of an LED?

The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the

semiconducting element. The two primary materials used in LEDs
are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium
gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red,
orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are used to get green,
blue and white light. Slight changes in the composition of these
alloys change the colour of the emitted light.

Properties of Laser Light

Laser light is monochromatic, directional and coherent.

Laser Light is Monochromatic

Unlike white light, which is made of seven colours, laser light is
made of a single colour.

Laser Light is Directional

Laser light is highly directional.

Laser Light is Coherent

Laser light is coherent because the wavelengths of the laser light
are in phase in space and time.
 Advantage of led
The advantage of light emitting diode include the following.
 The cost of led’s is less and they are tiny.
 By using the led‘s electricity is controlled.
 The intensity of the led differs with the help of the
microcontroller.
 Long life time.
 Energy efficient.
 No warm up period
 Rugged
 Does not affect by cold temperature
 Directional
 Color rendering is excellent
 Environmentally friend.

Disadvantage of led
The disadvantage of light emitting diode include the following.
 Price
 Temperature sensitivity
 Temperature dependence
 Light quality
 Electrical polarity
 Voltage sensitivity
 Efficiency droop
 Impact on insects

Application of LED
LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication,
alarm and security systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It
finds usage in many areas because of its long-lasting capability, low power
requirements, swift response time, and fast switching capabilities. Below
are a few standards LED uses:

Used for TV back-lighting

Used in displays
Used in Automotives
LEDs used in the dimming of lights.

Observation Table & Result

 AND GATE-

Inputs outputs
A B A and B
On on On
on off Off
off on Off
off off Off

OR GATE-

Inputs outputs
A B A or B
On on On
on off On
off on On
off off Off

NOT GATE-

input Output
A Not A
Off On
On Off

CONCLUSION-
Here i have to the end of the project on the topic. I would like to shere
my experience while doing this project. I learnt many new things and it
was a wonderful learning experience for me while working on this
project. This project has developed my thinking skill and more interest
in this subject. A very special thank to my dear principle sir & teachers
for setting such a target for us i enjoy every beat of work i put into this
project i hope that my project will be interesting and may be even
knowledgeable.