2 Integration methods

2.3 Integration of a rational fraction

Let’s examine the calculation of primitives in the case of rational fractions, namely
functions of the form P/Q, where P and Q are two polynomials with real coefficients,
prime with each other.
First, let’s start by decomposing the rational function P/Q into simple elements, and
recalling the final result.
P (x)
decomposes into an integer part which is a polynomial and a sum of simple
Q (x)
elements of types :
1 ax + b
or
(x − a)n (x2 + px + q)n
Let’s determine the primitives of the functions associated with the decomposition of
P (x)
. The function associated with the integer part is a polynomial that we know how
Q (x)
1
to integrate. Let’s examine the cases of functions of the form and those of the
(x − a)n
ax + b
form 2 .
(x + px + q)n Z
dx
I. Calculation of :
(x − a)n
·If n = 1, Z
dx
= ln |x − a| + C.
(x − a)
· If n > 1, Z
dx 1
n = + C.
(x − a) (1 − n) (x − a)n−1
Z
ax + b
II. Calculation of dx :
(x + px + q)n
2
· If n = 1,
Z a (2x + p) + b − ap
 
Z
ax + b 2 2 dx
2
dx =
x + px + q x2 + px + q
Z Z
a 2x + p  ap  dx
= dx + b −
2 x2 + px + q 2 x2 + px + q
Z
a  ap  dx
= ln x2 + px + q + b − × 
p2
 
2 2 p 2

x+ + q−
2 4
a 2b − ap 2x + p
= ln x2 + px + q + p arctan p + C.
2 4q − p2 4q − p2
· If n > 1,
Z a (2x + p) + b − ap
 
Z
ax + b 2 2 dx
dx =
(x + px + q)n
2 (x2 + px + q)n
Z Z
a 2x + p  ap  dx
= n dx + b −
2 2
(x + px + q) 2 (x + px + q)n
2

4
 2 Integration methods

The first integral can be calculated by a change of variable by posing t = x2 + px + q,

dt = (2x + p) dx :

t−n+1
Z Z Z
2x + p dt −n 1
n dx = = t dt = + C = + C.
(x2 + px + q) tn 1−n (1 − n) (x2 + px + q)n−1

Let’s call In the second integral and express it as follows :

Z Z Z
dx dx dt
In = n = n = ,
2
(t + m2 )n
2
  2
(x + px + q) p  2 p
x+ + q−
2 4
p p2
where we have set t = x + , dx = dt, q − = m2 .
2 4
The calculation of In is carried out by recurrence on n.

2.4 Integration of a rational fraction involving sin and cos

Let’s determine the primitive of the rational function of type
Z
R (cos x, sin x) dx.

By posing
x
t = tan .
2
We obtain the following relations

1 − t2
cos x = ,
1 + t2
2t
sin x = .
1 + t2
Furthermore
2dt
x = 2 arctan t, dx = .
1 + t2
We are thus reduced to the calculation of the integral of a rational function in t.

Example 16 Let’s consider the integral

Z
dx
.
sin x
By virtue of the previous formulas, we can write

Z Z 2dt Z
dx 1 + t2 = dt x
= = ln |t| + C = ln tan + C
sin x 2t t 2
1+t 2

5
 3 Integration of a rational fraction involving exponentials

This general method often leads to functions that are too complicated. For this reason, it
is sometimes preferable not to use this change of variable, but to resort to other methods
that lead more quickly to the goal.
Z
Remark 17 - If the integral is of the form R(sin x) cos xdx, the change of variable
Z
sin x = t, cos xdx = dt leads us to an integral of the form R(t)dt.
Z
- If the integral is of the form R(cos x) sin xdx, it can be reduced to an integral of a
rational function by the change of variable cos x = t, sin xdx = −dt.
- If the function to be integrated depends only on tan x, by making the change of
2
variable tan x = t, x = arctan t, dx = dt, we reduce its integral to the integral of a
1 + t2
rational function. Z Z
dt
R(tan x)dx = R(t) .
1 + t2
- If the function to be integrated is of the form R(sin x, cos x), where sin x and cos x only
appear to even powers, we will use the change of variable

tan x = t.
Z
dx
Example 18 Calculate . Let’s make the change of variable tan x = t
2 − sin2 x
Z Z Z
dx dt dt 1 t 1 tan x
2 =  2
 = 2
= √ arctan √ +C = √ arctan √ +C.
2 − sin x t 2+t 2 2 2 2
2− 2
(1 + t2 )
1+t

3 Integration of a rational fraction involving exponen-

tials
To calculate the primitive of the rational fraction of the type
Z
R (eax ) dx,

Let’s perform the change of variable t = eax then

1 1 dt
x= ln t, dx = .
a a t
We then obtain a rational function in t.
Z
dx
Example 19 Calculate .
ex + 1
Let’s set t = ex , then

ex
Z Z Z Z
dx dt dt dt t
= = − = ln + C = ln + C.
ex + 1 t (t + 1) t t+1 t+1 ex + 1

6
 4 Integration of a rational fraction involving ch and sh

4 Integration of a rational fraction involving ch and sh

Let’s determine the primitive of the rational function of type
Z
R (chx, shx) dx.

The previous observations about trigonometric functions also apply to functions in

chx and shx, with the respective modifications.
Indeed, let’s set
x
t = th .
2
We obtain
1 + t2 2t
chx = 2
, shx = .
1−t 1 − t2
1
We can also use the change of variable t = ex , with chx = (t + t−1 ),
2
1 −1
shx = (t − t ), we find a rational function in t.
2
Z
dx
Example 20 Calculate .
(1 − chx)2
Let’s set t = th x2 , then
    !
1 −1 1 −1
Z
dx 1 1 1 1 1
= − dt = + =
+ .
(1 − chx)2 2 t4 t2 2 3t3 t 2 3 th x 3 th x2
2