Handout - British-Civilization

British civilization
Cultura Inglese I
Università degli Studi dell'Insubria
79 pag.
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THE COUNTRY many feel a traditional England generally; the West
Current title of Britain: the nostalgia and identity for it, Midlands region around
United Kingdom of Great and some ten million people Birmingham; the Yorkshire
Britain and Northern Ireland live in rural areas. cities Leeds, Bradford and
Sheffield; the north-western
Britain possesses a great area around Liverpool and
England, Scotland, diversity of physical features, Manchester; and the north-east
Wales  Great Britain which may surprise those region comprising Newcastle.
visitors who expect a mainly
& urban and industrialized Wales
country. Wales is a highland country,
Northern Ireland Britain has 15 National parks with moorland plateau, hills
and other areas of natural and mountains.
The nation comprises many beauty. The chief urban concentrations
small islands and has a main of people and industry are
island: Great Britain, divided Britain was originally part of around the bigger southern
into England, Wales and the European mainland, but cities, such as the capital
Scotland. And a part of the melting of the glaciers Cardiff, Swansea and
another island where is located raised sea levels. The country Newport.
Northern Island. was separated from continent
by the North Sea at its widest, Scotland
The terms English and British and by the English Channel at Scotland may be divided into
do not means the same thing: its narrowest points. 3 areas.
- English refers to The shortest stretch of water 1. North-west and
people from England between the two land masses central Highlands:
- British indicated is the Strait of Dover in
together with a
someone who is from southern England and Calais
number of islands off
England, Scotland, in France. The north-east coast
the west and north-
Wales or Northern of Northern Island is separated
from Scotland by the North est coasts
Island
Channel. 2. Central Lowlands:
wich contain one-fifth
Scotland: scots
Britain’s physical relief is of the land area but
Wales: welsh
divided into highland and three-quarters of the
Northern Island: Irish
lowland Britain. Scottish population,
The highest ground lies in the most of the industrial
north and west. Most of the and commercial
PHYSICAL FEATURES lowland area, except for urban centres and much of
Historically, Britain’s physical and industrial regions, is the cultivated land.
structure have influenced cultivated and farmed. It 3. Southern Uplands:
human settlement population consists largely of fields. which cover a number
movements, military conquest
of hill ranges
and political union. England
stretching towards
England covers two-thirds of
the border with
Furthermore, there has been a Great Britain.
tension between urban and England
The most populated areas are
rural cultures. Some people the largest towns and cities,
are averse to rural life, while such as London and south-east

The main population and claimed its independence BRITISH VALUES AND
concentrations are around the from Britain. It became totally BRITISHNESS
administrative centre and independent (the Republic of
capital of Edinburgh and the Ireland) in 1949. It has been traditionally argued
formerly heavily industrial Northern Ireland remained that Britain historical growth
area of Glasgow. joined politically to Britain: has been guided by:
UK was born. - Pragmatism;
The climate, isolation and - Gradualism;
harsh physical conditions in - Flexibility;
much of Scotland have made Capital of Northern Ireland:
- Common sense
conquest, settlement and Belfast
- Experience of what
agriculture difficult. Capital of the Republic of
works in practice
Ireland: Dublin
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland shares an The flag of the UK:
island with the Republic of the Union Jack
Ireland and has a border in the
south and west with the THE ANTHEM OF GREAT
Republic, which has featured BRITAIN
strongly in recent Brexit
negotiations.
GOD SAVE THE QUEEN:
The capital, Belfast, has the
national anthem of the United
biggest population
Kingdom of Great Britain and
concentration, but Northern
FISHERISH Northern Ireland.
Ireland generally has a sparse
Britain ranks seventh (è Like many aspect of British
and scattered population and is
settima) among Europe’s constitutional life, its official
a largely rural country.
leading fishing nations and status derives from custom and
operates in the North Sea, the use, not from Royal
Irish Sea and the Atlantic. The Proclamations or Acts of
fishing industry is significant Parliament.
When did these countries for the national economy and The composer is unknown. It
get together? is centered on ports around the is thought to date back during
coasts. the reign of King George II.
- Wales became part of The industry had been affected When a king is on the throne,
the English by EU’s Common Fisheries the anthem turn into God save
administrative system Policy and British government the King.
in the 16th century; rules, which limited
- Scotland completely fishermen’s freedom
united with England in operation. BECOMING BRITISH
1707; The need to conserve fish In 2019, people born outside
- Ireland entered the resources and prevent the UK made up an estimated
English kingdom in overfishing was stressed. 14% of the UK’s population, or
1801; Quota systems operated inside 9.5 million people
and beyond the zones to
restrict fish catches. EU migrants have traditionally
Northern Ireland: been less likely to naturalize
1922: the South of Ireland as British citizens than people
became the Irish Free State from non-EU countries.

However, citizenship A HISTORY OF
applications of EU citizens If you were not resident in the
increased after the 2016 UK by 31 December 2020, ENGLISH LAWS
referendum. you will need to meet specific AND
requirements in order to work
or study in the UK from 1 GOVERNEMENT
London has the largest
number of migrants among all January 2021.
You will also need to pass
regions of the UK.
relevant checks, including UK THE CELTS AND
criminality checks. BRITANNIA
In 2019, about half of the UK’s
During the Iron age, Celtic
foreign-born population (48%
You can continue to visit the culture established itself
in total) were either in London
UK for up to 6 months without throughout the British isles.
(35%) or the South East (13%). applying for a visa (Skilled The first documented settlers
In 2019, only 10% of the UK- Worker visa, Health and Care were the Celts, who came
born population lived in visa, Global Talent visa, from continental Europe and
London. Student visa, Graduate visa, occupied the British territories
etc..). in the 8°/9° century BC.
60% of immigrants in the last
5 years have become British Irish citizens do not require The name Britannia was given
citizens. permission to come to the UK. by the Greeks and the
Romans.
By becoming a British citizen, How to become a British
one gets: citizen: The first who talked about
- British passport - Prove your knowledge Britons in detail was Julius
- The right to vote in of English Caesar in his “De Bello
the national elections - Have passed the life in Gallico”, where he talks about
the UK test two military expeditions led
- Intend to continue by him in Britain.
AFTER BREXIT living in the UK
The rights and the status of EU - Be a good character ROMAN OCCUPIES
citizens living in the UK by 31 BRITAIN
December 2020 will remain How do you prove your Roman occupation of Britain
the same until 30 June 2021. knowledge of English for was not due to Caesar’s
To continue living and citizenship? campaigns, but to the
working in the UK after that - An English expeditions organized by
date, you have yo apply to the qualification at B1 Emperor Claudius in 43 AD.
EU Settlement Scheme. level Roman occupied today’s
- A degree taught or England and Wales, facing the
You’ll usually get settled researched in English strong resistance of the local
status if you’ve lived in the people.
UK for a continuous 5-year
To become a British citizen
period (known as ‘’continuous Boudicca: queen of the Iceni;
you must sit an exam which
residence’’). You can stay in who revolted against the
tests knowledge of British
the UK as long as you like if Roman oppression and
society, history and culture.
you get settled status. You’ll sacrificed her life to defend
also be able to apply for her people. Now she is
British citizenship if you’re
eligible.

celebrated with a monument part of Britain its current 7th cent.  England was
near Westminster Palace. name “England”, which means divided into seven kingdoms,
“the land of the Angles”. and ruled in small areas under
different tribes.
The Romans built over 9600 These German peoples were Estanglia, Essex, Kent,
km of roads in Britain. They organized in a tribal structure Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex,
were extremely well-built and of clans. The modern UK Wessex
served to join the towns and parliament can trace its
The power of the king was
facilitate the movement of origins all the way back to a
absolute and the assembly
troops and commercial goods. feature of Anglo-Saxon
government: Witenagemot. disappeared.
They also built an This was the occasion when

extraordinary defensive the king would call together
fortification (and barrier) from his leading advisors and SAINT AUGUSTINE OF
the East coast to the West nobles to discuss matters CANTERBURY
coast between England and affecting the country. The W In the 597 Saint Augustine
only existed when the king was sent by Pope Gregory I to
Scotland, known as Hadrian’s
chose and was made up of convert the Anglo-Saxons.
wall.
those individuals whom he He converted Ethelbert, king
particularly summoned. The of Kent.
W’s main duty was to advise Political results: the king is
Today’s Scotland and Ireland now chosen by God (now the
the king, but its assent was
remained free from the rule of power of the king is
not necessary for the king to
the Romans, and that is where legitimated by God and so it
take action, nor did it help was bigger).
Celtic traditions might frame the laws, but primarily
continue. consented to the laws the king
Still nowadays, these countries
Written legal corpus
had already decided to enact,
keep maintaining many which were transmitted orally. Christianity is called the
customs rooted in Celtic “religion of the book”
culture, not least the language. At that time, kings were
decided upon by this King Ethelberth was the first
The Roman invasion also assembly. to set a corpus of written laws:
marked the beginning of the - No influence from
importance of London, called Roman legal system
Londinium, which quickly - Germanic customs
became an important trading widely maintained
centre. There, the Romans
GERMANIC - Central role of the
built the first London bridge. PATRIMONY church
Angles, Saxons, Jutes (5th cent.
When the Roman army AD.) The Laws of Ethelberth are
withdrew from Britain in 410 divided into 83 chapters/laws.
A.D., the romanized Celts - Tribal structure in
were left alone to fight against clans
groups from Germany and - Chief elected by the GERMANIC
Scandinavia, who invaded the
assembly TRADITION
island in 5th century and
Witenagemot  king Following Germanic
destroyed the Roman British
- Laws and customs traditions, a manslaughter
towns. must be compensated by
transmitted orally money in order to avoid feuds
These peoples were: the
Angles, the Saxons and the Wergild  the sum of money
THE HEPTARCHY
Jutes. They gave the largest worth a man

the writing of “the Anglo- In 1066 a major event
WESSEX Saxon chronicle” (a collection changed the face of England
It became the most important of annals chronicling the forever: the Norman
kingdom of the heptarchy. history of the Anglo-Saxons). conquest.
He believed that these were England was successfully
King Ine was the fisrt the books most necessary for invaded by a Norman army
legislator in Wessex and all men to know and he from France.
broadened the border wanted people to be able to
including territories in Kent read them, in their own William, duke of Normandy,
and Essex. language. claimed his right to the English
Kent was the first kingdom to throne. He left Calais with an
have Christianity as the army and met the Anglo-
religion.
Saxon king Harold in the battle
of Hastings. William won the
With Alfred the Great (871- NINTH CENTURY – THE
899) Wessex knew his period battle and conquered the
DANISH OCCUPATION English kingdom. From then
of greatest expansion and
power. Alfred can be on, he would be known as
considered the first king of This was the situation until “William the Conqueror”.
England. 865, when Danish armies, The story of W and the battle
He produced a dombok on the commonly known as Vikings, of H is told in a wonderful
model of the corpus of laws began to invade the island. tapestry, now held in Bayeux,
promulgated by Charlemagne. They quickly conquered France  the Bayeux
His corpus was also a political northern, southern, eastern Tapestry.
response to the recent and part of the central areas
settlements of Danes in the of England, until Alfred TG of William settled his power and
northern part of England. Wessex intervened and halted funded a powerful Anglo-
the Danish advance. Norman kingdom. His rise
(Duke of Normandy) as king of
Alfredian laws During the ninth century, England determined a
Viking raiders attacked the revolution in the organization
- More remarkable North-Eastern coasts of of the English kingdom.
influx of the church  England and eventually
men’s laws have to occupied part of the English - English nobility and
follows God’s laws kingdom. clergy were replaced
- Not organized in
by French people
chapters, it is a A peace treaty between the
collection of norms Danish leader Guthrum and - Latin and Normans
and precepts the king of Wessex Alfred the became the languages
- Main principle: the Great established the birth of of the administration
laws be equal for all a new political entity, known
 more protection to as Dane lagu, or Danelaw - The feudal system
slaves, women, (‘Danish jurisdiction’). was introduced
widows and orphans,
poor. At that point a kingdom of - The king kept for
Anglo- Saxons joining Wessex himself the best lands,
KING ALFRED’S CULTURAL (there were Saxons in towns and forests. He
POLICY southern England and Mercia) distributed the rest of
was born in the Alfred’s the lands to his
King Alfred is known for the lordship. Norman followers and
translations of a range of to a few trusted
religious and philosophical Saxons.
texts from Latin into English. 1066. THE NORMAN
He also probably encouraged CONQUEST

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM WAS - A national tax on we sell, to no one
ESTABLISHED. properties (geldum) deny or delay right or
justice”.
It was the first great
- The barons obtained - General benefits of
public act of the
the land by becoming the king
nation that
the king’s tenants and guaranteed protection
they paid their rent in - Annual incomes of
to all free men from
military services to the king’s lands illegal imprisonment
the king; they built and seizure of
castles to HENRY II (1154–89) property.
demonstrate and Henry was the first king of the - It limits the powers of
maintain the power. Plantagenet dynasty the king: it was
He sent travelling judges destined to the
20 years after the conquest, round the land to the largest barons, who did not
William sent his men towns in each county stand John’s
throughout England to make a The law they administered oppression anymore.
complete survey of the became known as ‘common
economic life of the country. law’, because it was used Unlike most modern states,
This survey, which was written everywhere Britain does not have a
down in the Domesday Book In other parts of Europe legal codified constitution but an
had two objectives: practice was based on the unwritten one, formed of acts
“civil law” of the Roman of parliament, code
empire or the “canon law” of
1. To provide the
the Church. English lawyers
judgements and conventions.
necessary information
created an entirely different The charter established a
for collecting the
system of law based on committee of 25 barons with a
geldumof property
custom, comparisons, mandate to wage war on the
tax.
previous cases and previous king if he failed to respect the
decisions. This mixture of agreement.
2. To give the king experience and custom is the
detailed knowledge of basis of law in England even The term “parliament” comes
the extent and today. from the French word
distribution of the meaning “discussion”: in fact,
wealth of his tenants THE MAGNA CHARTA its council included barons,
during the reign of his In 1215 the MC, the great knights, the clergy and 2
son Edward the charter of the liberties of representatives from each
Confessor. England, was signed by king town.
John the Unready.
SUA SLIDE: The system of the future two
THEDOMESDAY BOOK(1086) - It is considered the Houses of Parliament (Lords
First great census in England, founding element of and Commons) was already in
wanted by King William today’s British place in these years (13th
Aim: to establish the rights of unwritten century).
the king to demand taxes Constitution and
during the reign of his son, constitutional Edward I made the meeting of
Edward the Confessor Written government. parl. a more frequent event;
in Latin and Norman, it - It determines the in his first parliament, in 1275,
contains several terms in he summoned nobles and
foundation of the
English, as they had no churchmen, but also issued
English Parliament.
counterpart (equivalent) in orders for the election of 2
- It includes the famous
French representatives from each
clause “to no one will
It included:

county and 2 from each town appoint bishops, decide on Elizabeth, England had its
to attend. articles of fate and impose his most splendid period.
will on the monasteries, many
They were called on primarily of which were destroyed.
- Era of overseas
to listen and approve the
explorations and of
king’s plan for a new tax: this From then on, the sovereign
was to become known as “the of England is also the head of beginning of the
model parliament” because the Church (the Anglican building of the
it’s a representation of 2 church was born). Empire
knight from each county and 2 - Military success /
burgesses (rappr. di achievements:
circoscrizione) from each defeat of the
town. It became normal for SUA SLIDE: Spanish fleet la
almost most future THE ENGLISH invincible armada in
parliaments. RENAISSANCE: THE ACT OF 1588
SUPREMACY (1534-35)
THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT - The masterpieces of
It determines the legitimacy
MEETS BEFORE EDWARD, of the power of the English
William
CA 1300. kings as detached from the Shakespeare
In 1521 Henry VIII was Church of Rome. Established
granted the title of “Defender by King Henry VIII as the All this contributed to make
of the Faith” by the pope in constitutive document of his England one of the most
recognition of his Latin schism. Promulgated as an Act powerful nations in Europe
treaties defending the of Parliament and in the world.
sacraments. This title has
been maintained by English HENRY VIII HAD THREE UNION OF CROWNS (1603)
monarchs ever since and it is HEIRS(THE TUDORS): Another important event in
on English coins still today. British history is the Union of
- Edward VI (1537 – Crowns, when James I acceded
Henry married his brother’s 1553) to the throne of England in 1603.
widow, Catherine of Aragon, - Mary I (“Bloody Mary”
England, Wales, Scotland and
by special dispensation. In 20 1516-1558)
Ireland were linked under the
years of marriage Catherine - Elizabeth I (1533 – crown of James VI of Scotland,
only produced a daughter 1603) who moved down from Scotland
(Mary) and Henry desperately to England and declared himself
wanted a male heir to keep Elizabeth became queen, King of Great Britain, Ireland and
the country united and strong. with the name of France.
He began to consider Elizabeth I, and she The childless death of Protestant
marriage to his pregnant famously said: Queen Elizabeth I caused the
mistress Anne Boleyn and “... I may have the body of English to accept a union under
asked the pope for a divorce the Scottish crown rather than
a weak and feeble
face a period of uncertainty or
in order to marry her. woman, but I have the
find themselves with a Catholic
heart of a King of monarch (Catholic threat). That
When it was clear that the England.” is, the coming together of
pope would not declare his Elizabeth I’s kingdom England and Scotland was
first marriage invalid, Henry became known as “the determined by religious fears and
broke with Rome and Golden Age”. gave greater power to the
declared himself “supreme Scottish king.
head on earth of the Church THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD James VI of Scotland became the
of England” by means of the first Stuart king in England with
AND THE GOLDENAGE the title of James I.
Act of Supremacy of 1534: Under the reign of queen Religion was indeed the most
this meant he had the right to
urgent problem for James I: the

Protestant religion actively arm forces. He refused and a “this day's proceeding cannot
encouraged the personal Civil War broke out. Oliver be warranted by God's laws;
knowledge of the Bible and, in Cromwell was the General of for, on the contrary, the
1604, James authorized a new the Parliamentary army. In authority of obedience unto
translation that is still widely
1644 he defeated the Kings is clearly warranted, and
used today: the so-called “king
James Bible”. Royalists and Charles I was strictly commanded in both
captive of the Parliament. the Old and New Testament
John Speed’s map illustrates the [...] the King can do no
new Theatre of the Empire of In 1648 another Civil War was wrong”.
Great Britain(1611/12). London fought, as the Royalists
and Edinburgh, which two wanted to free the King.
images are included in the map, Cromwell won once again. The court, on turn, challenged
were the two most imp cities of the doctrine of sovereign
the empire at that time. immunity, and responded that
THE KING IS BROUGHT TO
COURT! the King of England was not a
CHARLES I STUART (1600- person, but an office (carica)
1649) James’ whose every occupant was
second son Charles became In January 1649, the House of entrusted with a limited
king Charles Stuart. Commons indicted the king on power to govern “by and
He re-established a form of a charge of treason, which according to the laws of the
absolute monarchy. was rejected by the House of land and not otherwise”.
In 1641 the Parliament forced Lords.
him to sign the Triennial Act, The idea of trying a king was a On Tuesday, 30 January 1649
that granted the summoning novelty. It was against the Charles was beheaded.
of Parliament every 3 years common belief of the sacrality This big event was
and for no less than 50 days. of the sovereign. documented by paintings. The
The Parliament hoped to get execution is considered one of
In the same year, the House of to a deal with the king, who, the most significant and
Commons passed the Grand however, was not willing to controversial event in English
Remonstrance, a long list of accept any solution in contrast history. The parliamentarian
lamentations against actions with his vision of monarchy as court declared him guilty of
by Charles’s ministers founded on divine right. trying to maintain unlimited
committed since the Charles was accused of and tyrannical power, to rule
beginning of his reign. treason against England by according to his will and to
using his power to pursue his overthrow the rights and
Charles I firmly believed he personal interest rather than liberties of the people. That’s
was king by divine right: his the good of the country. why he was sentenced to
reign was therefore troubled death and a large crowd came
by a continuous clash with the to watch.
parliament.
THE KING IS SENTENCED TO THE COMMONWEALTH
THE CIVIL WARS AND DEATH
OLIVER CROMWELL After the execution of the
Charles refused to respond to king, a republic was
When letters from the Queen all the allegations and did not established, known as the
were intercepted with want to recognize the Court Commonwealth. Cromwell
requests of help from the established by the Parliament became Lord Protector until
Catholic Countries to as worth to judge him. The his death in1659. He was a
overthrow the Parliament and King insisted that the trial was committed Puritan.
re- establish Charles’s power, illegal, explaining that the king Under Cromwell, strict Puritan
in 1642 the king was asked to can do no wrong. rules were introduced:
give up his command of the

/declined the offer of the British throne and
- Execution for adultery
Crown. represented a threat to the
and the abolition of British Protestant monarchy.
popular pastimes,
At Cromwell’s death, his son
games, dancing and Richard inherited the SUA SLIDE:
theatre performances
Protectorate. Given his THE GLORIOUS
- Inns, pubs and ineptitude, the Parliament REVOLUTION (1688- 89)
theatres were closed made him resign in1659. James II (Catholic –Stuart
down family) was replaced by his
At this point, the restoration daughter Mary and William of
- Traditional festivities of the monarchy was grated Orange (Protestant).
(Christmas, Easter etc) with relief by most English This marked the beginning of
were abolished and men, who had felt oppressed the Jacobite threat.
replaced with days of in their everyday life by the It was always perceived as a
fasting strict rules of the Puritans. Catholic threat to the British
- All games and sports Protestant monarchy and a
were banned CHARLES II threat to liberty. From 1688-
The new Parliament settled in 89 to 1815 Britain was at war
- It was even illegal to 1660. The royal court under with France at least half the
go for a walk, except Charles II, another Stuart king, time:
to attend a religious was the most immoral in
service in your own English history. the Catholic threat was
parish Charles was Charles I’s eldest associated to invasion from
son. He was a Catholic and, France.
- Sunday was the day
while in exile in the Low
dedicated to God Countries, wrote a declaration THE BILL OF RIGHTS (1689)
- Housework was also granting to rule in cooperation
forbidden with the Parliament and wide During the reign of William III
religious tolerance. and Mary II the Bill of Rights
- Good Puritans were The English Parliament was passed. It was “an Act
encouraged to spy on resolved to proclaim Charles Declaring the Rights and
their neighbors and king and invited him to return, Liberties of the Subject and
denounce any on 8 May 1660. Settling the Succession of the
immoral behavior Charles was crowned at Crown”.
Westminster on 23 April1661. It prevented the king from
THE TWO ENGLISH raising taxes or keeping an
CONSTITUTIONS After Charles II, another army without the agreement
member of the Stuart family of Parliament (relationship
The Instrument of became king: he was the between king and parliament
Government (1653) was youngest son of Charles I, who which changes after the Stuart
England's first written became king as James II. He dynasty).
constitution. was kicked out in 1688, being It represented the victory of a
Executive power was held by Catholic, and replaced by his parliamentary, or
the Lord Protector and daughter Mary and William of constitutional, monarchy.
legislation was raised in Orange, who were Protestant.
Parliament. Enlightened thinkers, from the
From this expulsion until 1746 philosopher John Locke
It was superseded in 1657 by there was a sporadic threat: (1632– 1704) to journalists
the Humble Petition and the so-called Jacobite threat. such as Joseph Addison
Advice which offered This was a movement that (1672–1719), rejected the
Cromwell a hereditary supported the restoration of strict and pessimistic values of
monarchy. He refused the house of Stuart to the

Puritanism, like original sin and gave him a house in
and the depravity of man. Westminster, 10 Downing
Street, which is still the official LEZIONE 3
John Locke proposed the residence of the prime
rights to «life, liberty and minister today.
property»
The Bill of Rights was adopted
A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
THE ACT OF UNION (1707)
in England, protecting the The Scottish Members of LAWS AND
right to religious toleration. Parliament (MPs) voted to join GOVERNMENT (part II)
the Union. England, Wales
It established the supremacy and Scotland would be THE NEW BRITISH IDENTITY
of the Parliament off (?) the “united into one kingdom by Another childless Protestant
Crown, stated that it was the name of Great Britain” queen, Queen Anne, coupled
illegal for the Crown to and represented by one with the fear of a Jacobite
suspend or dispense with the parliament. pretender, encouraged the
law and insisted on due The Scottish Parliament was union between Scots and
process in criminal trials. dissolved, and England and English. England, Wales and
Scotland became one country. Scotland would be united into
This was also the period of It was not a federal union, nor one kingdom by the name of
THE BIRTH OF POLITICAL was it an incorporating union Great Britain and represented
PARTIES that assimilated Scotland into by ONE parliament.
The Whigs and the Tories England (because there was a The childless death of
were the first political parties vote). Protestant Queen Elizabeth I
in Britain. Both emerged in Scotland retained its distinct caused the English to accept
1679-80. legal, educational and the union under the Scottish
religious systems, but Crown, rather than face
The Tories descended from currency, taxation, periods of uncertainty or find
the Royalists; they supported sovereignty, trade, parliament themselves with a Catholic
the divine right of monarchy and flag became one. monarch.
and opposed religious The red cross of St George The coming together of
toleration; the Church of combined with the blue and England and Scotland was
England and the landowners white cross of St Andrew, determined by religious fears
sided with them. resulting in the ‘old’ union flag and gave greater power to the
(the Union Jack). Scottish king. The Scots were
The Whigs were descendants torn between anger of a loss
of the Parliamentarians. They An important Scottish writer of independence and
pressed for industrial and edited an anthology of Scots ambition for new possibilities.
commercial development, a verse to react against the On the other hand, English
vigorous foreign policy, and implications of the Union of regretted the loss of
religious toleration. Their England and Scotland: this Englishness and considered
party was supported by many was JAMES WATSON. the Scots poor, pushy,
of the wealthy and unwilling to pay taxes, but
commercial classes. DANIEL DEFOE was a well- demanding English
known English novelist who government jobs.
The first prime minister was said: “Scotland is now no This new British identity,
the Whig Sir Robert Walpole more than a part of Great created after 1707, was
(1676–1745), who was in Britain in common with other established in reaction to an
power for over twenty years parts of it, of which England “Other” (enemy), partly real,
(1721–42). itself is also no more.” = partly imagined: Catholicism,
Scotland and England are both Papism, French and Spanish
The new king, George II, relied equal components of Great supremacy.
more and more on Walpole Britain. Great Britain was a free trade

area with protection against There was never any question THE INDUSTRIAL
foreign countries. of the Celts uniting against the REVOLUTION
There were differences English. Identities were always As a result of the introduction
between the diverse more local than national, even of the steam engine by James
Protestant churches, but within Scotland and Wales. Watt, new factories were built
these differences were Scotland was split into the on the coal and iron fields of
nothing like the differences Lowlands and the Highlands. Lancashire, Yorkshire, central
between Protestantism and Wales was divided by Scotland and South Wales.
Catholicism. mountains north and south. These new factories allowed
Communications were better Britain to manufacture cloth
Quoting the DECLARATION in England, giving the English more cheaply than elsewhere,
OF THE HOUSE OF greater unity and commercial but also put many people out
COMMONS (1710) advantage. England’s of work.
“As we are Britons it is our population was 4 times higher There was a social
common interest and shall be than that of Scotland and consequence/reaction, the so-
our just endeavour to Wales together. called “Ludism”: a backlash
preserve that union between (rivolta) which started in the
the parts of Great Britain on AN AGE OF REVOLUTIONS northern midlands against the
which the safety of the whole The last decades of the 18th mechanization of the textile
depends.”(threat of an century were marked by industry, with stocking frames
enemy) greatrevolutions, namely 3: (telai) being destroyed and
1. the Agrarian and Industrial mobs of masked men
“Popery and slavery, like two Revolutions; breaking factories to stop the
sisters, go hand in hand...” 2. the American Revolution, production of lace and other
(reference to Catholicism) when British colonies on the fine fabrics.
other side of the Atlantic
became a new and free nation A recent book called “the
Britain’s convictions of its own (USA); Perfectionists” states that the
liberties and exceptionalism 3. the French Revolution, fact that so many new
emerge. These years are followed by the Napoleonic machines and devices (ex.
remembered as “the Age of conquests precise clocks/watches) were
Revolutions”. British-invented (and firstly
THE AGRARIAN made) allowed Britain to
BACKGROUND: REVOLUTION become the undisputed ruler
LANGUAGE It took two principal forms: of all the world’s oceans and
Before the Act of Union: seas.
1. the widespread
enclosure of ‘open THE ACT OF UNION WITH
- the Lowland Scots fields‘ and common IRELAND
were speaking a form land to make larger, In 1801, the fear that
of English more efficient farms. Napoleon might use Ireland to
- three out of four 2. Improvements in the invade Britain led to the Act of
selective breeding of Union with Ireland.
Welshmen spoke
cattle to produce The Irish Parliament was
Welsh.
more meat, and in abolished and its members sat
farming techniques in the London Parliament,
Welsh and Scottish were quite
such as crop rotation where they demanded “home
different languages and
and mechanization. rule” (autonomy) for Ireland.
cultures. Celtic fringe (paesi
The more there was an
colorati nella mappa) is not
These techniques and new external threat, the more
really a useful term, or at least
settings changed the way of people spoke about Britain
not if we are thinking in terms
farming.
of identity.

rather than England or throughout the UK. “THE BRITISH LION ENGAGING
Scotland. The act permitted FOUR POWERS” (imagine)
members of the This 1782 print shows a lion
Other important events that Catholic Church to (which stands for Britain)
changed the relationship with seat in the Parliament confronting a Spaniel
the Catholic Church date back of Westminster. (representing Spain), a
to the beginning of 19th fighting cock (France), a
century: The OTHER gradually rattlesnake (America), a pug
shifted from a European dog (Holland). RITAIN AND
Catholic other to a FRANCE
- 1701: The Act of
colonial other.
Settlement specified THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
that monarchs must
BRITAIN AND FRANCE Towards the end of
be Protestant. In 1707
The newly created Britain was 18thcentury the Napoleonic
90% of Britons
very much in a fighting mood. wars started.
Protestant. Catholic
From 1689 to 1815, Britain In 1793 France declared war
and Jews did not have
was at war with France at and Britain, who feared an
key rights and were
least half the time, frequently invasion and relied on a
frequently
threatened with invasion. stronger navy, decided to fight
discriminated against,
Britain and France were at France at sea.
or mistreated.
war during the following Admiral Horatio Nelson (great
However,
periods: 1689-1697 8 years hero of British navy) defeated
paradoxically, there
1702-1713 11 years the French- Spanish fleet off
were always strong
1743-1748 5 years Cape Trafalgar on the Atlantic
cultural connections coast of southern Spain in
1756-1763 7 years
with France and the
1778-1783 5 years 1805.
rest of Europe and He is commemorated by
1793-1802 9 years
French was spoken by
1803-1815 12 years Nelson’s Column, Trafalgar
many of the British Square, London
upper classes.
Total 57 years out of 126.
Protestants also had a
The total defeat of Napoleon
strong sense of
The wars with France led to: happened in 1815 at the
missionary duty,
Battle of Waterloo, in
which pushed them
Belgium.
out into the world. - The foundation of the The British troops,
- By 1800 (eighteen Bank og England and commanded by Arthur
the creation of the Wellesley, the first Duke of
hundred) the sense of
city; Wellington, were able to
embattled
exceptionalism was - A more efficient overcome Napoleon,
fading, and with it, nationwide tax weakened by his disastrous
Christian system; invasion of Russia. Wellington
fundamentalism. Monument, Hyde Park,
- The creation of a London celebrates this event
- 1829 Roman Catholic considerable army,
Relief Act: significant though there was MAJESTY
measure adopted to never conscription The period which covered the
remove the most and Britain was never end of the Napoleonic Wars
substantial invaded. (1811–20) was called ‘the
restrictions on Roman Regency’, since the Prince
Catholicism in the UK. The wars forced Britain to Regent, later to become
It was the culmination become more efficient George IV, acted as monarch
of the process of and more unified. during the illness of his father
Catholic emancipation

George III (1760–1820). There QUEEN CHARLOTTE (1744- With this feminization of the
is a change in the nature of 1818) monarchy, women acquired a
the monarchy in this period: new role.
1. the growing awareness of Married in 1761
the need for a more British, Had 15 children of whom 13 In 1854 the English poet
ceremonial, promotional, survived First queen to be Coventry Patmore published a
patriotic monarchy, loved by all the nation. narrative poem called The
celebrating domesticity and Angel in the House, describing
moral rectitude reached a an idealized courtship.
turning point with the reign of PRINCESS CHARLOTTE
George III. Charlotte, daughter of In the course of 19th century
2. Ritual splendor, an Caroline dies in childbirth. this idea of angel came to be
appearance of domesticity A member of parliament said applied to every wife who
and ubiquity: this was the about her: created a heaven for her
formula that George III taught “It really was as if every husband in a well-ordered
to his royal successors. household throughout Great home.
We can reasonably talk of a Britain had lost a favorite
feminization of the monarchy, child.” In the Victorian Age, in the
which was an evident model relationship of the
substitution of Catholic Virgin middle-class family, each
QUEEN VICTORIA’S REIGN
worship. partner had their own
(1837- 1901)
responsibilities.
Victoria’s reign, the longest in
THE FEMINISATION OF THE
the history of England until
MONARCHY, list after Queen Elizabeth II, was a period of The wife’s duties (educate the
Anne: political developments, social children, manage the
reforms, progress, household, provide emotional
-Wife of George I imprisoned expansion... support for husband) were
for adultery - Wife of not under valued. However,
George II died young; the husband maintained his
The merits of these
- Wife of George III, Queen role as the head of the family
achievements partly belong to
Charlotte produced 15 (his ability to keep his wife out
the queen, who, in marked
children, 13 surviving in an of the workplace signified
contrast with other European
exaltation of domesticity; respectability).
monarchs, reigned
- Wife of George IV, Queen constitutionally, avoiding the
Caroline became a storm of revolution which In addition, there was the
heroine/victim (she left spread all over Europe in powerful model of the royal
Britain, is tried for adultery, 1848. She never overruled family: Victoria managed to
women’s petitions in favour of Parliament and became a combine sovereign authority
Caroline, the King backed mediator above party politics. with a loving humility in the
down) presence of her husband. As a
- Her daughter, Princess result, she established the
A new kind of ‘emotional’
Charlotte died in childbirth, ideal figure of the Victorian
monarchy began with Queen
1817. wife and mother.
Victoria.
- Queen Victoria (born 1819)
reigns from 1837-1901 Queen Victoria also
The ‘Penny Black’, the world’s
established a new trend when
first adhesive postage stamp
she visited the Isle of Wight in
remembers Queen Victoria.
The new visibility of female the 1840s.
monarchs allowed British Thanks to the introduction of
women to identify. the railways, many women
THE ROLE OF THE WOMAN:
were able to enjoy a day out
ANGELOR PIONEER? at the seaside.

In the 1850s girls were CHARTISM (a working-class at 11 o’clock:
encouraged to try different movement under Queen the 1stminute in memory of
sports: archery, crocket... Victoria). the nearly twenty million
however, physical exercise Between 1838 and 1848 dead;
was made difficult by their big ‘Chartism’ played an the 2ndfor the living loved
skirts. Famous women important role, drawing up ones they left behind.
travelled like Lady Anne Blunt the ‘People’s Charter’ in 1838. The poppy remains a symbol
(1837–1917), in the Arabian of remembrance and the
desert with her husband. It called for social reforms and reason poppies are used to
the extension of the right to remember those who
Women travel writers and vote to all male adults.
painters like Marianne North; Its demands were refused by have given their lives in battle
the House of Commons and is because they are the
Women writers like the the movements lowly died. flowers which grew on the
Brontë sisters and Mary battlefields after WWI ended.
Shelley; EDWARD VII The majority of people wear
On the death of Queen the poppy on their chest on
Victoria in 1901, the royal 11th November.
Suffragette movement under house took the Germanic
Emmeline Pankhurst in 1903; surname of her consort, THE IRISH QUESTION
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg- The 1916 ‘Easter Rising’ in
All men and women aged over Gotha. Victoria’s son Edward, Dublin, and subsequent civil
21 received the vote in 1928: who reigned until 1910 as war (1919-21), resulted in the
this was the path towards Edward VII, was to be the only setting up of the Irish Free
emancipation. sovereign of that dynasty in State (later to become the
Britain. He was crowned in Irish Republic) in 1921-22,
QUEEN VICTORIA’S REIGN August 1902. while the 6 northern counties
(1837- 1901) In April 1904 he signed the remained part of the United
During her reign, the two Anglo- French Entente Kingdom (partition).
main political parties were the Cordiale, which settled In 1948 the official Republic of
Liberals (ex- Whigs) and the outstanding colonial disputes. Ireland Act put an end to
Conservatives, who alternated Commonwealth membership.
in government. THE GREAT WAR(1914-18)
In 1914 the First World War ABDICATION OF KING
A lot of services were broke out when Britain EDWARD VIII
introduced, such as: water, declared war on Germany
gas and lighting; paved roads; after Germany marched When King Edward VIII
places of entertainment, like through Belgium, a neutral announced his intention to
public houses, music halls, territory, in order to attack marry Wallis Simpson, a
parks and stadiums, and France. Consequence: in 1917, divorced American woman, he
shops. anti-German feeling led King met opposition from all
Even now, Victorian George V to change the family parties.
institutions, prisons, police name to that of Windsor.
stations, boarding schools and Rather than renounce his
town halls can still be seen in REMEMBRANCE DAY intentions, he abdicated in
British cities. The armistice of 11th 1936 and was succeeded by
November 1918 – ‘the his brother George VI (1894–
In 1829–30 Prime Minister eleventh hour of the eleventh 1952).
Robert Peel established the day of the eleventh month’ –
Metropolitan Police. effectively ended the Great This case reminds us of the
War (Remembrance Day). positions assumed by prince
There’s a two minutes’ silence Harry and his wife Meghan

Markle, who decided to The UK is both a constitutional meetings of the private
separate physically and monarchy (where the council.
ideologically from the Crown. monarchy has no executive
powers) and a parliamentary
WORLD WAR II system (power to make laws). THE PARLIAMENT
In September 1939 Germany There is no written Constitutional title: Queen-in-
invaded Poland and the Constitution, but written Parliament (it is officially
Second World War started. documents like “the statute called QIP).
The Conservative Winston law”, “the acts of parliament”,
Churchill became prime “the common law”, The first occurrence of the
minister in 1940. “conventions of ancient term ‘Parliament’ appears in
On 6th June1944, the Allies documents” (like Magna 1236 = meetings of the
touched down on the coasts Charta) and, at least until monarch with nobles and
of Normandy and managed to January 2020, “the EU law”, bishops.
liberate France. considered superior to British
law. The term comes from the
QUEEN ELIZABETH II: French parler, and denotes an
present queen George VI was event arranged to talk and
succeeded by his daughter THE FIGURE OF THE discuss things
Elizabeth II (1926–), who was MONARCH The Parliament is bicameral:
crowned in 1953.
- Official Head of State
Her official title: her Majesty (executive, legislature
a. House of Lords (or
Upper House): made
Elizabeth the Second, by the and judiciary, which
of non-elected MPs,
Grace of God of the United correspond to the
such as Lords
Kingdom of Great Britain and three branches);
Spiritual(bishopsofthe
Northern Ireland, and of Her - Head of the Anglican
Church of England)
other Realms and Territories Church;
and Lords Temporal
Queen, Head of the - Head of the
(nobles, also
Commonwealth, Defender of Commonwealth;
calledpeers–
the Faith. - Commander-in-chief
hereditarypeers and
of the Royal Army;
life peers)
THE SYSTEM OF - Symbol of the unity of
GOVERNMENT the Nation b. House of Commons:
The UK is a parliamentary - Ceremonial head of made of people
democracy which has a the executive democratically
constitutional sovereign (the government elected at least every
monarch) as head of the state - Fount of justice five years(MPs)
and three branches of power
(There is no absolute THE DUTIES OF THE
separation of power.): MONARCH Lords Spiritual:
archbishops/bishops Lords
Opens Parliament when Temporal: non-elected peers
- Parliament (makes
he/she gives a speech on the The House of Commons is
laws) UK governments fourth made of 750 members of
- Government (puts coming legislative program; parliament and the speaker,
laws into effect) There Approves the appointed Prime who is the chief officer of the
is no absolute Minister; Gives royal assent to House of Commons.
separation of power. bills; Reads all state papers;
Meets the PM once a week; The Parliament, which was
- Law Courts (they Gives honours; Presides at the centralized in 1707, has the
interpret laws-

legislative function (i.e. it refused for more than three The Conservative party: its
makes the laws). centuries, so it’s almost beginning dates back to
automatic). After this, the bill 1830s, it traditionally
FUNCTIONS OF THE becomes an Act of Parliament. represents private enterprise,
PARLIAMENT the ruling classes, nationalistic
- It makes laws; values.
- It provides money to the
Government through taxes; The Labour party: formed in
- It examines the government 1906, it grew out of the trade
policy, the administration of union movement (sindacati)
the country and spending; and represents the working
- It debates political matters; classes and social values.
The executive, that is the A third important party is:

government, is the majority The Liberal-Democratic party:
party in the HOC and it formed in 1988, when the
governs through parliament, Liberal party joined with the
approving laws. Social Democratic Party.
Lords, Commons and the

Queen must approve a bill in In British politics we have a
order to make it an Act of two-party system, with Labour
Parliament and the maximum party and Conservative party
duration of the parliament is alternating in the
five years. The process of law government.
making is quite long and
complex. Other parties:
WalesCymru (1925)
THE ROAD TO A UK LAW ScotlandScottish National
It starts with the issue of a Party (1934)
preliminary document (White Northern IrelandUlster
or Green Paper) by the Unionists (early 20th century),
government. Democratic Unionists, Social
Then a draft law (bozza di Democratic and Labour Party,
legge) takes the form of a bill Sinn Féin (political face of the
that must pass through both IRA)
Houses and receive royal
assent before it becomes law. UKIP (British political party
The House of Commons is the funded in 1993): their
first step, then the House of philosophy was centered on
UK’S MAIN PARTIES the withdrawal of the UK from
Lords (where the Lords can
The Tories became the European Union and their
vote against/delay the
Conservatives (in 1830s): they leader is Nigel Farage.
bill/propose amendments).
have established values,
If amended, a bill goes back to
traditions and links with the The party was funded
the Commons, where changes
Church of England. following Britain’s rectification
are accepted by the
government, or the bill is re- of the Maastricht Treaty
The Whigs became the Liberal (which established the EU).
drawn.
party, promoting reforms but
After the passage through
declining since 1918, when Sign of UKIP growing influence
Commons and Lords the bill is
another party (the Labour in British political scene: June
sent to the monarch for royal
party) emerged. 26th referendum on Britain’s
assent (which has not been

continued membership in the The most important ministers determination earned her the
EU (Brexit referendum). are called Secretaries of State nickname ‘the Iron Lady’.
and form the Cabinet. The
After Farage left the party, in government is the executive To lower government
2019 he launched another arm of the parliamentary spending, industries were
party called “Brexit Party”, system and it is centered on denationalized. Thatcher
with the purpose of the area of Whitehall, in made a series of reforms to
advocating for UK’s London. develop private enterprise.
withdrawal from the EU.
BOTH PARTIES WERE Basically, there are hundred In 1987 she introduced the
PUSHING FOR BREXIT. ministers chosen from the 2 unpopular ‘poll tax’, a local tax
Houses and appointed by the on individuals, which was to
10, DOWNING STREET: monarch on the advice of the be paid by all citizens,
THE HOUSE OF THE PRIME Prime Minister. regardless of the income.
MINISTER
THE PRIME MINISTER Tony Blair, leader of the New
British voters do NOT choose Is the leader of the majority Labour Party, won the
the Prime Minister: he/she is party and the head of the elections in May 1997. His
elected within their political House of Commons(he sits in government produced
party. the Commons) constitutional reforms that
The country is divided into Is formally appointed by the partially decentralised the UK,
650 constituencies Monarch; Runs the leading to the formation of
(circoscrizioni) and each Government; Appoints the separate parliaments in Wales
constituency returns one MP Cabinet Ministers (Cabinet = a and Scotland by 1999 through
to the House of Commons at small executive body of 20 a referendum (“Devolution”).
the general elections: 1 MP senior ministers that initiates
for each constituency. and decides governments In 2010 the Conservatives,
policy meetings in 10, under their leader David
You may vote if you are Downing Street); Represents Cameron, formed a coalition
resident in Britain, age 18 or the UK in political matters. government together with the
over and not disqualified. The Liberal Democrats, the only
members of the House of Is a link between the monarch coalition government that has
Lords cannot vote and the and the Parliament (he has a been in place so far.
system is known as “simple weekly audience with the
majority”. The candidate who monarch) With Blair, a multileveled
wins the most votes in a governments model was
constituency is elected MP for BRITISH GOVERNMENTS introduced: the so-called
that area. After the general FROM “Devolution”.
elections, the leader of the
political party with the most 1945  Since 1945 there 2016 Conservative Theresa
MPs in the House of have been 9 Labour, 11 May
Commons is asked by the Conservative and 1 2019Conservative Boris
Queen to become Prime Conservative/ Liberal Johnson
Minister and to form a Democrat coalition
government that will manage governments: it’s a two-party THE WELFARE STATE
the country. system that alternate. The Labour Party run by
Clement Attlee offered new
The Prime Minister leads the 1979: the Conservative policies which focused on the
government and appoints Margaret Thatcher becomes new role of the government in
ministers, who had individual British first woman prime looking after the interests and
government departments. minister. welfare of its citizens after
Her strong will and WWII in such areas as health,

unemployment and pensions. denationalised. Thatcher an assembly in Wales (non-
He inaugurates a new kind of made a series of reforms to legislative and non-tax
state intervention, which develop private enterprise. bearing).
became known as the
‘Welfare State’. In 1987 Thatcher introduced Northern Ireland achieved an
The National Health Service the unpopular ‘poll tax’, a elected assembly and
Act was passed in 1946. It local tax on individuals, which executive in 1998.
gave free medical, dental, was to be paid by all citizens
optical and hospital care to Scotland, Welsh, Northern
everyone. Tony Blair, leader of the New Irish have a Prime Minister of
The government took over the Labour Party, won the their own, that they call “First
control of power and natural elections in May 1997. Minister”. Northern Ireland :
resources, transport (airlines Arlene Foster; Scotland:
and railways) and credit (the His government produced Nicola Sturgeon First
Bank of constitutional reforms that Ministers; Wales: Mark
England)”nationalization of partially decentralised the UK, Drakeford; England Boris
the economy”. leading to the formation of Johnson Prime Minister
separate parliaments in Wales England has no intermediate
SOCIAL REFORM SIN THE and Scotland by 1999 through body, but the area in greater
1960S a referendum. London is run by an elected
1967: “annus mirabilis”, a greater London authority,
great year as regards sexual In 2010 the Conservatives, with an elected maire and an
mores. under their leader David assembly.
1967: Abortion Act, is possible Cameron, formed a coalition
to get an abortion government together with the
National Health Service Act Liberal Democrats.
Sexual Offences Act
LEZIONE 4
THE DEVOLUTION
1968: Bill against (until 31 December 2020) THE BRITISH EMPIRE
discrimination (PARTE 1)
Devolution consists in a
1969: Divorce Reform Act transfer of some political The Empire was gradually
Abolition of capital power from the UK built up from the 16th
punishment Parliament to local century, though colonization
authorities. It allows British and expansionism had in fact
1970: Matrimonial Property countries (S, W, NI) to decide begun with the attempted
Act their own affairs in devolved internal domination of the
matters (in tabella). islands (including Ireland) by
Britain joined the European the English from the 12th
Community in 1973 Devolution was first century, together with
introduced in Ireland, because military conquest in mainland
1979: the Conservative there were calls for home rule Europe. These attempts were
Margaret Thatcher becomes and then, with the formation followed by trading activities
British first woman prime of the “Irish free state”, they and the establishment of
minister. had a NI system/management settlements in North and
of power through devolved South America. Parts of Africa,
Her strong will and parliament. Asia and the Caribbean islands
determination earned her the were also exploited
nickname ‘the Iron Lady’. The Labour government commercially over time and
created an elective parliament many became colonies.
To lower government in Scotland, with a legislative Emigrants from Britain settled
spending, industries were and tax bearing powers and in countries such as the USA,

Australia, Canada, South of the so-called New World enemy. The first open war
Africa and New Zealand. after the discovery of America with Spain was avoided and
in1492. exploration (seas trade
By the 19th century, British expanded making England a
imperial rule and possessions However, in the 15th – sea power) ??? finisce così la
embraced a quarter of the 16thcentury England was not frase……
world’s population. as powerful as other countries Then English sea captains
in Europe. (Francis Drake etc) were
THE EXPANSION OF THE Spain and France were far secretly encouraged by the
BRITISH EMPIRE superior to England in terms queen in the piracy against
of resources, fleets and sea Spanish ships. The queen
Following later European travels, and were very shared the profits = precious
reversals, the British sought interested in North America as metals, tobacco, slaves... from
raw materials, possessions, well. Paradoxically, perhaps America and Africa.
trade and power abroad. This England was the last big
colonialism was aided by nation to build an overseas 1588: the Spanish decided to
increasing military strength empire. invade England and sent the
(achieved by successive Great Armada (Invincible
victories) into the 20th England’s interest for the New Armada: 130 galleons to the
century. World started very early. English Channel), but the
As early as 1497, under the English defeated it.
In Britain today, there is a commission of King Henry VII, Supremacy at sea enabled
vigorous debate about the Venetian adventurer and Elizabeth I to lay the basis of
colonialism. Some critics see it explorer Giovanni Caboto England’s empire, chartering 7
as a negative, regrettable (John Cabot) sailed to the companies to colonise in the
stain on British and world northern part of present-day name of trade.
history, while others Canada. He mistakenly CHARTER: Elizabeth
controversially feel that it may believed he had reached Asia. authorised trade companies
have some positive features. to travel to different areas of
The new territories were the world and exchange goods
The development of the called Newfoundland. and services with local people.
British state and its empire Sir Walter Raleigh was
was aided by increasing A hundred years later, responsible of the first
economic and military force, England started to take things settlements in Virginia. He
so that by the 19th century more seriously. was instrumental in the
the country had become a By the end of 16th century Sir English colonisation of North
dominant industrial and Walter Raleigh was granted a America and was granted a
political world power. charter by Queen Elizabeth I royal patent, authorising him
to explore and colonise to explore, colonise and rule
It was a main player in Virginia. any remote and barbarous
developing Western civic lands, countries and
principles of law, property, Other colonies were set up in territories not actually
business, liberty, capitalism, Bermuda and in the possessed by any Christian
parliamentary democracy and Caribbean, and there England prince or inhabited by
civil society. clashed against Spain, who Christian people.
had the complete control of
The Commonwealth is the that area  Invincible This was written on the patent
legacy of the territories Armada in return for one fifth of all the
England conquered from the gold and the silver that might
17thcentury. BACKGROUND be mined there.
In fact, the British Empire Elisabeth I recognised Spain as
begun with the explorations her main trade rival and

Throughout the1600s (sixteen got steadily worse in the A BRITISH BURDEN:
hundreds), the British 1760s and 1770s. SLAVERY
presence in North America In 1776 a revolution broke out Slavery played a fundamental
grew. (the American War of role for the running of the
In 1620 the Mayflower landed Independence). British colonies. Initially, only
in America. This ship took war prisoners or criminals
Puritan pilgrims to the New The colonists were helped by were employed to work in the
World so that they could build the French and defeated the fields. However, the
new settlements (initially in English, becoming the United expansion of the territories
Plymouth) and practice their States of America in under British control and the
religion the way they wanted 1783.Despite this, English rule increasing production of
to. continued in the Caribbean goods demanded more
and in Upper and Lower manpower. That is how the
In the 1660 sand 1670s the Canada. slavery of African people
British established territories began.
further north and along the Over the next 100 years the
eastern coast of America. various territories in Canada BRITISH COLONISATION OF
By the mid 17th century there became the confederation AFRICA The English empire in
were thirteen colonies. that forms the state of Canada Africa developed rather late.
today. English contact with Africa
The Hudson’s Bay Company became large scale from
was formed to explore the Mayflower has become a about 1740 onwards, at a time
lands around the Hudson Bay cultural icon in the history of when France has already
with its great wealth in furs, the USA. The pilgrims sailed established well-settled
timber and other products. from Plymouth (England) and colonies. British traders could
Here the English came into found the Plymouth colony in make huge profits by
contact with Native Massachusetts. They were exchanging manufactured
Americans: they traded with Puritans and the king at that goods for slaves in Africa, and
them and made alliances. time was Charles I Stuart, then selling slaves in the West
before Cromwell’s Indies and in North America.
ENGLAND AND FRANCE: Commonwealth. There’s this kind of triangle
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR among Africa, the West Indies,
The French did exactly the This is called “the first British North America, Britain. They
same thing: they built up large Empire”, the one in the USA. also increased their profits by
territories along the Saint In 1672 the Royal African bringing sugar, tobacco and
Lawrence River. Company was inaugurated, cotton back to Britain.
receiving from king Charles a
By the mid 1700s England and monopoly of the trade to CONSTANT MOVEMENT OF
France were bitter rivals. From supply slaves to the British PEOPLE AND GOODS
1756 to 1763 they fought the colonies in the Caribbean.
Seven Years War in Europe, in EXTRACT FROM THE
Asia and in America. By the From the outset (beginning),
ANNUAL REGISTER
end of the war England was slavery was the basis of the
SHOWING THE EXTENT OF
emerging as the main power British Empire in the West
Indies and, until the abolition TRADING IN SLAVES, 1758
in North America. English
of slave trade in 1807, Britain This ordinary looking
forces conquered Québec and
was responsible for the document tells a very moving
ruled the lands of Upper and
transportation of 3.5 million and powerful story. It is just
Lower Canada.
(or more) African slaves to the one page of the Annual
Americas (a third of all slaves Register of slaves exported
Relations between the British
transported across the from Africa to the Americas.
government and the people
Atlantic). This particular page come
who lived in the 13 Colonies
from the register for 1758.

It lists the ships carrying 1880s Britain took control of was in trade. This began to
slaves, when they arrived in Egypt, which was a strategic develop during the 1600s,
Africa, where they were area on the trade route to when the East India Company
coming from, who owned India. North Africa was was created, a private (not
them etc. important because It was on national!) company owned by
the trade route between wealthy and important figures
Year & Numbers of slaves Britain and its most valuable in Britain.
landed in America 1701-1720 territory–India.
626,000 This company was eventually
1721-1740870,000 In the 19th century, during to rule over today’s India,
1741-17601,007,000 the reign of Queen Victoria, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri
1761-17801,148,000 Great Britain ruled over a Lanka.
1781-1800 1,561,000 wide and powerful empire
1801-1820 980,000 that brought the British in The Company had the
The document shows the total contact with various cultures. monopoly of trade between
number of slaves in this short Britain and Asia. The main
period. An analysis of the In the last decades of the 19th goods traded were cotton, silk
register by historians has century the British empire and tea. However, spices and
shown that the total numbers occupied an area of 4 million gems were also important
transported look something square miles and more than products. The officials of the
like this: 400 million people were ruled Company were almost like the
over by the British. rulers of a country. The
By the late 1800s England Company had its own armed
took control of huge In the 1830s and 1840s Britain forces and could negotiate
territories in north, central became increasingly involved treaties. They worked closely
and southern Africa. in controlling a larger area of with some Indian rulers, often
Slavery was abolished in southern Africa. supporting them in their wars
Britain in 1807 and, after this, with other rulers (they
the relationship with Africa The British came into conflict intervened directly in political
changed: Turning point. with the Boers (white Africans life).
descended from Dutch and
Britain followed its tried and Belgian settlers). This This source comes from the
tested method of allying with eventually resulted in the East India Company.
local rulers (method also Boer War of 1899-1902, which This list shows the ships, their
employed in India) and then brought to the English total weight and the men involved.
joining in conflicts between its control of nowadays’ South
allies and their enemies. Africa. In the 1690s this represented
an enormous amount of men,
In 1844 Britain took control of The British eventually won money and resources.
the Gold Coast of West Africa. these wars with the Dutch It’s important to stress the
At the same time explorers, settlers (the Boers) over size of the empire.
traders and missionaries like control of gold and diamond
David Livingstone were mines in South Africa, but Throughout the 1600s and
coming into contact with new with great difficulty. 1700s the Empire took control
African peoples and opening of more and more Indian
up trade routes as well as THE COLONISATION OF lands.
establishing political alliances. INDIA India, a densely In 1639 the English
populated place with longest established control of Madras.
From about 1870to about established civilizations, had a
1900 Britain took control of long history of contact with In 1661 they gained control of
increasingly large areas of Europe. The main contact Bombay-a very important port
West and North Africa. In the between England and India and trading center.

In the 1690s the Company The stream of water, at the JAMES COOK
established and developed bottom of the painting, is the Britain's first contact with
the port of Calcutta. From Indian river Ganges. Australia came with Captain
there British influence and Cook’s journey on the ship
control spread into the rich Calcutta, the main settlement Endeavour. He landed in
territories of Bengal. of the company, presents a Australia in 1770 and claimed
basket with pearls and other it as a British territory.
COLONISATION THROUGH jewels. The process of colonisation
NEGOTIATION There is a lot There’s also an allegory of began in 1788. A fleet of 11
of debate about how the China, represented by jars of ships (containing 736
English were able to gain the porcelain and a box of tea. prisoners), some British
power and influence they did, troops and a governor set up
because many of the Indian Bengal is represented by and the first colony of New South
states were extremely well- elephant and a camel. Wales.
organized and powerful. In the background, a ship is Cook was not the first to
Britain simply did not have taking the treasures of the discover Australia.
sources there to invade India East back to Britain (back and Aboriginal people had already
and conquer it by force, being forth from Britain to the settled there long before. Also
a little island against the huge colonies). Europeans knew the existence
territory of India. However, of Australia because the
British leaders were very 1877, QUEEN VICTORIA western half of the continent
effective in choosing which BECOMES EMPRESS OF INDIA had already been mapped and
princes to ally with, and which The title Empress of India was called New Holland.
to fight. given to Queen Victoria in However, no Europeans had
1877 when India was formally sailed to the other side of
Wall painting from the head incorporated into the British Australia. This was Cook’s
offices of the British East India Empire. achievement. His main
Company in London, 1778 priorities were to map the
The title continued until India land and to claim it for Britain.
This painting represents became independent from the
allegorically the British United Kingdom, in 1947.
dominion over the East AUSTRALIA: A HUGE JAIL
through the East India The period of British rule in FOR BRITISH CONVICTS
Company. India is also called British Raj. The first fleet arriving in
Can you recognise all the Australia contained 736
figures depicted? What do Mumbai’s Victorian and Art prisoners: that’s because, by
they represent? Deco buildings get UNESCO colonising Australia, the
recognition. Typical Victorian empire gained an important
This painting uses a range of style: clock, dome, red bus resource in terms of having
figures to illustrate different British. some where to send convicts
aspects of the work of the (detenuti). Until the American
East India Company. THE COLONISATION OF Revolution, Britain could send
We recognise Britannia, sitting AUSTRALIA This map shows convicts to the Thirteen
on a rock to show how well- you the importance of Colonies. However, this ended
established the empire was. Australia for Britain for the when the Americans declared
She is guarded by a lion to supply of minerals –copper, their independence.
show its power. gold, silver, iron. Transportation(=exile)was an
important part of the legal
The children behind Britannia, (Where the mines were: system in Britain and, by the
and under her protection, mainly South and East). 1780s, there were large
represent the British East numbers of convicts in Britain
India Company. who had been sentenced to

transportation and had now about taking such along building in iron and glass to be
here to go. New South Wales journey into the unknown and entirely prefabricated.
presented the ideal tries to reassure them.
opportunity for Britain to get However, the impression of The Great Exhibition was the
rid of its convicts and in the the journey given in the first exhibition of this kind and
next 60 years about 160,000 poster did not clearly. Reflect attracted huge crowds. The
were transported to Australia. how long and difficult the profits were used for the
journey really was. establishment of the science
Apart from convicts, museum, the natural history
thousands of other British The Australian colonies museum and the Victoria and
settlers also migrated to became profitable exporters Albert museum.
Australia. They were attracted of wool and gold, mainly
by the easily available land because of this movement of THE
(which led to conflict with the people generated by the so-
aborigines).They could make a called “gold rushes” in the COMMONWEALTH
living raising sheep or hunting colony of Victoria. This OF NATIONS (PARTE
seals and whales. In 1826 movement made its capital
settlers began colonizing Melbourne, for a time, the 2)
Western Australia. The colony richest city
of South Australia was set up In the late 19th and early 20th
in 1834. in the world and the second centuries large colonies such
largest city after London in the as Canada, Australia, New
A whole new wave of British empire. At the defeat Zealand and South Africa
migration begun in the 1850s, of France in the Napoleonic became self-governing
after the discovery of gold, wars, Britain emerged as the dominions and eventually
and the white population of principal naval and imperial achieved full independence.
Australia rose by around half a power of the 19th century. Many of their peoples were
million in 10 years (while the descendants of those settlers
aboriginal population Challenged at sea, British who had emigrated from
decreased). dominance was later Britain in earlier centuries.
described as “pax Britannica” They regarded Britain as the
This poster (foto slide) is (British peace), a period of “mother country” and
designed to attract emigrants relative peace in Europe and nurtured a shared kinship.
from Britain to South Australia the world from 1815 to 1914,
in the 1850s. Gold was during which the British However, this relationship has
discovered in this area in 1851 empire became the global changed as separate national
and, as a result, there was an hegemon/leader and adopted identities in these countries
influx of settlers hoping to the role of global policeman. have become firmly
make their fortunes in the established.
mines. Britain’s leading industrial and
economic position in the The creation of the British
The poster shows what types world was symbolised by “the Commonwealth of nations
of skills are needed in Great Exhibition” of 1851, was formalised by the Statute
Australia. It also shows what where goods from all the of Westminster in 1931. This
kind of people the company different countries of the marked the end of the British
wants to come to Australia Empire, as well as from all empire and the recognition of
and makes pretty clear what over Britain, were exhibited. equal status for all member
kinds of people are not states of the new organisation
wanted in Australia! It was housed in the Crystal united by a common
Palace (by Joseph Paxton), in allegiance to the Crown.
The poster gives a clue about Hyde Park: this was the first
some of the fears people had The British Commonwealth of
Nations refers to an

intergovernmental nearly a third of the world’s The British monarch is its non-
organisation including 54 population and a quarter of political head that has varying
countries led by the UK. All the earth’s land mass. It constitutional roles in
members, except comprises peoples of different different countries.
Mozambique and Rwanda, religions, races and The Queen is the symbol of
were part of the British nationalities, most of whom the unity of the
Empire, out of which the share a colonial history, with confederation. Her power is
Commonwealth develops. struggles for independence purely symbolic, but she is
from colonialism. very much respected.
The Commonwealth countries
recognise the Queen as their SUA SLIDE: The Prime Ministers in
head and a bound to Britain WHAT IS THE Commonwealth countries
by trading agreements. COMMONWEALTH OF normally meet every two
NATIONS? It is a voluntary years under the auspices of
The member states operate association of independent the monarch. Why is the
within framework of common and sovereign states (all of Queen the most prominent
values and goals, which them were former territories figure of the Commonwealth?
include the promotion of of the British empire, except Because she is the symbol of
democracy, human rights, for Mozambique and the free association of
good governors, the rule of Rwanda). It was formalised by independent member nations.
the law, individual liberties, the Statute of Westminster in
egalitarianism, free trade, 1931. They cooperate in the WHAT ARE THE TASKS OF THE
multilateralism, world peace... common interest to promote COMMONWEALTH?
world peace. So, the It provides advice on political,
The Commonwealth is not a Commonwealth is not a economic and social issues. It
political entity or a federation political entity or a federation offers technical assistance to
of countries like the EU. of countries, like the EU. the member countries
India and Pakistan became 54 countries are members of THE MAIN VALUES THAT
independent in 1947, the Commonwealth of GUIDE THE ACTIVITIES OF THE
followed by African territories Nations. They are situated in COMMONWEALTH
in the 1950s and 1960s and Africa, Asia, the Americas,
later by many islands of the Europe and the Pacific. The - Democracy
West Indies. Commonwealth is home to - Human rights
2.2 billion citizens! - The rule of law
Only a few British colonies,
dependencies and THE MEMBER COUNTRIES THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE
protectorates now remain, OF THE COMMONWEALTH COMMONWEALTH
and these, such as the
OF NATIONS
Falklands and Gibraltar, are Member States are committed
scattered widely across the to the development of FREE
One good thing of the
globe. and DEMOCRATIC societies. It
Commonwealth is that if you
must promote PEACE and
are a citizen of any of the
Ireland withdrew from the PROSPERITY to improve the
member countries, you can
Commonwealth in 1949 as the lives of all peoples of the
travel in any other without
Republic of Ireland, but the Commonwealth.
needing a visa.
right to vote in UK elections is
permitted if they are resident VALUES AND PRINCIPLES
THE QUEEN SIGNS A
in Britain. DECLARED IN THE
DOCUMENT AT THE PRESENCE
OF ALL THE REPRESENTATIVES CHARTER
The Commonwealth was
OF THECOMMONWEALTH
created in 1931 and has
COUNTRIES

- Democracy of the Commonwealth. This be physically impossible for
- Humanrights situation may very well the monarch to be in all these
- International peace change now that Britain has places and carry out their
and security left the EU and begins to seek duties in first person.
- Tolerance, respect more substantial trading
and understanding arrangements with the Thus, the Queen, with the
- Freedom of Commonwealth countries. advice of the current PM of
Expression each State, chooses her
- Separation of Powers DO NOT CONFUSE THE representative, that is called
- Rule of Law COMMONWEALTH OF Governor General.
- Good Governance NATIONS WITH THE
Sustainable COMMONWEALTH REALMS! The term length of these
Development mandates is usually 5 years by
- Protecting the WHAT IS A convention, but officially at
Environment COMMONWEALTH her majesty’s pleasure.
- Access to Health, REALM? Commonwealth
Education, Food and realms are countries that (imagine) Governor General of
Shelter belong to the Commonwealth Canada, Julie Payette (former
- Gender Equality of Nations but who astronaut, engineer,
- Importance of Young acknowledge the sovereign of politician; governor since
People in the England as their own 2017)
Commonwealth monarch.
- Recognition of the (imagine maschio) Governor
Needs of Small States Nevertheless, they do not General of Australia, David
- Recognition of the depend politic ally on England. Hurley
Needs of Vulnerable They have their own
States governments and make their The real power of the
- The Role of Civil own laws. countries is run by the PMs,
Society who are democratically
Here, too, the Queen has the elected.
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES, symbolic role of head of State They have full responsibility
ONE VISION Diverse states – and of the Anglican Church. for the administration of the
they are amongst the world’s In the Commonwealth realms country, including the
largest, smallest, richest and Elizabeth II is now the reigning relationships with other
poorest countries constitutional monarch/head countries.
of the state. There are 16
All members have an equal Commonwealth Realms The PM of Canada, Justin
say – regardless of size or (Canada, Australia, New Trudeau, has decided to
economic stature. Zealand, Jamaica...) contrast the immigration
policy promoted by the newly
The English language, in its Have you ever thought about elected President of the
many varieties, remains the Canada, Australia, New United States, Donald Trump,
common language of the Zealand or even Jamaica as claiming himself and Canada
Commonwealth and the monarchies? And in addition willing to receive all the
prestigious Commonwealth to this, governed by the same immigrants expelled from
games are held every 4 years. monarch? Technically theUS.
speaking, all these countries
British attempts to enter are monarchies. They depend However, the symbolic role of
European economic structures on the Queen in the the Queen as head and
from the 1960s (and finally in appointment of the Prime symbol of the Commonweal
1973) reduced the importance Minister, the signing of the this still very strong and very
to Britain of the organisation bills, etc. However, it would much felt by the population

and the political leaders of the The success of the early some of these local
union. popular press was due to newspapers have started to
growing literacy; a desire for be distributed in the evening,
LEZIONE 5 knowledge and information thus enriching the offer of
(as well as entertainment) on information for the British
the part of the working class; reader.
and increased political
THE MEDIA AND awareness among workers Today’s papers are owned by
INFORMATION IN caused by the rise of the a few large publishing groups,
Labour Party. such as Rupert Murdoch’s
THE UK
News UK (which has large
Quality papers (‘The Times’, media holdings in Britain,
NEWS PAPERS AND ‘The Daily Telegraph’)VS Australia and the USA) and
MAGAZINES Popular papers(‘Daily Mail’, Trinity Mirror.
‘Daily Mirror’).
The Daily Mail in particular DAILY PAPERS AND SUNDAY
The print media (newspapers was targeted at the lower PAPERS
and magazines) in the UK middle class as an alternative
began to develop in the 18th to the “quality” dailies and The first “popular” national
century. sold more than a million papers were deliberately
Richard Steel’s “The Tatler” copies a day. printed on Sundays for the
and Joseph Addison’s “The The Daily Mirror was the working class.
Spectator” started as daily largest- selling national daily Today, most of the major
publications, respectively in in the early 20th century and national newspapers has its
1709 and 1711. supported the new Labour own Sunday edition.
Party. Basing on the assumption
Throughout the country,
that the readers (or, at least,
English journalists fought to This competition between the most of them) are off work on
defend liberal principles and Sun and Mirror continues that day and have more time
the right to cover today. Nowadays, paper to spend in reading, the
parliamentary debates. From information in the UK is Sunday editions are far thicker
1772 newspapers were dominated by the national than the daily ones. They
allowed to send their press– i.e., by newspapers and include journalistic
reporters to attend magazines that are sold researches, reportages and
parliamentary sessions and nationwide. There are 10 inserts and can be more o
write about them. main daily morning papers f200 pages long!
and 8 main Sunday papers.
In 1785 the “Daily Universal
Daily papers (still in print)
Register”, which then became It is in effect a London press
“The Times” in 1788, was because many of these
founded. newspapers used to be - The Sun
The growth of literacy after located in the area around - The Daily Mail
1870 provided the owners of Fleet Street in central London. - The Daily Mirror (or,
the print media with an
The Mirror)
increased market of news, A great number of local - The Daily Telegraph
information, but also a market newspapers exist, but their (or, The Telegraph)
for profit and entertainment. distribution and sale volumes - The Times
cannot compete with national - The Guardian
Most of these newspapers newspapers.
were “quality papers”,
Sunday papers
catered for a relatively small To try to obtain the largest The Sun on Sunday The Mail
educated market, at a time of possible amount of audience, on Sunday The Sunday Mirror
mass illiteracy.

The Sunday Telegraph The Of course, the ideology set to went by, UK press information
Sunday Times The Observer the newspaper by the head has become more and more
editor (capo redattore) may commercial and less serious.
THE TERM ‘TABLOID’ coincide with that of a certain
political party and contrast Now, popular press is almost
with another, but this does all about scandals or sex
Have you have heard Italian not depend on economic affairs involving politicians or
journalists refer to a British reasons of sponsorship. celebrities.
newspaper as ‘il tabloid There is no state control or
inglese’? censorship of the British
In fact, originally the term press: the press is financially Many institutions and
tabloid designated the typical independent of political governments have tried to
reduced format of a popular parties and receives no limit the amount of garbage
newspaper, as opposed to the funding from government. information contained in
‘quality’ one, that was printed these tabloids, advocating the
in a far larger format called Today’s newspapers may be issue of invasion of privacy.
broad sheet. However, since owned and controlled by However, this has brought to
2004 more and more quality corporations that have wider nothing. Claiming the freedom
papers have started being media interests, such as films, of information, and backed by
published in tabloid format. radio, television, magazines the huge selling volumes,
The first two were The Times and digital companies. popular press does not want
and The Independent. to change a thing.
Nowadays, even if this THE POLITICAL Actually, there are several
distinction is no more ORIENTATIONS OF THE legal restraints upon media
evidence of the quality of the MAJOR UK NEWSPAPERS freedom of expression (ex.
newspaper, it is still used as a Sub Iudice rule = the media
sort of snobbery to judge the Today only a few of them, may not comment on court
cultural level of one reader or such as The Guardian and The proceedings and must restrict
the other. Morning Star, have avoided itself to reporting the court
Now only The Financial Times being controlled by facts no comments while a
and the Daily Telegraph are multinational and multimedia case is still in court).
still broadsheets. commercial consents. They The media are also liable to
Quality papers are more are all part of a bigger group. court proceedings for libel and
expensive than popular and obscenity offences.
carry up-market advertising Example of transformation of A famous research center
that generates essential the press: The Independent reported in 2018 that the UK
finance. The popular carry less began publication in 1986 and news media were the least
advertising and cater for more survived despite speculation trusted among 8 European
down- market material losses until close print nations to get the facts right
(difference in terms of operation in 2016. and cover important stories of
content and readership). the day.
NEWSPAPERS AND POLITICS Now The Independent
Differently from Italy, where continues online only and its The question of trust in the
some political parties have Sunday printed edition also mainstream media has
sponsored the publication of closed. become very important in
certain newspapers (and Britain, with some defending
almost all the newspapers still it and others criticizing its
NEWSPAPERS AND GOSSIP
depend on public actions.
sponsorship), in the UK the
press is substantially One of the most striking social
Despite their worldwide
independent from any changes between the two
renown and the value of many
political influence. World Wars was the boom in
of their journalists, as time

the sales of the daily press. commercial stations or independent of political
The serious quality channels, which are funded by pressures as many in Britain
newspapers retained their advertising revenue and and overseas assume.
traditional character while subscription.
new popular newspapers Government can indeed
appeared. THE TELEVISION intervene in the showing of
programs which are alleged to
Newspapers, which have been be controversial or against the
almost the only means of In 1926 the British public interest (surveillance
mass communication before Broadcasting Corporation role). Independent television
WWI, were supplemented in (BBC) was created (first radio, financed by advertising and
the 1920s by the development then TV). under the supervision of the
of radio broadcasting. In 1926 It has the monopoly on Independent Television
the British Broadcasting national broadcasting and Authority (ITA) was created in
Corporation (BBC) was paternalistic image. It is the 1954 (private sector).
created. public service broadcaster in
the UK (the equivalent to our BBC’s monopoly on radio
SUA SLIDE: RAI). The BBC is widely broadcasting also ended in
NEWSPAPERS AND renowned for its impartiality 1972, when independent
MAGAZINES and independency, which the radio stations were
As in most parts of the world, staff has always been very established throughout the
paper information media are proud of. country, funded by
now living a phase of severe Being a public service, advertising. Nowadays the ITV
decline. In fact, most people however, it strongly depends Network is the biggest
now prefer a faster way to get on the current government commercial television
news, and in a cheaper way, (officially by the Crown), network in the UK, dependent
like through: which nominates the board of upon advertising and
managers and has an subscription finance and the
important say in the choice of sales of the programmes.
- Television
programmes to broadcast. Digital broadcasting has
- Internet increased television channels
Its incomes derive from the and transformed some media
A newspaper had to cope first licence fee any British TV user into interactive forces that
with competition from radio must pay. However, combine the Internet and
and film and later from differently from RAI, it does personalized streaming, such
television, with this decline not contain any commercials. as Netflix.
since the 1970s in sales and
numbers. Historically, radio The BBC is independent of BBC’s radio network has been
was the first broadcasting Government and commercial overtaken not only by private
medium to appear in Britain. interests and has the duty to networks but also by music
The broadcasting media are inform, educate and streaming services, such as
divided into what has entertain. Spotify and Apple Music.
traditionally been thought of
two sectors. Since 1926 it was created by New Broadcasting House,
The “public sector” is the Royal Charter and it is London
British Broadcasting financed by a grant from
Corporation (BBC) financed by Parliament, which comes from (worldwide HQ of the BBC)
the licence fee (canone), the sale of television
payable by anyone who owns lincences. UK EDUCATION
a television set.
The “independent sector” The BBC is not a state Education is free in UK for all
consists of privately owned organization, but it is not as from 5 to 18.

94% of UK students receive UNIFORMS (called “the eleven-plus
free education from public examination”) with a selection
funds (in the so-called State Uniforms are the distinctive based on the ability of the
Schools). mark/element of each school student. Those who passed
or college, public or State. this examination went to the
Only 6% attend fee paying Its function is to give students grammar school, which was
schools (called Independent a sense of identity and pride the most prestigious of the
or Public Schools). of belonging to a given three.
Basically, schools are divided institution and community. In
into state (maintained from many cases, this identity is This system was accused of
public funds) and also internal, i.e. it regards perpetuating the class system
independent (privately classes inside the same in education as there was a
financed) sectors. school. selection based on ability. So,
Labour governments
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: This aspect is very much felt, abolished the eleven- plus
It was only in 1870 that the so that it has entered the examination and created non-
state became more actively general imagery. Think about selective comprehensive
involved in education. the Harry Potter saga and the schools (a mixture of the two
An Education Act (the Forster Houses that compose systems: something in the
Act) created local Hogwarts school. middle between grammar
schoolboards in England and schools and secondary
Wales. So, state schools SCHOOL YEAR modern schools).
supplied non-denominational The school year is divided into
training, meaning non- 3 terms: Autumn / Spring / SCHOOLS
religious training, while the Summer
existing religious voluntary (or
Church) schools served Holidays: Over 87% of secondary pupils
denominational needs. Summer: 6 weeks Christmas: in England attend
More recently, in 1944, an 2 weeks Spring: 2 weeks comprehensive schools or
Education Act decreed that End of October: 1 week Mid- new alternatives such as ‘free
state schooling became free February: 1 week End of May: schools’ and academies.
and compulsory up to the age 1 week Free schools have now
of 15 and was divided into become self- governing
three stages: The education in the UK independent trusts.
follows two steps: The so-called public schools
primary education (5-11years) (private, not state), such as
- primary schools: 5-11
secondary school (until 16, 17 Eton, Harrow, The King’s
years → universal and School, Canterbury and
or 18 years)
free Winchester, are the more
- secondary schools: Following the 1944 Act, most famous of the independent
11-15 → universal and state secondary schools in E, schools. Today, such schools
free W and NI were effectively are often boarding
divided into grammar schools, establishments.
- post-15 education secondary modern schools
and technical schools. Independent schools in the UK
There is no common cover only a small percentage
educational organization for The placement of pupils in this of all UK children and many of
the UK. England, Wales, secondary system depended them were originally created
Northern Ireland and Scotland upon an examination result, often by monarchs to provide
have some what different because secondary school is education for the sons of the
school systems. considered very important. rich and aristocratic.
So, there was an examination While education is

compulsory until 18, schooling HOW DO YOU GET TO awarded a grant (borsa di
is only obligatory until 16. UNIVERSITY? Entry is based studio) from their local
on competition education authorities. Higher
At 16 you get the GCSE, A-level examination results education was free for many
General Certificate Of must be very good students, except those whose
Secondary Education, which is parents were expected to
based on a state curriculum UNIVERSITY IN THE UK contribute means- tested
(you can choose one or more The majority of UK amounts (according to their
of these subjects). Universities is financed by the income) to their children.
State
Subjects: English, Maths, However, costs are very high: In 1998, a Labour Government
Science, History, Geography, students can borrow money replaced the student grant
Foreign Languages, Design to cover them with tuition fees and
and Technology, Art and maintenance loans during
Design, Music, Physical NATIONAL DIFFERENCES their study period.
Education, Citizenship and ICT. In England, the Department
for Education initiates overall Students started to pay back
This is the system of the policy, with Scotland, Wales their tuition fees and loans
national examination at the and Northern Ireland having after graduation when they
secondary level with devolved responsibility for were employed. Scottish
independent examination their educational systems. students living in Scotland
boards. It can be taken in any Scotland has its own ancient received free tuition from the
subjects according to educational system with Scottish government.
individual choice. Post-16 schools, colleges and
education can take a number universities which are among 4 TYPES OF UNIVERSITIES
of forms and may be the oldest in Europe. The universities can be
academic or vocational. There In Northern Ireland the state broadly classified into 4 types:
are 3 options: Employed, self- schools are mostly divided on Ancient universities (ex.
employed or volunteering for religious grounds into Catholic Oxford and Cambridge):
20 hours or more a week. and Protestant and are often composed of their many
single-sex. colleges which date from the
Apprenticeship, traineeships, Wales tends to follow the 13th century. Until the 19th
part- time education, training state school and examination century they were virtually
or technical college (which is system in England. the only English universities
free and allows you to get a and offered no places to
more specialised job). The academic organisation of women (Virginia Woolf
Continue schooling: the next most English schools has been complains about this topic).
level is known as “Sixth form traditionally largely left to “Redbrick” or civic universities
of college” (leads, after 2 headteachers (presidi) and (Leeds, Liverpool and
years of study, to A- level staff. Manchester) created between
qualifications in 3/4 subjects; 1850 and 1930.
then you can decide whether School results (schools have to Universities founded after the
to go to university or not.) demonstrate they are good) Second World War and in the
are shown in league tables, 1960s (East Anglia, Sussex,
Students have several options which allow parents, schools York).
for their future: and public bodies to assess The “new universities”
school performances. created in 1992 when
Notice that university is polytechnics and some other
divided into Undergraduate After the 1944 Education Act, colleges were granted
Degrees and Postgraduate English students who gained a university status.
Degrees(further levels of place at an institution of Universities are independent
study or research). higher education were institutions created by Royal

Charter. They enjoy academic borders. It was argued that if THE PROCESS OF BREXIT For
freedom, appoint their own the UK separates itself from the UK to leave the EU it had
staff and are dependent upon the EU, the fees due to the EU to invoke Article 50 of the
income from student fees and can be used to benefit the UK. Lisbon Treaty, which gives the
government money. British two sides two years to agree
universities are leading the the terms of the split.
top 1000 universities in the CONS: The Prime Minister Theresa
world with the University of The Liberal and Conservative May started this process on
Oxford (first place), the Parties along with the Prime 29 March 2017, meaning the
University of Cambridge (2), Minister were strongly in UK was supposed to leave at
Imperial College London (8), favor of remaining with the 11.00 pm UK time on Friday,
University College London (16) EU. 29 March 2019.
and London School of After the results of the However, following a House of
Economics and Political referendum, the Prime Commons vote on 14 March
Science (25). Minister resigned and was 2019, the Government sought
replaced by another and was granted permission
Conservative, Theresa May. from the EU to extend Article
NEUTRAL: 50 and agree a later Brexit
The Labour Party had an date.
BREXIT ambiguous stance on Brexit. At a meeting of the European
Their leader, Jeremy Corbyn, Council on 10 April 2019, the
WHAT IS BREXIT? was heavily criticized during UK and EU27 (27 countries of
Brexit is the term used to and after the 2016 the European Union) agreed
refer to the United Kingdom’s referendum for his lukewarm to extend Article 50 until 31
decision to leave the support for the Remain October 2019.
European Union (EU) and is a campaign.
shortened version of British MAY’S ATTEMPT OF DEAL
Exit. THE REFERENDUM After months of negotiation,
On June23of 2016, the UK A public vote (known as a the UK and EU agreed a Brexit
decided to officially sever ties referendum) was held on deal. It came in two parts:
with the EU. This monumental 23June 2016, when 17.4 A 585-page withdrawal
decision came as the result of million people opted for agreement. This is a legally-
a referendum— or public vote Brexit. This gave the Leave binding text that sets the
of nearly all citizens of voting side 52%, compared with 48% terms of the UK's divorce from
age—in which more than 30 for Remain. More than 30 the EU. It covers how much
million people voted. million people voted. England money the UK owes the EU –
voted for Brexit, by 53.4% an estimated £39bn (billion
IN FAVOUR AND AGAINST against 46.6%. Wales also pounds) - and what happens
BREXIT PROS: voted for Brexit, with Leave to UK citizens living elsewhere
The UKIP pushed for leaving getting 52.5% of the vote and in the EU and EU citizens living
the EU and was not supported Remain 47.5%. Scotland and in the UK. It also proposes a
by the Prime Minister, David Northern Ireland both voted method of avoiding the return
Cameron, who conceded the to stay in the EU. Scotland of a physical Northern Ireland
referendum. Members of the voted Remain by 62% to 38%, border, which is much
UKIP argued that Britain’s while 55.8% in Northern discussed these days.
participation in the EU was a Ireland voted Remain and A 26-page statement on
restrictive element for the 44.2% Leave. future relations.
country. The party’s main This is not legally-binding and
arguments centered around The UK stopped being a sketches out the kind of long-
regaining border control and member of the European term relationship the UK and
reclaiming business rights Union (EU) after 23:00 GMT EU want to have in a range of
against the EU policy of open on 31st January 2020.

areas, including trade, extensive protocol on Information. These
defense and security. Northern Ireland. Agreements are designed to
UK and EU citizens will honour the instruction of the
MAY’S FAILURE continue to be able to live and British people – expressed in
On 19 October 2019, the work in the EU and UK the referendum of 2016 and
Prime Minister’s new Brexit respectively – unless they the general election last year
deal was lost on amendment leave for over five years. – to take back control of UK
in the Commons. In In the UK, EU citizens will laws, borders, money, trade
accordance with the European need to apply for ‘settled and fisheries. It changes the
Union status’ to ensure they can basis of British relationship
access these rights. with Europe from EU law to
(Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019 The UK government will need free trade and friendly
– commonly known as the to establish a new body to cooperation
‘Benn Act’ – the Prime oversee the application of the
Minister wrote to European agreement and ensure EU EUROPEAN UNION
Council president Donald citizens’ rights in the UK (FUTURE RELATIONSHIP)
Tusk, to request an extension continue to be protected. BILL 2020
to the Brexit process. The European Union (Future
WHAT HAPPENS NOW? Relationship) Bill, endorsing
On 28 October 2019, EU After the UK has formally left the Trade and Cooperation
Ambassadors agreed a further the EU on 31 January 2020, Agreement, was introduced in
Brexit extension to 31January the transition period (or the House of Commons on 30
2020. The Prime Minister implementation period) began December 2020.
confirmed the UK’s immediately after Brexit day
agreement to this. and ended on 31 December The Bill was taken through all
2020. During this 11-month stages – passed by a margin of
On 12 December 2019, Boris period, the UK continued to 521 votes to 73 – and was
Johnson won a majority in the follow all of the EU's rules and sent to the House of Lords
UK General Election and its trading relationship
reaffirmed his commitment to remained the same. where it was passed by 466
‘get Brexit done’ (his mantra) votes to 101 and given Royal
by 31January 2020. BREXIT Assent just before midnight.
The President of the European
On 23 January 2020, the At 11 p.m. on 31December Council, Charles Michel, and
European Union (Withdrawal 2020 (London time; midnight the President of the European
Agreement) Act received in Brussels) the Transition Commission, Ursula von der
Royal Assent. This is the Period ended and the United Leyen, signed the Trade and
legislation that has Kingdom finally left the Cooperation Agreement in
implemented the withdrawal European Union after almost Brussels on 30 December
agreement negotiated by the 48 years of membership. 2020.
UK and the EU.
THE TRADE AND
THE NEW BREXIT DEAL COOPERATION
The UK and the EU agreed a AGREEMENT
draft agreement on the UK's The United Kingdom and the
withdrawal from the EU on 17 European Union have agreed
October 2019. It was then a Trade and Cooperation
ratified and entered in to Agreement, an Agreement on
force on 31 January 2020. Nuclear Cooperation and an
There are no significant Agreement on Security
differences from Theresa Procedures for Exchanging
May’s deal. There is also an and Protecting Classified

LEZIONE 6 subject to three levels of the House of Representatives.
THE UNITED STATES government: federal, state A trial in the Senate followed,
and local, as claimed in the but Clinton was eventually
OF AMERICA Tenth Amendment. acquitted on both counts, as
neither received the
The United States of America Being a nation of immigrants, necessary two- thirds majority
is a constitutional Federal stable political institutions vote of the Senators present
Republic composed of 50 have been particularly for conviction and removal
States. important. from office. In the end he
It is a government without We have a federal remained in the office.
classes of people privileged by government elected through
birth (there’s no aristocracy or the Constitution of 1787 (a
royal family) or privileged by central government which, at 2. Executive
occupational class (no clergy the beginning, was weaker
or national religion). because the states defended
their own sovereignty). The President is the
The governing power is commander-in- chief of the
shared between the national The federal government is army, can put the veto on
government and the states, composed of three branches, legislative bills before they
plus the rights reserved to in line with a colonial become law and appoints the
people. (government tradition: members of the Cabinet
sovereignty and popular (subject to Senate approval)
sovereignty). All the States are and other officers(like federal
contiguous, except Alas ka, judges), who administer and
which adjoins Canada and is 1. Legislative enforce federal laws and
placed in the extreme North- policies.
West of the American The bicameral Congress, made The president can also pardon
continent, and Hawaii, placed up of the Senate and the people accused of federal
in the Pacific Ocean. House of Representatives. crimes.
It makes federal laws, declares
The federal capital is war, approves treaties, has
Washington, D.C. the power to raise taxes and 3. Judicial
the power of impeachment,
The United States is the by which it can remove sitting
world’s oldest surviving members of the government The Supreme Court and lower
federation. (ex. President Clinton in federal courts. Their judges
It is a constitutional republic 1998). are appointed by the
and representative President for life terms with
democracy: in fact, it is the No person can occupy more Senate approval, interpret
oldest functioning democracy than one branch at the same laws and reject or change
with the world’s oldest time. There are elections at those they find
written Constitution and different times, in different unconstitutional.
political party (the Democratic areas and there are different
Party). terms of office. The Congress THE CONGRESS
may be controlled by one The House of Representatives
The government is regulated major party, different from has 435 voting members, each
by a system of checks and that of the President. representing a congressional
balances defined by the U.S. district for a two-year term.
Constitution. The impeachment is a device House seats are proportioned
In the American federalist created to prevent the among the States by
system, citizens are usually concentration of powers. population every ten years.
CLINTON: was impeached by According to the last census

held in 2010, seven States and members owe their seats with a minimum regulation of
have the minimum of one to political parties. business and law taxes.
representative, while
California, the most populous Here, instead, Congress does On the other hand, the
State, has53 (it all depends on not choose the chief Democrats support a
the population). executive: so, there is no fear government management of
Apportionment is the process that the government falls. the economy and unions; they
of dividing the 435 Every member of Congress also support public health
memberships of seats in the can give first allegiance to care, civil rights and gun
House of Representatives their State or district, rather control.
among the50 States. There is than to the party.
a census conducted every ten In the current United States
years: at the conclusion of US PARTIES Congress, the House of
each census, the results are The United States has Representatives and the
used to calculate the number operated under a two-party Senate are controlled by
of House memberships to system for most of its history. different parties. The Senate
which each state is entitled. For elective offices at most currently consists of 50
The last census has been on 1 levels (from members of Republicans and 48
April 2020. Congress to the President), Democrats with 2
The Senate has 100 members primary elections choose the Independents who caucus
with each State having two major party nominees who with(support) the Democrats.
senators, elected to a six-year will be voted in the general The House consists of 211
term and represent all States. elections. Republicans, 219 Democrats
They amend bills and approve Since the general election of and 5 Vacant. The President
treaties and presidential 1856, the major parties have of the Senate is Kamala
appointments. been the Democratic Party, Harris(D); the Speaker of the
The Congress is no longer the founded in 1824, and the House is Nancy Pelosi(D).
dominant branch of the Republican Party, founded
federal government, as the in1854. THE PRESIDENT The election
founders intended. In the American political of the President and Vice
Its main culture, the centre-right President of the United States
functions/responsibilities are: Republican Party is considered is an indirect election in which
law-making, making the “conservative” and the U.S. citizens vote for members
federal budget, regulating centre-left Democratic Party is of the Electoral College,
foreign and interstate considered “liberal”. known as electors (they do
commerce, regulating military not vote for the President
forces, declaring war, creating Traditionally, the States of the himself!).These electors, in
all the Federal courts below Northeast and West Coast and turn, vote for the President
the Supreme Court and some of the Great Lakes and the Vice President.
financial bills begin here, too. States, known as “Blue
The Speaker is chosen by the States”, are relatively liberal. The current President, Joe
majority party and the vice The “Red States” of the South Biden, is the 46th in the history
president is also presiding and parts of the Great Plains of the United States. Joseph
over the Senate and President and Rocky Mountains (like Robinette Biden, Jr.,
pro tempore in his absence. many rural areas) are represented Delaware for 36
relatively conservative. years in the U.S. Senate
The US does not have a before becoming the 47th Vice
parliamentary form of The economic position of the President of the United States
government because, in a parties is important: the under the Presidency of
Parliamentary government, Republicans are in favour of a Barack Obama.
the First Minister is the leader small federal government
of the majority (as in the UK)

At age 29, President Biden to persuade in a system of Former Vice President Joe
became one of the youngest checks and balances. Biden became the
people ever elected to the presumptive Democratic
United States Senate. There has been a propension nominee when Senator Bernie
of executive powers with Sanders (a radical leftist)
THE VICE PRESIDENT The George W. Bush after the suspended his campaign.
current Vice President, terrorist attacks of 9/11.
Kamala Harris, was born in Several events related to the
Oakland, California to parents The veto of the President is 2020 election were altered or
who emigrated from India and limited: Congress may postponed due to the
Jamaica. She graduated from override it with two- thirds coronavirus pandemic.
Howard University and the majorities (this is part of the
University of California, checks and balances system; THE JUDICIAL BRANCH
Hastings College of Law. She is ex. he has the military power, The only court specifically
the first woman, the first but Congress has the power to mentioned in the Constitution
Black American and the first declare war). is the US Supreme Court.
South Asian American to be Congress established lesser
elected Vice President, as was 2020 USA federal courts in a three-tier
the case with other offices she PRESIDENTIALELECTIONS system. Among these, the
has held. She said she is district courts have original
determined not to be the last. The 2020 United States
presidential election was jurisdiction in most federal
The executive branch has 15 scheduled for November 3, cases. Only about one-sixth of
departments, 90 independent 2020. It was the the decisions of these courts
agencies, 4 branches of the 59thquadrennialpresidential are appealed to the next tier,
military. The President only election. Voters selected which is the US courts of
nominates the highest officials presidential electors, who in appeals. Most of US Supreme
(secretaries, chief turn voted (in this case on Court’s work consists of
administrators of agencies, December 14, 2020) to either hearing cases from US courts
ranking officers of embassies. elect a new president and vice of appeal or state courts. In
All these appointments made president or reelect the addition, it has original
by the President have to be incumbents Donald Trump jurisdiction in cases that
approved by the Senate. Some and Mike Pence, respectively. involve a state or officials of
requirements: the President the federal government.
has to be a natural born The series of presidential
citizen of the United States, at primary elections and The Constitution creates a
least 35 years old, a resident caucuses were being held separate judicial branch with a
of the US for 14 years and from February to June 2020. Supreme Court that has an
independent of the legislature Trump became the unspecified number of justices
because elected separately presumptive Republican with terms of office
from Congress. He has no vote nominee after securing a dependent only on their
of no confidence, as in other majority of pledged delegates, “good behavior”.
countries like the UK or Italy who confirmed that they
(totally independent). could vote for Trump. In recent history, the court
has had nine justices,
The President is the only 29 major candidates launched including a chief justice. In
official elected by voters in all campaigns for the Democratic practice, terms of office have
the states, not directly but still nomination, which became been for life or until voluntary
elected by voters. He is chief the largest field of candidates retirement. Because Congress
of state and party leader. His for any political party. has never impeached a
power is not to command but justice, life terms have given

justices an impressive degree cases, determines whether but in the world, the USA
of independence. someone has broken the law, bought the major insurer so
and evaluates laws to make they bought the companies’
GOVERNMENT IN THE certain that they are insurance to save it from
UNITED STATES CONSISTS legitimate). bankruptcies and banks. So
OF THREE SEPARATE there was a big intervention in
LEVELS: In the 1880s, the public the economy to save
health’s safety and order were themselves from the crisis and
solely and exclusively the to save universal healthcare.
1. The federal or concern of the State; there Talking about local
national government was a kind of dual federalism government, there are special
(CHAPTER 6) with separate fields so, some districts, like Washington D.C,
issues pertaining to the State also counties, towns, cities,
2. The state and the Federal government. borrows and school districts,
governments (50
Then with Roosevelt there with no sovereignty so no
states, several
was a transformation in 1939, power in its own right, but
territories and the
with a national regulation of each county has developed its
District of Columbia –
the economy and the so called own system of local authority.
CHAPTER 7)
social security “safety net” Counties are the main units of
3. Local governments (the equivalent of the welfare government in rural areas, as
(each state is divided state in the UK) with a the states delegates some
into counties and cooperative federalism, so the work to them; in urban areas
municipalities, each of federal involvement in there are municipal
which has its own education, the highway governments like cities, towns
government). system (autostrade), and a etc.., so sometimes there’s
war on poverty so a shared confusion of terms because of
Article 4 of the Constitution responsibility of federal all these minor levels of
devoted to the states: there is government and state government, but basically the
a limited sovereignty of the governments; then in the distinction is between the
states. 1970s there was a counter rural areas and urban areas.
reaction, where the states The mayor is the
The Constitution, the complained of over regulation
fundamental legal authority from the federal government, Chief Executive and there’s
for government in the United and Conservatives called for a also a city council.
States, gives the federal return to dual federalism.
government the power to THE FLAG OF THE UNITED
undertake certain tasks -and In the 1980s, with Devolution STATES
assigns all other powers to the and Deregulation the solution It consists of 13 equal
state governments. State of many national problems is horizontal stripes of red (top
governments each establish left to the states, so it and bottom) alternating with
the local governments within emerged more inequality white, with a blue rectangle
their territory and delegate among the states. More on the top left (the so-called
certain powers to them. recently there’s been a rebirth “Union”) bearing 50 small,
of big federal government, white, five- pointed stars.
Each level of government is when President George W. What do the stars and the
divided into three branches: Bush intruded into areas stripes represent?
the legislative branch (which traditionally belonging to The 50 stars represent the 50
makes the laws), the states, like education and States of the US and the 13
executive branch (which military, or the two wars in stripes represent the 13
carries out the laws), and the Afghanistan and Iraq, for British colonies, which
judicial branch (which applies homeland security. And in declared independence from
the laws to specific court 2008 with a big economic
crisis, not only in the States

Britain and became the first of Fort McHenry, two applying to become
states in the US. Baltimore newspapers printed naturalized, and finally taking
it and it spread quickly to the Oath of Allegiance to the
The current flag has been various cities along the East United States. Children of
establishedin1960. Coast. By November 1812 naturalized U.S. citizens
Since 1818, a star for each Key’s composition had generally become citizens
new State has been added to appeared in print for the first automatically. There is a time
the flag on July 4thfollowing time under the name The constraint before a
each State’s admission. There Star-Spangled Banner. permanent resident can apply
were cases of multiple Ironically the melody Key for naturalization, generally 5
additions in one year. The assigned to accompany the years. The other requirements
most obvious example of this lyrics of the Star- Spangled are that there be a minimum
is 1890, with the addition of Banner was a popular English length of time in a specific
North Dakota, South Dakota, drinking song called “To state or district, successful
Montana, and Washington Anacreon in Heaven”. Though completion of a citizenship
and Idaho in November1889. his celebrated anthem exam, ability to read, write
proclaimed the US the “land and speak English, and good
First flag of the United of the free”, the key was in moral character.
StatesFifteen stars, thirteen fact a slave holder from an old
stripes. Maryland plantation family
and as a US attorney argued, I hereby declare, on oath, that
THE UNITED STATES several prominent cases I absolutely and entirely
NATIONAL ANTHEM against the abolitionist renounce and abjure all
Its title is The Star-spangled movement. During and allegiance and fidelity to any
Banner. It was composed in immediately after the Civil foreign prince, potentate,
1814 and recognised as War, Key’s song gained a state, or sovereignty, of whom
national anthem in 1916 by deeper meaning as the or which I have here to fore
President Woodrow Wilson. American flag became an been a subject or citizen;
Its title is The Star-spangled increasingly powerful symbol that I will support and defend
Banner. Composed in 1814, of National Unity. It was the Constitution and the laws
the morning of September recognized as national of the United States of
14th of 1814 when an anthem in 1916 by President America against all enemies,
amateur poet named Francis Woodrow Wilson. foreign and domestic;
Scott Key crossed US borders. that I will bear true faith and
So this poet saw that US Another symbol of the US is allegiance to the same; that I
soldiers raise a large American the motto inscribed on US will bear arms on behalf of the
flag for McHenry in Baltimore, dollars: «In God is our trust». United States when required
in Maryland. On September (on the dollar note) by the law;
13th the US soldiers at that I will perform
Baltimore’s McHenry HOW TO LIVE IN THE U.S.? noncombatant service in the
withstood 25 hours of British If you are a student, you can Armed Forces of the United
bombardments (the war of apply for a J-1 visa (a States when required by the
1812 against the British). The student’s visa) after you found law; that I will perform work
next morning, the US soldiers a University that sponsors of national importance under
hoisted a gigantic US flag over you. If you want to work and civilian direction when
the fort, the fort of McHenry live there, you must apply for required by the law; and that I
making a crucial victory and a a green card. take this obligation freely,
turning point to what it can be without any mental
considered the second war of The process to become a reservation or purpose of
the American independence. citizen involves several steps, evasion; so help me God.
After a local printer issued the including applying to become
song, originally called Defence a permanent resident,

(early settlers of America) However, with the Navigation
after their first harvest in the Acts (1651), we see a great
New World in October 1621 restriction of colonial trade.
(to thank God for their first
good harvest = raccolto). The Navigation Acts were a
series of laws passed by the
They celebrated with the local British Parliament that
Indians, who had helped them imposed restrictions on
LEZIONE 7 survive and colonial trade. After the
British Civil War in 1651, the
taught them to plant their British Parliament, in the first
HISTORY OF THE crops.That first feast lasted 3 of what became known as the
USA (1) days and included a wide Navigation Acts, declared
variety of animals, as well as that:
The Independence and the fruits and vegetables from the
Constitution autumn harvest. Only English ships would be
allowed to bring goods into
THE AMERICAN Americans did not all England and the North
REVOLUTION (1775- 1783) celebrate Thanksgiving at the American colonies could only
1700s (seventeen hundreds) same time until 1853, when export their commodities,
as an age of revolutions President Abraham Lincoln such as tobacco and sugar, to
(Agrarian, Industrial, French...) declared the last Thursday in England.
November the day of
1775-1783 Thanksgiving. Nowadays, This effectively prevented the
The American Revolution is Thanksgiving takes place on colonies from trading with
considered a model for the the fourth Thursday in other European countries.
French Revolution. November. Most schools and
French Revolution: 1789-1799 most businesses close and Britain was gaining more and
(14 years after). families and friends join more power in North America.
together to eat roast turkey A couple of events related to
THE MAYFLOWER AND THE with cranberry sauce, the this:
potatoes, pumpkin pie and The French and Indian war,
PILGRIMS North America was
apple pie. which is basically the Seven
colonized by Britain from the
Years War (it had different
early 17thcentury. On
The concepts of freedom of settings, the French and
September 6th, 1620 a group
religion expression and Indian war is the American
of English religious dissenters,
congregationalism, as well as setting),that ended in 1763
the Pilgrim Fathers, left
salvation, and the related with the British victory.
Plymouth to find a safe place
Calvinist movement took hold French Canada was
where they could live and
in the New World after the definitively conquered.
profess their religion.
arrival of the Pilgrim Fathers.
To cover the huge expenses of
On November 9th they landed
BRITISH COLONIZATION OF war, Britain imposed heavy
in America. Their first
AMERICA Colonization defense taxes.
settlement constituted the
origin of the colony of New determined many waves of
England. emigration, which involved BRITISH RELATIONSHIP
every social and religious WITH THE COLONIES
After much trouble and many categories. From the beginning of
losses, they succeeded in colonization, the British
establishing a living colony. The British established a established a flourishing
The “First Thanksgiving” was flourishing commercial commercial network with the
celebrated by the Pilgrims network with the colonies. colonies.

In 1606, King James I, after Britain was gaining more and acts that infuriated the
Queen Elizabeth, had given more power in North America. colonies.
permission to the Plymouth The Seven Years war ended in
Company and the London 1763 and shortly after French THE STAMP ACT AND THE
Company to establish Canada was definitively TEA ACT
permanent settlements in conquered. In order to get money, the
North America. The first king raised some taxes that
permanently settled English To cover the huge expenses of the colonists found
colony on the continent was war, Britain imposed heavy ignominious:
the Colony and Dominion of taxes. Stamp Act (1765): it required
Virginia, established in 1607. colonists to purchase special
Nevertheless, the American stamped paper (=carta da
THE THIRTEEN COLONIES colonies did not intend to bollo) for newspapers,
that have been settled up to accept these impositions diplomas and legal
this point and can be divided passively. documents, even taxing dice
into 3 groups: Their motto became: NO and playing cards (=dadi e
TAXATION WITHOUT carte da gioco). The Stamp
REPRESENTATION. Act’s aim was to increase
1. New England colonies: taxes. There was a
Province of New Hampshire, It is true that the taxes paid by coordinated resistance, but
established in the 1620s the American colonies were ignoring warning signals, the
Province of Massachusetts lower than the taxes paid by British Parliament passed the
Bay (1620s) the British citizens, but it is Tea Act in 1773.
Colony of Rhode Island and also true that the American
Providence Plantations (1636) colonies did not have Tea Act (1773): it helped the
Connecticut Colony (1636) representation in the British struggling East India Company
Parliament. dispose of its surplus tea,
2. Middle colonies: while lowering but not
Province of New York (1686): So, there was a big difference, removing the import duty.
it used to be a Dutch colony because they could not This Act gave the East India
Province of New Jersey (1664) express their needs and they Company monopolistic
Province of did not have any power to authority to sell its tea in
Pennsylvania(1681):it was a contribute to the public
Quakercolony debate in Parliament. America through special
Delaware (1664) agents, undercutting local
KING GEORGE III merchants.
He was the reigning king
3. Southern colonies: during this period (he had a THE BOSTON TEA PARTY
Province of Maryland (1632) major role in this period). SUA SLIDE:
Colony and Dominion of He tried to gain as much as 16thDecember 1773
Virginia(1607) possible from the colonies to The demonstrators, disguised
Province of Carolina(1663), cover the expenses of the as Native Americans, in
then divided into the Province wars conducted in America. defiance of the Tea Act,
of North Carolina andthe He considered the colonies as destroyed an entire shipment
Province of South Carolina in a real property of the British of tea sent by the East India
1712 crown. Company in the harbour of
Province of Georgia (1732) In the words of the Victorian Boston.
author George Trevelyan, the
BRITISH RULE OVER THE King was determined “never Boston became the flashpoint
COLONIES to acknowledge the of opposition: on the night of
independence of the 16th December 1773, after a
Americans”. Those were the tumultuous town meeting, 50

men disguised as Indians The Declaration of JEFFERSON SUBMITS THE
(Native Americans) boarded a Independence was signed on DECLARATION TO THE
British ship and dumped 4thJuly 1776. CONTINENTAL CONGRESS,
342chests of tea into the JUNE 1776
harbour. “these United Colonies are,
and of right ought to be Free IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776
The Boston Tea Party, as this and Independent States.” The unanimous Declaration of
demonstration/act was called, the thirteen united States of
outraged British authorities The political leader was the America
(BTP Act). The Parliament principal author of the
passed a series of coercive Declaration. When in the Course of human
acts (called the Intolerable This Declaration listed the events it becomes necessary
Acts) in America, closing abuses and exhortations by for one people to dissolve the
Boston harbour and which King George III had political bands which have
subjecting the colony to direct tried to impose an absolute connected them with another
royal rule. tyranny, denying the colonists and to assume among the
natural rights to life, liberty powers of the earth, the
In September 1774, delegates and property. That was the separate and equal station to
from all 13 colonies, except first formulation that every which the Laws of Nature and
Georgia, gathered in man and woman had a natural of Nature's God entitle them,
Philadelphia. right to life, liberty and a decent respect to the
property. Then, the revision opinions of mankind requires
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR process of the Congress that they should declare the
(1775- 1783) changed the word “property” causes which impel them to
to a more resonant “pursuit of the separation.*
GEORGE WASHINGTON happiness”.
One of the Founding Fathers. We hold these truths to be
On July 4th, the Congress self- evident, that all men are
Commander-in-chief of the adopted the Declaration of created equal, that they are
Continental Army (he had Independence, now enshrined endowed by their Creator
fought with the British against at the national archives. with certain unalienable
the French during the Seven rights, that among these are
Years war). THE FIRST SIGNER OF THE life, liberty, and the pursuit of
DECLARATION happiness. That, to secure
Presided over the Continental John Hancock was the first these rights, governments are
Congress for the drafting of signer of the Declaration. instituted among men,
the Constitution. deriving their just powers
The First Continental Famous is what he said just from the consent of the
Congress: a boycott of British before signing the parchment: governed.**
imports and authorized ‘I will sign it large so that
military preparation but, up to George III might read it *If they had decided to
this point, the delegates of without his spectacles’. separate from Britain, it was
the 13 colonies that reunite in for a very good cause and
the Continental Congress, Nowadays, in the US ‘John they want to declare what
professed loyalty to George III Hancock’ is synonym of that cause is.
and were keen to resist ‘signature’. **Important here the mention
Parliament’s oppressive to the Creator and to these
measures. THE REPRESENTATIVES OF unalienable rights (life, liberty,
THE COLONIES (SOON STATES) happiness).
THE DECLARATION OF THAT SIGNED THE
DECLARATION We have to add that, not only
INDEPENDENCE
here Jefferson and the
JULY 4, 1776

congressmen were colonial America». but also the cause newspaper to publish it was
pamphleteers in general, they of America is in great measure Pennsylvania Evening.
drew on English political the cause of all mankind and
writers of the time, especially we have it in our own power A German translation of the
John Locke (philosopher and to begin the world over. Declaration was published in
writer), who, in a book called Strong declaration from a Philadelphia by July 9th
Two treatises on civil British immigrant. because there was a large
government argued that all group of German-speaking
persons possessed a natural THE FEELINGS OF THE citizens in Philadelphia.
right to life, liberty and AMERICANS FOR KING
property and that GEORGE... TREATY OF ALLIANCE WITH
governments exist to protect As we can see from this FRANCE – JUNE 1778
these rights. The consent of painting, the feeling of the In the same years, in June
the governed represents the Americans for King George 1778, the treaty of alliance
sole basis of political was not so sympathetic, they with France formalized French
legitimacy. were not happy with King financial and military support
George and they started to the revolution. The Franco-
This document was taken as a pulling down the statue of American alliance was an
model by the French George III and any other agreement by France to
revolutionaries: they agreed effigies/images of the King. furnish critically needed
that people had the power to military aid and loans to the
decide who they wanted as a 🡪This is a painting set in New 13 insurgent American
leader, king, queen or York city, where on 9thJuly colonies.
president. 1776, after Colonial assembly
of New York gave its assent to TREATY OF PARIS–MARCH
THOMAS PAINE AND the Declaration of 1783
COMMON SENSE Independence, the The Treaty of Paris formally
The revolutionary leader inhabitants of the city pulled ended the American
Thomas Paine wrote a down an equestrian statue of Revolutionary war.
pamphlet, called Common King George III erected in The British Crown formally
Sense, where he advocates 1770 and the Royal Arms were recognized American
the independence of the 13 taken down all over the town independence and ceded
colonies from Great Britain. and usually treated with most of its territories, east
contempt. The King’s name (side) of the Mississippi river.
Written in clear and was removed from Boundaries were determined,
persuasive prose, Paine used government and legal allowing for American
moral and political arguments documents and royal portraits expansion to the West.
to encourage common people were reversed or destroyed.
in the Colonies to fight for CONSTITUTION OF THE
independence. THOMAS JEFFERSON USA (1787)
POINTS AT THE In 1787 the Constitution of
It was published anonymously DECLARATION the USA was signed.
on January 10th, 1776, at the The Constitution established
beginning of the American He said that the Declaration America’s national
Revolution, and became an was an expression of the government and fundamental
immediate sensation. American mind. laws and guaranteed certain
It was being read and basic rights for its citizens. It
This pamphlet was the most reprinted in newspapers was signed on September
influential writing in support throughout the 13 states. The 17th, 1787 by delegates to the
of the Revolution. first public readings of the constitutional convention in
«Europe, and not England, is document were made in Philadelphia.
the parent country of Philadelphia. The first

It begins with big characters Article VI: Protestantism with
“we the people”. ‘This Constitution, and the Henry VIII)
laws of the United States - Freedom of speech
THE STRUCTURE OF THE which shall be made in - Freedom of press
CONSTITUTION pursuance thereof; and all
treaties made, or which shall
be made, under the authority THE SECOND AMENDMENT
- Preamble of the United States, shall be ‘A well-regulated militia being
- 7 Articles the supreme law of the land; necessary to the security of a
- 26 Amendments and the judges in every state free state, the right of the
shall be bound thereby.’ people to keep and bear arms
It is here that we have that The Constitution has supreme shall not be infringed’. It is
establishment of a stronger law of the land, it is the main about the controversial
federal government with reference document. question of bearing arms. It
three branches (legislative, says that a regulated militia is
executive and judicial), along THE BILL OF RIGHTS necessary to the security of a
with the system of checks and It contains the first ten free state, but it is a
balances to ensure no single Amendments, that were controversial amendment
branch would have too much presented together in 1789. because it is not clearly stated
power. They were ratified as whether that militia is only a
additions to the Constitution national army or it includes
PREAMBLE on December 15th, 1791 and the possession of arms, of
‘We the people of the United became Amendments One guns especially, by individual
States, in order to form a through Ten of the citizens.
more perfect Union, establish Constitution.
justice, ensure domestic THE SIXTH AMENDMENT
tranquility, provide for the THE FIRST AMENDMENT ‘In all criminal prosecutions,
common defense, promote ‘Congress shall make no law the accused shall enjoy the
the general welfare, and respecting an establishment right to a speedy and public
secure the blessings of liberty of religion or prohibiting the trial, by an impartial jury of
to ourselves and to our free exercise thereof; or the State and district wherein
posterity, do ordain and abridging the freedom of the crime shall have been
establish the Constitution for speech, or of the press; or the committed, which district shall
the United States of America.’ right of the people peaceably have been previously
There is the idea of the Union to assemble, and to petition ascertained by law, and to be
instead of 13 separate the Government for a redress informed of the nature and
colonies, but also a need for of grievances.’ cause of the accusation; to be
justice and tranquility, It includes fundamental confronted with the witnesses
common defense, welfare and freedoms: of religion; of against him; to have
again we find the word speech/expression, important compulsory process for
“liberty”, not only to for the press; of assemble, to obtaining witnesses in his
themselves but also to their form political parties; to favor, and to have the
sons and daughters petition the government. Assistance of Counsel for his
(posterity). defence.’
That is why, for all these THE FIRST AMENDMENT: This amendment states the
reasons, they established THE POINTS necessity to guarantee a just
Constitution. legal process, a just trial in
- Free exercise of court and all the
THE CONSTITUTION IS THE religion (no State characteristics of these trials.
MAIN LAW OF THE USA religion, difference So, people who have been
with UK
K accused have to be
confronted with witnesses

and have to be assisted by a an exception: the punishment United States Armed Forces.
lawyer council. for a crime. The president is indirectly
These are all rights included in elected to a four-year term by
the English Bill of Rights and This amendment will come the people of the United
here in the USA, with the later, it is not contemporary States, through the so-called
Constitution, they wanted to with the others: it is very electors. Forty-six (with Joe
give these fundamental important but, unfortunately, Biden) persons have served as
guarantees to individuals: this it was not properly unforced President since 1789.For the
is the so-called habeas corpus, for a long time. It remained a moment, we will see the most
the right of a just and public written document but, in fact, important Presidents before
trial. slavery continued to be the Civil War.
employed in the United
THE TENTH AMENDMENT States. GEORGE WASHINGTON
‘The powers not delegated to (1731-1799) He served as
the United States by the THE FOURTEENTH President from 1789 to 1797.
Constitution, nor prohibited AMENDMENT He was the first President of
by it to the States, are ‘All persons born or the United States. He was
reserved to the States naturalized in the United given this office as being the
respectively, or to the people’. States, and subject to the most important figure in the
Here we have these two jurisdiction thereof, are creation of the United States.
levels: a federal level and a citizens of the United States
state level, with different and of the State wherein they He had served as
powers. Some powers are reside. No State shall make or Commander-in- Chief of the
delegated to the United States enforce any law which shall Continental Army during
(=to the federal government) abridge the privileges or
and other powers are owned immunities of citizens of the the American Revolutionary
by the single States. United States; nor shall any War and, before that, he had
The Tenth Amendment State deprive any person of served with the British against
establishes the creation of a life, liberty, or the French in the French and
Federal Government. The property,*without due Indian war and, later, he had
National Government is the process of law; nor deny to presided over the 1787
expression of a federation of any person within its Convention that drafted the
State Governments. So, here jurisdiction the equal United States Constitution.
in the Constitution itself we protection of the laws.’
have a clear declaration of *Again, three items that John The current Capital of the US
these two levels of Locke included in his treaties: is named after him,
government. life, liberty, property. Washington D.C.
The rights correlated to the In his farewell address, at the
THE THIRTEENTH citizenship given not only to end of his mandate, he said
AMENDMENT ‘Neither slavery people who were born in the that the USA had to avoid
nor involuntary servitude, States, but also to naturalized political and military alliances
except as a punishment for citizens. while cultivating trading
crime whereof the party shall relations with other countries,
have been duly convicted, THE FIRST PRESIDENTS OF to mind their own internal
shall exist within the United THE USA The President of the affairs and not to interfere in
States, or any place subject to United States is the elected other countries businesses.
their jurisdiction.’ head of state and head of
government of the United JOHN ADAMS (1735-1826)
It is not in the Bill of Rights, States. The president leads He was the second President
but very important. the executive branch of the and served from 1797 to
A formal renounce to the federal government and is the 1801.
device of slavery, but there is commander-in-chief of the Like George Washington, he

was among the Founding From the War of ships: they intervened to
Fathers, because he was one prevent that. They were also
of those who signed the 1812 to modern eager to prove their
Declaration of Independence times independence from the British
and the Constitution. Empire once and for all. Again,
A crucial date was 4th of July there was this feeling of being
THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743- 1776 (earlier than 1812, of dependent on the British
1826) course), when the Declaration trade.
He was the Third President of Independence was
and served from 1801 to approved and made effective. The tensions that caused the
1809. That is considered America’s war of 1812 arose from the
He was among the Founding birthday, which is celebrated French revolutionary and
Fathers and he was the main across the States. After that, Napoleonic wars, of the turn
author of the Declaration of we have the Revolutionary of the century,so between
Independence. War and two big important 1799 and 1815. During this
documents: the Declaration of period nearly constant
ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1809- Independence and the conflicts between
1865) Constitution.
He served as sixteenth France and Britain developed
President from 1861 to 1865. and American interests were
WAR OF 1812
During his presidency, the injured by each of the two
The War of 1812 was an
American Civil War broke out. countries endeavours to block
armed conflict between the
He was assassinated in 1865, the USA from trading with the
United States and the British
after the end of the War, by other. It was originally a war
Empire.
John Wilkes Booth, a between France and Britain
The British restricted the
sympathizer of the opposite and the US were involved
American trade since they
faction. He is universally because each of these big
feared it was harmful for their
recognized as one of the powers wanted to prevent
war with France. So, it all
greatest Presidents of the them from trading with the
started with these restrictions
United States. other.
of trade, again.
The British also wanted to set
MEMORIALS IN up an Indian State in the Pro-French republicans, led by
WASHINGTON, D.C. In Midwest in order to maintain Thomas Jefferson and James
Washington D.C. there are their influence in the region, Madison in resting powers
two memorials celebrating which is why Native from the Pro-British
these first big Americans fought on the side federalists, led by George
figures/presidents of USA. of the British. Remember that Washington and John Adams,
America was not an empty were the two major parties in
Washington Monument State when the first colonizers these conflicts.
arrived: there were local
In the second monument peoples, different peoples, In 1814 Napoleon’s defeat
there is a very big statue of who we call collectively Native allowed sizeable British forces
President Lincoln sitting and Americans. So, at this stage of to come to America. So, after
there is a quotation history, they supported the engaging in wars with
celebrating Abraham Lincoln. Brits in this big war. Napoleon (France), when they
Since Canada was a British defeated the French, they
LEZIONE 8 colony back then, Canadians went to America. They feared
were also British allies. to fight against the USA, they
The Americans objected to captured Washington and
the British Empire restricting burnt government buildings,
A SHORT HISTORY including the USA capital and
their trade and snatching their
OF THE USA -2: sailors to serve on British the executive mansion (now

known as the White House). Troops moved from one side also, for example, in West
The British justified these of the country to the other by Indies).
actions as retaliation for the train (new means of
American destruction of York transport). In particular, slavery became
(the modern Toronto, capital leaders and generals could an established practice when
of Upper Canada), the communicate at the speed of the production of tobacco and
previous year. So that was the light using the telegraph. cotton developed. Rural
big event: when the Brits activities were peculiar of the
captured the city of All this modern technology Southern States.
Washington and burnt changed the nature of the
government buildings. war. This was also the first A few words about the
war with a huge number of beginning of an American
During the war, both sides casualties (=vittime): 592,000 identity, because it is crucial
suffered many losses and soldiers died and around to understand the Civil War:
even the White House was 1,000,000 were wounded. During the 19th century
burned down in 1814. America grew as a Nation,
At Baltimore, resistance was This war anticipates what expanding its territory from
strong: American militia would happen in Europe the Atlantic to the Pacific
defeated the veteran British around 50 years later. ocean. It developed a true
troops, Fort McHenry resisted American identity, through
the mighty British fleet and WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF wars against the British,
Francis Scott Key penned the THE CIVIL WAR? through new technological
words of thepowerful national There was a big economic, but developments, new kinds of
anthem. Contrary to American also cultural difference cultivations and industries,
expectations, Canada between the States of the and the new American
remained British and North and those of the South. identity found its expression
eventually developed its own Economically speaking, the also in literature and in the
national identity, partly from North was far more advanced arts.
pride over repulsing U.S. than the South. The Northern
invasions. States owned the 85% of all Among the social and cultural
the U.S. industries and more factors that helped shape the
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR than the 70% of the railroad American mind, Puritanism
(1861-65) Later on, another lines (an economy based on should be considered. It was
big war, very important for its industries and factories). the religious faith of the first
effects on the civil rights and settlers at the beginning of
forthe whole destiny of the The South, in turn, was still the 17th century: the Pilgrims
country, was the American heavily bound to agriculture fathers encouraged the spirit
Civil War of 1861-1865. and the production of cotton, of adventure in the name of
tobacco and other crops. A liberty and the ethic of hard
This was the last war fought very important distinction in work to improve each
on US soil. Substantially, it terms of technology and individual social and financial
saw the States of the North economic activities. situation. So, liberty and hard
against the States of the work go together in this
South. It is called “civil war” However, the main reason development of an American
because the conflict is internal that brought to the war was identity.
to the country. the question of slavery.
As we have seen, slaves were As the 18th century
The Civil War can be brought to America since the progressed, more and more
considered the first modern beginning of the colonization, immigrants from all over
war for 3 major reasons: and this practice was Europe moved to America (so
millions of fire weapons were widespread in all the colonies America was becoming a
produced in factories. (not only in the States, but more diverse country) and

settled in the 13 different political situation in America because the planters had a big
colonies along the Atlantic. tense. While the North was influence in the politics of the
This was fast becoming a industrialized, the economy of country, of the South in
melting pot, where different the South was still based on particular). The question of
races were brought together the vast plantations of slavery became urgent when
and were eventually to shape tobacco and cotton and on several Northern States
the new America. slavery. The white population adopted emancipation, while
constantly increased as the international demand for
The development of the immigrants continued to cotton meant the economy of
American mind was also arrive from Europe, though the South continued to rely on
influenced by states in reason they tended to settle in the slave labour.
and human progress. The North; on the other hand, in
belief that man’s own efforts the South there were about Some attempts of revolt
can lead him to success was 3.500.000 black slaves. against slavery had been done
the most important element in the course of time.
of the so-called “American That was the situation at the 🡪John Brown was a leading
dream”. time, by 1861. figure in the abolitionist
movement.
The spirit of democracy and However, historians have
the idea of justice and shown that the question of Northern abolitionists, who
equality were brought about slavery in the South was included writers, intellectuals
by the War of Independence, relatively limited. and religious associations,
where victory saw the birth of In 1850, in fact, less than one- began to organize themselves
a new nation. tenth of the white people into the Republican party,
owned slaves: we can argue whose candidate Abraham
Though still influenced by that this matter of slavery Lincoln won the Presidential
European manners, a new affected only the great Elections in 1860.
cultural image of America plantations owners.
began to take shape. Within this movement, John
This new America was Here are some numbers: Brown believed that armed
dominated by two forces: the 8,000 planters owned 50 or actions against slaveholders
East, with important more slaves; 254 owned 200 and government officials were
Universities (Harvard and or more and only 11 planters, the only way to get some
Yale), the business and the richest and most powerful results (he was not a pacifist).
cultural centre of New York ones (also politically) owned
and its values of wealth and 500 or more slaves. “Here, before God, in the
respectability; on the other presence of these witnesses,
side, the West characterized What was felt as a moral from this time, I consecrate
by the pioneer spirit, the problem in the North, actually my life to the destruction of
mean of the frontier and the represented an economic and slavery!”.(It was his mission to
political problem for the destruct slavery).
countries endless possibilities. Southern States: it was a
The writer James Fenimore question of culture, apart Brown advocated for the
Cooper created this epic of from being an economic issue. movement, travelling all over
the frontier in his novels. the country to raise money
Growing crops was the only and obtain weapons for the
So, apart from this distinction relevant economic activity in cause.
between the East and the the South and the institutions
West, there was this other big of those States were In 1859 he launched an attack
division, a growing gap, controlled by the richest plant on slaveholders, as well as a
between the North and the owners (so, an economic but United States military armory,
South and this made the also a political problem, at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now

West Virginia), using armed nation: it was called the states decided to detach from
freed slaves (so, he allied with Confederate States of America the American government
freed slaves in this attack). – aka Confederacy. We can that he was forced to declare
say that Lincoln’s victory war.
He hoped the attack would changed the relationship
help lay the groundwork for a between the American After Confederate forces got
slave revolt, but government and the control of numerous federal
unfortunately, in the end, the institutional slavery, because forts within territory claimed
raid ended in failure and John from that moment (when by the Confederacy, efforts
Brown was hanged. secession was declared), for a compromise failed and
within two months, six other both sides prepared for war.
1860 PRESIDENTIAL states joined South Carolina in
ELECTIONS the Independent Confederacy. The Confederates assumed
The real event that triggered that European countries were
the war was the election of War followed, because so dependent on the so-called
Abraham Lincoln as President Lincoln, supported by a King Cotton that they would
of the United States in 1860. majority of Northerners, intervene in their favour, but
In the 1860 presidential refused to concede that any none did and none recognized
election, Republicans, led by American had the the new Confederate States of
Lincoln, supported banning constitutional right to America. So, they did not
slavery in all the U.S. withdraw from the Union and receive any support from
territories, something which certainly not in response to a Europe at this stage.
the Southern states viewed as legitimately won democratic
a violation of their elections. So, he intervened THE NAVY JACK
constitutional rights. Owning and started the war after this Another important flag is the
slaves was seen by the South secession. navy Flag.
as a right. This is one of the most
Lincoln’s 1861 inaugural representative Confederate
Before Lincoln’s presidential address declared that his flags: it represents the Navy of
inauguration, seven slave administration would not the Confederation and, for
States with cotton-based initiate a civil war. So, at the extension, the whole army of
economies decided to call for beginning he did not want to the South.
a secession. The first six to start a war.
declare secession were AMERICA DURING THE
Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama, Addressing to the “Southern CIVIL WAR
Mississippi, Florida, and Texas. States” (he did not want to It was a divided nation:
South Carolina joined shortly recognise them as the in blue = the 23 States of the
later. Confederate States of Union
Eight remaining slave States America), Lincoln declared: in grey = the States of the
continued to reject calls for Confederacy in green = the
secession. So, a division “I have no purpose, directly or border States (those that did
emerged even among slaves indirectly to interfere with the not know where to put
States, because some of them institution of slavery in the themselves, because they
decided to declare secession, United States where it exists. I were between the United
while others remained inside, believe I have no lawful right States and the Confederate
faithful to the President of the to do so, and I have no States and they tried to stay
United States. inclination to do so.” neutral)
in red = the Western
In February 1861 at If it had remained only a Territories (they were still
Montgomery, Alabama, the question of slavery, Lincoln nobody’s land occupied by the
leader Jefferson Davis wouldn’t have started a war; Native Americans; you must
proclaimed the birth of a new it was only when the Southern remember that at those times

not all the States were already This is an infamous episode The proclamation declared
there) because it was the bloodiest “that all persons held as
In the west, Oregon and battle ever fought during the slaves” within the rebellious
California were aligned with Civil War. The amount of states “are, and henceforward
the United States of America. casualties has been calculated shall be free.” So, that was the
in around 50,000 men, evenly first major statement when
THE BEGINNING OF THE divided between the Union the President declared that all
WAR: THE ATTACK ON and the Confederation. slaves shall be free from that
FORT SUMTER moment on.
The beginning of the war was Eventually, Lee lost the battle
caused by the attack on Fort and was forced to withdraw. WHY IS GETTYSBURGH SO
Sumter. From this moment on, the IMPORTANT?
destiny of the war was more Even though contemporary
This attack was the first real or less decided. historians do not consider it a
act of war. On April 12th, particularly important battle
1861, the Confederates 1863, THE GETTYSBURG in the dynamics of the Civil
bombed the fort in South ADDRESS Gettysburgh was War, the defeat of the South
Carolina. also worth remembering for at Gettysburgh marked the
the famous Gettysburgh end of the expansion of the
After two days of siege, the address. Confederacy in the North,
fort surrendered. and, more importantly, it
Virginia, one of the founders In 1863 Lincoln delivered the prevented any possible
of the United States, left the Gettysburg Address at the alliance with the British and
Union. Soon after, Arkansas, dedication of the Soldiers’ the French.
North Carolina and Tennessee National Cemetery in
also left. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. So, it was not the battle itself,
but the political echo it had to
Border slave states like It is one of the most famous determine the destiny of the
Missouri, Kentucky and speeches in American history, Confederacy. In fact, the first
Maryland did not secede, but in which Lincoln invoked the negotiations for a truce
there was much Confederate principles of human equality (=tregua) and, eventually,
sympathy among their contained in the Declaration peace, started just after
citizens. So, they did not of Independence and claimed Gettysburgh.
officially secede, but it was the Civil War was a struggle
clear that they supported the not merely for the Union, but However, it was only in 1865
Confederate States. for ‘a new birth of freedom’ that the war ended, when
that would bring true equality General Lee surrendered to
to all of its citizens and would the Union. Meanwhile, at the
ONE OF THE MOST
also create a unified nation no Presidential elections in 1864,
(IN)FAMOUS EPISODES:
longer dominated by different Lincoln was reelected
GETTYSBURG President of the Union.
states’ rights. The Gettysburgh
address was pronounced Although he was seen by his
One of the most famous or contemporaries as weak, he
during the Civil War,
infamous episodes of the Civil did everything in his power to
immediately after another
War was the battle of keep the unity of the States
proclamation, the
Gettysburgh. and wanted to end this war
Emancipation Proclamation
In July 1863, General Lee, who with the only desire to rebuild
on January 1st, 1863. (SUA
led the Army of North the United States of America.
SLIDE= During the Civil War
Virginia, faced the Union’s
President Lincoln issued the
army at Gettysburgh, in Famous is his inaugural
Emancipation Proclamation
Pennsylvania. address of 1865, at the
on January 1st, 1863).
beginning of his second term,

where his desire (to rebuild discrimination pervaded the determining the victory of one
the Nation) is clearly North as well. part over the other.
expressed. In the First World War (1914-
O CAPTAIN! MY CAPTAIN!, 18), U.S. involvement was
APRIL 14th, 1865 WALT WHITMAN, 1866 triggered by the Germans’
The war ended in 1865, when This is the first verse of a attacks to U.S. targets.
the blue Northern troops, poem, called O Captain! My 1) sinking of the Lusitania,
commanded by Ulysses Grant Captain! by Walt Whitman which was carrying 128 U.S.
(1822–85), defeated the grey written in 1866 to celebrate citizens, in 1915 (in the image
Confederates, led by Robert Abraham Lincoln. we can see the article in the
Lee (1807–70). New York Times). So, it was
Five days later, President O Captain! my Captain! our sunk by a German submarine
Lincoln was assassinated by a fearful trip is done, and that was the beginning of
Southern fanatic, John Wilkes The ship has weather’d1 every the involvement of the United
Booth. rack2, the prize we sought is States in the war.
However, this fact did not won, 2) Black Tom Explosion, a
stop the reunification process. sabotage of an ammunition
The abolition of slavery was The port is near, the bells I supply in Jersey City, New
sanctioned by the hear, the people all exulting, Jersey by German saboteurs
13thAmendment to the While follow eyes the steady on July 30th, 1916.
Constitution. keel3, the vessel grim and 3) At Lyndhurst, New Jersey, a
At the end of the war, this daring4; similar act of sabotage was
13th Amendment ended held on January 11th, 1917,
slavery, but Southern But O heart! heart! heart! which destroyed another
legislators enacted the so- O the bleeding drops of red, ammunition storage that was
called blackcodes, restricting Where on the deck my destined to the Allies.
the rights of the freed slaves Captain lies, Fallen cold and For the U.S., this was the last
and imposing labour rules dead. drop. They entered the war on
little different from slavery. April 6th, 1917, considering it
In response, Republicans in WHAT FUTURE FOR THE U.S. a crusade to make the world
congress, adopted the 14th AFTER THE CIVIL WAR? ‘safe for democracy’, and the
Amendment in 1868 (three Notwithstanding the war was called the ‘war to end
years later), which guaranteed enormous number of dead all wars’.
citizenship and equal rights to that the war left behind and They proved fundamental for
all persons born or naturalized the need to reconstruct a the victory of the Coalition
in the United States, except political and economic unity (which included Britain,
Indians. between the North and the France and Russia, later Italy
It was not easy to guarantee South, the last quarter of the and the United States).
rights to the formal slaves, in 19thcentury saw a huge
fact Lincoln’s successor, industrial development of the THE “GREAT WALL STREET
Andrew Johnson of United States, which were on CRASH” (1929)
Tennessee, opposed these the way to become the In 1929 the American stock
measures and we’ll see how leading country in the world. market collapsed. It was
difficult it was to achieve known as the ‘Great Wall
freedom for everybody. THE FIRST WORLD WAR Street Crash’, since Wall
The 1865 Civil Rights Act Another major event that we Street was (and is) the home
granted all persons equal want to record is the First of the New York Stock
access to public places, World War. Although the U.S. Exchange.
conveyances and did not take part to either
transportation, but racial World War from the It marked the end of the
segregation across the South beginning, but their prosperous Twenties and the
was imposed by officials and intervention was decisive in beginning of the Great

Depression. THE END OF THE WAR return to African roots,
Thousands of businessmen The U.S. had a fundamental because they were badly
were ruined and millions of role in the post-war treated in the States, so the
common people who had reconstruction of Europe as only way to live well was to go
invested their savings in well, with the so-called back to their origins. Both
shares found themselves Marshall Plan. The US signed Malcolm X and Martin Luther
facing debt and ruin. (=2008) an agreement of mutual King were assassinated.
Factories shut down, banks defense with Western Europe,
crashed, goods were the North Atlantic Treaty MARTIN LUTHER KING’S
produced but no longer sold. Organisation, known as NATO. FAMOUS “I HAVE A
This was in addition to the DREAM” SPEECH (1963)
In 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt United Nations Organisation Martin Luther King delivered
(1882– 1945) became (1945), which replaced the this speech on the steps of the
president and promised the League of Nations created Lincoln’s memorial in
Americans a ‘New Deal’ of after the First World War. Washington DC on 28thof
reforms. Countries tried to get August 1963 and it was very
together to mutually defend important to establish a break
The three aims of the New themselves after the Second with the past. «When the
Deal were ‘relief, recovery, World War. architects of our republic
reform’. The federal wrote the magnificent words
government spent billions of THE 1960s of the Constitution and the
dollars on relief for the The 1960s started with Declaration of Independence,
unemployed, on public works another American election. they were signing a
and on the conservation of But the president, the promissory note to which
natural resources (a big state Democratic John Fitzgerald every American was to fall
intervention against this huge Kennedy was assassinated in heir (→ Lincoln made a
crisis). Dallas on 22ndNovember promise which had to be
1963: his death put an end to fulfilled).
THE SECOND WORLD WAR the social hopes his election
(1939- 1945) had awakened. So, another This note was a promise that
On this occasion, too, the U.S. assassination of a President all men would be guaranteed
were officially neutral. after Lincoln’s assassination. the inalienable rights of life,
His vice president, Lyndon liberty, and the pursuit of
However, the famous attack Johnson, took over the happiness (→ 3 principles). It
of Pearl Harbor (Hawaii) by presidency and managed to is obvious today that America
Japanese kamikazes in 1941 carry forward some reforms. has defaulted on this
had such a powerful impact He persuaded Congress to promissory note insofar as her
on the Americans that the U.S. pass the Civil Rights Act of citizens of color are concerned
decided to enter the war. We 1964, which prohibited (→ we were not guaranteed
all know how it ended: on discrimination of all kinds these 3 inalienable rights). I
6thJune 1944, D-Day (D for based on race, colour, religion have a dream that one day
Deliverance), the Allies or national origin. this nation will rise up and live
touched down on the coasts Leaders like Martin Luther out the true meaning of its
of Normandy and managed to King, Jr. fronted the African- creed: ‘We hold these truths
liberate France. American Civil Rights to be self-evident: that all
Movement, adopting Gandhi’s men are created equal.’». (→
In August 1945, US President philosophy of non-violent he is quoting from the
Harry Truman (1884–1972) resistance. The ‘Black Declaration of Independence).
ordered the dropping of the Muslims’, led by Malcolm X,
atomic bomb on the Japanese advocated separateness from November 2008 marked a
cities of Hiroshima and the whites and the assertion unique moment in American
Nagasaki. of racial identity through a history: on a popular wave of

renewed enthusiasm, the For tens of millions of people, Your huddled masses4
Democratic nominee Barack America was seen as a dream, yearning to breathe free,
Hussein Obama, a young as a shelter for the poor and The wretched refuse of your
African American, became the the oppressed. A nation of teeming shore.
44th US president and the nations, as defined by Thomas
first ever black American to Paine. Send these, the homeless,
hold the office. tempest- tost to me,
In this sonnet we will find I lift my lamp beside the
He was reelected for a second some of this idealism, which is golden door!"
term in 2012 and was at the basis of the building of
awarded the Nobel Peace the Statue of Liberty. 1.Sea-washed, sunset gates:
Prize in 2009. The poem is a Petrarchan the mouths(foci) of the
Again, he makes explicit sonnet. Hudson and east rivers to the
reference to Martin Luther west of Brooklyn.
King’s words when he says: The title and the first two lines 2. Imprisoned lightning: refers
refer to the Greek colossus of to the electric light in the
“I make this statement Rhodes, one of the several torch of the Statue of Liberty,
mindful of what Martin Luther ones of the ancient world. which at the time was a
King said [...]– ‘Violence never novelty.
brings permanent peace. It Here Lazarus contrasts that
solves no social problem: it ancient symbol of grandeur 3. Air-bridged harbor that
merely creates new and more and empire with a new twin cities frame: refers to
complicated ones.’ colossus, the Statue of Liberty, New York harbour between
which is a female New York city and Brooklyn,
As someone who stands here embodiment of commanding which were separated cities at
as a direct consequence of Dr maternal strength. the time (now Brooklyn is part
King’s life’s work, I am living of New York), before being
testimony to the moral force Not like the brazen giant of consolidated as boroughs of
of non-violence.” Greek fame, the city of greater New York.
With conquering limbs astride
It is a process still active: the from land to land; 4. Huddled masses: refers to
first non- white vice president the large number of
was nominated earlier this Here at our sea-washed, immigrants arriving in the
year. sunset gates1 shall stand United States in the 1880s
A mighty woman with a torch, (the poem was written in
LEZIONE 9 whose flame 1883).
Is the imprisoned lightning2, Lazarus was an activist, an

and her name advocate for Jewish refugees
THE AMERICAN Mother of Exiles. From her fleeing persecution in tsarist
PEOPLE: beacon- hand Russia.
Immigration, Native Glows world-wide welcome; MELTING POT

Americans, Women and her mild eyes command
Minorities The air-bridged harbor that Reading this poem, we
twin cities frame3. become aware of the
This is a poem called The New metaphor of the melting pot.
Colossus by Emma Lazarus, "Keep, ancient lands, your A monocultural metaphor for
written in 1883. It is a poem storied pomp!" cries she a heterogeneous society
about immigration, which is a With silent lips. "Give me your becoming more
central aspect of American tired, your poor, homogeneous, the different
history. elements 'melting together'

into a harmonious whole with identity to their own This was a period of Frontier
a common culture or vice culture. Expansion.
versa, for a homogeneous
society becoming more FROM THE OLD TO THE Old immigrants: name that
heterogeneous through the NEW WORLD was used in the late 1800s for
influx of foreign elements immigrants who arrived in the
with different cultural The United States experienced mid-1800s.
background with a potential 4 major waves of immigration, This was the period when
creation of disharmony with starting in 1680 (this graph America went from being
the previous culture (general only reports the immigration mainly a rural and agricultural
definition). The idea of waves from the second wave society to the beginning of an
different pieces which fit one onwards). industrial society.
into the other to create a
diverse whole made of The pattern of U.S. It was during this second wave
different components. immigration in 19th and 20th that many Irish and
century can be explained in 4 Norwegians emigrated. The
SALAD BOWL major waves overall Irish were highly dependent
Another metaphor, which has on the potato and, when the
been used to define American THE FIRST WAVE: potato crop failed in the
culture and people, is that of 1840s, many other emigrated
COLONIAL IMMIGRATION
the salad bowl. or faced starvation.
The salad bowl concept Emigration was in this period
1680-1776
suggests that the integration largely to Northern England or
of the many different cultures the United States, from
In this period there was
of United States residents Ireland. They were mostly
colonial immigration:I
combine like a salad, as Protestant, many were skilled
ndentured servants*, black
opposed to the more laborers and many were able
slaves in the States and Scots-
traditional notion of a cultural to buy their own farms.
Irish came to the US.
melting pot. Here, all the
elements remained separated, Cheap farmland and the
they do not merge one into *at the beginning they were
promise of economic growth
the other, but they coexist not actually slaves, but they
in the first Industrial
(like in a salad bowl). had this status of indentured
Revolution spurred large-scale
servants: at the end of their
immigration from Northern
period of work they could be
The ethnic mix of America is Europe (in particular from
freed. Only later on they
complex: Britain, Germany, Ireland,
became slaves, in the sense
Scandinavia).The Irish Potato
that they were not paid for
- Indigenous people Famine drove many
what they were doing and
- Voluntary immigrants immigrants from Ireland over
they did not have any
 They all share a to the U.S.
opportunities to stop their
sense of religion,
work for plantations or for
traditions, national We can add a general concept
their masters (more in the
pride that immigration in the States
South, but all over the States).
- Involuntary was influenced by both push
immigrants They and pull factors.
They came to work as
have different
indentured servants (working
traditions because The push factors were what
for seven years to become
they come from withdrew immigrants from
free) and as slaves.
different places all their country, such as religion
over the world: they persecution (we have seen
all have a sense of THE SECOND WAVE: OLD how the Pilgrims fathers
IMMIGRANTS travelled across the ocean to
1820-1890

reach America), political class. Many were educated The “promise land” here
oppression and poverty. and, through the decades, began to seem less and less
On the other hand, the pull developed industries. promising as immigrants were
factors (=fattori di attrattiva) stuffed into tenant buildings,
were those which attracted The South, where large in all the crowded cities and
immigrants to America, such plantations were the main forced to work in factories
as civil rights, freedom, source of income: the original under deplorable conditions.
freedom of expression, intention for the first
religious liberty and economic Southern colonies was profit. There were fewer skilled
opportunities. America was laborers and they were
seen as the “promise land” by We have seen how there the generally poorer than those
the oppressed and exploited plantation economy formed who arrived earlier. They
masses. the basis of slave migration, a brought new cultures and
plantation economy based on religions to the U.S. Most
The freedom, opportunities large crops of cotton, tobacco found work in cities in the
and civil rights that were and indigo. new industries of the time
denied to Europeans period.
throughout centuries and, at The plantations were like mini
the same time, guaranteed to societies where slaves or Immigrant mobility increased
the immigrants in the US, indentured servants did most with the introduction of large
became the basis of the of the work: so that there was steam-powered ships. The
American value system and not much opportunity to expansion of railroads in
dream. The American dream develop a middle-class and Europe also made it easier for
is the dream that individuals the question of slavery people to reach oceanic
could be given the divided the United States and ports(internal migration in
opportunity through hard eventually led to conflicts Europe, which then led to
work to succeed. Individuals which would end in the Civil oceanic/intercontinental
were given this opportunity, War. migration). On the other
but they would be responsible hand, the Chinese Exclusion
for their own success or So, now we have arrived at Act in 1882 prohibited
failure and, in the latter case, the second wave. Chinese laborers from entry.
it was left to themselves to
survive. Again, large scale of The first discriminating
immigration from Northern policies began in these years
We have talked about Europe and, during the latter and a similar politics
religious freedom, which in part of this period, the United continued in the following
the first wave (in the colonial States grew to a major years. In fact, with the fourth
period) was the basic division industrial nation and this wave, the United States
that eventually led to the Civil growth continued on into the experienced immigration from
War. third wave. Asian countries: there were
big reactions from American
The first immigrants were THE THIRD WAVE: NEW citizens, because they were
called colonists because they IMMIGRANTS 1890-1930 scared and they were
founded the first colonies in New immigrants: they were prejudiced, so there were
America. There was a great part of a new wave of disorders in the province
difference between the types immigrants in the 1880s that (more than in big cities).
of colonies: were mostly from Southern
and Eastern Europe. They ELLIS ISLAND
The Northern colonies, where moved into American cities In 1892, the famous Ellis
many colonists came for and worked in industries. Island opened; Ellis Island was
religious freedom with small the first federal immigration
farms and a sort of middle- station that provided a

gateway for over 12 million The fourth wave started with addition, a number of them
people. the Immigration and are illegal and can be
Naturalization Act of 1965, exploited. They often work for
Ellis Island is a small island in which overturned all previous less money without
New York Harbor, within the quotas (define numbers of complaining about the
shadow of the Statue of people allowed to enter the working conditions for fear of
Liberty. States, quotas based on been caught and deported.
It was designated as the site national origin).
of the first Federal Family unification and an However, it looks like
immigration station by increase in skilled labor were Mexican- Americans are
President Benjamin Harrison two major aims of this act. starting to get established as
in 1890.Prior to 1890, the working their way into the
individual states (rather than This decision significantly middleclass.
the Federal government) impacted the U.S.
regulated immigration into demographic makeup in the In the book there is a section
the United States. following decades, as more with statistics, which predicts
immigrants of Latin, Asian and that Hispanic and Mexican-
E.I. opened on January 1st, African descent entered the Americans will be the largest
1892. Here, there are a couple country. They came to the US ethnic group in some States,
of pictures of immigrants to escape communist like in California.
arriving in Ellis Island and the dictatorship and civil wars and
Island as seen from the sea. they were looking for An Hispanic group which has
economic opportunity. been successful is the Cubans,
THE GREAT PAUSE: 1915- most of whom live in
1965 This new wave of immigration Southern of Florida (they were
Then, from 1915 to 1965, we brought a mixture of Asians, generally educated, middle-
have the so-called Great thanks to this new law class, politically conservative
Pause. (Koreans, Vietnamese, and anti- Castro).
The Immigration Act of 1924 Cambodians, Chinese,
(or Asian Exclusion Act) Japanese) and Hispanics Two Hispanic groups which
enacted quotas on immigrant (people who speak Spanish). have done very well are
numbers, restricting groups As a rule, Asians are successful Puerto Ricans and Dominicans
from countries in Southern and their success can be who permanently live in East
and Eastern Europe, and explained by two factors. Coast in cities.
virtually all immigrants of Many of them, especially
Asian origin. This is a very Chinese and Koreans, arrived ASSIMILATION POLICY
important regulation because with money and invested their Now we talk about
it excludes a whole range of money wisely (they often assimilation policy, which has
people from the South and started businesses and shops been a general tendency of
East of Europe and from the and work long hours); also, for the US government.
Asian continent. Asian families, honour is an
The Great Depression and important factor (their This expression stresses on
subsequent World Wars also children study hard, get into the denial of ethnic difference
complicated immigration good universities and get and the forgetting of cultural
matters as many came to seek good jobs). practices in favour of
refuge in the United States. Americanisation (how to get
Hispanics have not been as an American citizenship,
successful as Asians. They are sometimes losing one’s own
THE FOURTH WAVE: 1965- often poor when they arrive difference, one’s own cultural
PRESENT and, for same reasons, they practices).
do not stress on the
importance of education. In

According to this policy, one and later the United States TREATY OF PARIS, MARCH
language should dominate and Canadian governments 1783
over all the possible cultural and American and Canadian With the Treaty of Paris, in
differences among ethnic settlers against various March 1783, the British
groups. American Indian and First recognized US independence.
Nation tribes(the tribes that Boundaries were determined,
But, with the application of were already there when the allowing for American
this policy, “whiteness colonists arrived). These expansion to the West.
became the privileged conflicts occurred in North Aswecanseeinthemap,the13
grounding and metaphor for America from the time of the original States expanded and
the empty abstraction of US earliest colonial settlements in the border was signed by the
citizenship.” (That is what the 17th century until the Mississippi river.
Singh, a scholar, said, 2009). 1920s. A middle region, which
confines with British North
So, the idea of the American THE INDIAN RESERVATIONS America (contemporary
dream, but on the other hand From the beginning of the Canada), with the Great Lakes
white privilege and the European colonization, in the middle and the
attempt to converge all the Europeans often removed Southern border was with
differences in one culture, one native peoples from lands Spanish Florida (Florida was a
language. they wished to occupy Spanish territory at the time).
(important to remember). The
Starting from this idea of means varied, Including The passage of the Indian
assimilation, we switch to treaties made under Removal Act of 1830 marked
Native Americans. Native considerable duress, forceful the systematization of a U.S.
Americans, African Americans ejection and violence and, in a federal government policy of
and immigrants from all over few cases, voluntary moves forcibly moving Native
the world were seen as a based on mutual populations away from
threat to this vision until they agreement(different European-populated areas.
were brought within this measures, legal or not).
definition of One example was the Five
‘Americanness’( i.e., The first reservation was Civilized Tribe s (the
assimilated) or totally established in southern New Cherokee, Chickasaw,
excluded from the society. Jersey on 29th August1758. Choctaw, Creek and
Seminole), who were
What happened to Native PROCLAMATION OF 1763 removed from their native
Americans? With the Proclamation of lands in the southern United
1763 (when the Seven Years States and moved to modern-
NATIVE AMERICANS IN US War ended), we have this day Oklahoma, in a mass
TERRITORIES situation here in the map. migration that came to be
Several tribes of Native The 13 American colonies known as the ‘Trail of
Americans with different after the Declaration of Tears’(=sentiero delle
habits, names, systems... pre- Independence: the New lacrime).
existed in the US territories. England colonies in the North,
They occupied the whole the middle colonies, the Some of the lands these tribes
territory. Southern colonies. On the were given to inhabit
other side of the border, the following the removals event
AMERICAN INDIAN WARS province of Québec. usually became Indian
Also known as First Nations This was the situation after reservations.
Wars, this is the collective the Proclamation of 1763, so So, five different tribes who
name for the various armed when the Seven Years War were not in a good
conflicts fought by European ended. relationship, were forced to
governments and colonists, move in one area and this

removal is called “The Trail of Like all savage people, the because of this desire for
Tears” (they suffered this Indian has not the slightest common honour ship,
removal, they did not want to conception of definite law as a because of this spirit of
go). rule of action. He is guided by communism that Indians
his animal desires. He share.
SAND CREEK MASSACRE practices all forms of vice, and
(1864) Another important even to a great extent those WWI: WHEN NATIVES
episode to be remembered is crimes which are pronounced BECAME AMERICANS
the Sand Creek massacre. On as against nature. He takes WWI was an important event
November 29th, 1864, the little thought except for the even for the relationship
Colorado civil army responded present1, knows nothing of between Natives and
to a series of Indian attacks on property in the abstract, and Americans, because it was at
white settlements by attacking has not therefore any this point that Natives were
a Cheyenne and Arapahoe incentive to labor further than integrated into American
encampment on Sand Creek in to supply immediate wants. society. In 1919, President
southeastern Colorado . Instead of making an effort for Wood row Wilson granted
Under orders to take no moral improvement he strives citizenship to all Native
prisoners, the militia killed to strengthen his vicious Americans who had served in
and mutilated about 200 of propensities2. World War I. About 10,000
the Indians, two- thirds of men had enlisted and served,
whom were women and [...] which is a high number in
children, takings calps and These deficiencies, together relation to their population.
other horrible trophies of with that spirit of communism Despite this, in many areas
battle. The Indians at Sand which is prevalent among all Native Americans faced local
Creek had been assured by tribes3, and which is due as resistance when they tried to
the US Government that they well to an undeveloped idea vote. In 1924, President Calvin
would be safe in the territory in regard to property, as any Coolidge Signed the Indian
they were occupying, but desire for common Citizenship Act, which made
anti- Indian sentiments by ownership, make the all Native Americans born in
white settlers were too reception and understanding the United States and its
strong. of our American civilization territories American citizens.
A song by Fabrizio de André very improbable. Before this act, around two-
written in the 1970s recalls thirds of Native Americans
the massacre of 1864. Indians do not have a strategy were already U.S. citizens,
for their future. through marriage, military
ELWELL S. OTIS, THE Indian behaviour is refused, service or accepting land
INDIAN QUESTION (1878) condemned as immoral. grants. The Act extended
Here we have a document, citizenship to “all non- citizen
which is interesting because it They share their lands, they Indians born within the
is written by an army general, cultivate the earth together, territorial limits of the United
Elwell Otis. He wrote a book they raise their children States.”
called “Could the Indians be together (spirit of
civilized?” communism), which is due as That is why we said that this
well to an undeveloped idea long period of fights and bad
The book was written in 1878 in regard to property as any relationships between Natives
and it is a sort of criticism of desire for common honour and Americans ended in the
Indian lifestyle, on the way of ship, make the reception and 1920s, because this Indian
farming, their sense of understanding of our Citizenship Act established a
property, there is even the American civilization very new status for Native
word communism to highlight improbable. So, they won’t Americans: they were
difference of that vision from integrate, they won’t melt American citizens.
that of the Americans. with all the other citizens

FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT’S warrior had become a part the individuals living on
“INDIAN NEW DEAL” American historical legend reservations all the rights
In 1934, the Indian (so, they were known to be included in the US
Reorganization Act was brave and for that they were Constitution.
passed as part of Franklin so much appreciated). White
Roosevelt’s New Deal service men sometimes US INDIAN RESERVATIONS
programs. showed respect toward Native An Indian reservation is the
American comrades by calling legal designation for an area
The New Deal helped the lives them “chief”. The increasing of land managed by a
of Native Americans: it moved contact with the world federally recognized Native
away from assimilation and outside of the reservation American tribe under the US
more towards autonomy (a system brought great changes Bureau of Indian Affairs (there
change of paradigm, where to Native American culture. is an office dedicated to Indian
Native Americans were not The most significant of these affairs).
forced anymore to assimilate, changes was the opportunity Eachofthe326Indianreservatio
but they enjoy greater to assimilate, finding well-paid nsinthe United States is
autonomy): work in cities. So, many associated with a particular
people moved to urban area: Native American nation. Not
they physically moved from all of the country’s 567
- Ownership of reservations to big cities. recognized tribes have a
“Reservation Land” reservation– some tribes have
was given to the THE 1960S AND SELF- more than one reservation,
Native Americans. DETERMINATION while some share one with
- Native American lands Civil Rights Movement other tribes.
would belong to the Military service and urban
entire tribe (the land residency contributed to the SUPREME COURT DECLARES
was again shared rise of American Indian LARGE PART OF EAST
between the Indians, activism. OKLAHOMA TO BE NATIVE
according to their AMERICAN LAND
own system of The 1960s were the season of The US supreme court has
property, condemned the Civil Right Movement all ruled that a large part of
by Otis) over the States, not only for eastern Oklahoma remains a
Indian people but also for Native American reservation,
- Native Americans black people, women and gay a decision state and federal
could attend school people. The American Indian officials warn could throw the
on reservations. Movement (AIM) was entire state into chaos,
founded in 1968 in because it has legal
- Tribes can elect tribal
Minneapolis, where American consequences.
councils to govern
Indians combined spiritual
reservations. The court’s 5-4 decision (only
and political activism. Political
protests gained national 5 justices decided in favour of
WW II: THE BEGINNING OF media attention and the this decision, while 4 were
THE END WWII can be sympathy of the American against it), written by Justice
defined as the beginning of public. Neil Gorsuch, means that
the end because big changes Oklahoma prosecutors lack
arrived for Native Americans. Occupation of Alcatraz the authority to pursue
Around 44,000 Native criminal cases against Native
Island(1969– 1971) by a
Americans served in the American defendants in parts
student Indian group from San
United States military during of Oklahoma that include
Francisco (part of this general
World War II. Their fellow most of Tulsa, the state’s
movement to acquire civil
soldiers appreciated them second largest city.
rights). In 1968 the Indian Civil
since the stereotype of the
Rights Act guaranteed
tough Native American

So, it is a nation within the called “three Rs”, were the so, there, in schools, they
nation which is not controlled core subjects. could learn English and the
by American authorities, Let’s go back to the 17th principles of American
because there Native century, in the colonial period, democracy, together with the
Americans have their own when it all started. In 1636 skills needed for the
authorities, their own trials, Harvard College, one of the workplace.
their own laws. It is a very most prestigious universities
remarkable decision, which in the world, was founded, The world first compulsory
can be problematic because thanks to the protestant school attendance laws and
there is a conflict of founding fathers Franklin, schools for ex- slaves
authorities. Washington (and others), who (separate schools): that is the
insisted that universal public period of the so-called
“On the far end of the Trail of education was essential for segregation, where ex-slaves
Tears was a promise,” democracy. Protestants were separated from all the
Gorsuch wrote in a decision wanted to replace European rest of the population.
on Thursday, joined by the aristocracy of birth with a
court’s liberal members. school based on meritocracy The idea in American
“Forced to leave their of talent, but this position was education was that of learning
ancestral lands in Georgia and seen as elitist. by doing and team sports
Alabama, the Creek Nation1 became a typical aspect of
received assurances that their Public school was also an American education.
new lands in the west would instrument of assimilation of
be secure forever ... Today we immigrants. After the Civil War, private
are asked whether the land After the American church- related colleges
these treaties promised Revolution, Church and State increased in number,
remains an Indian [Native became separate. So, schools especially in the Midwest, and
American] reservation for became separate too: they men and women were
purposes of federal criminal started differentiating and, educated attending schools
law. Because Congress has not during the Civil War, there together. That was the period
said otherwise, we hold the was the foundation of the of Coeducation.
government to its word.” state university. The first
university (Harvard College) In the further east area of the
1. How the tribe is called was a private institution. country, the Ivy League
today. universities were founded.
Since there are no laws that During the Civil War, the Harvard and other prestigious
establish that the land federal government’s schools from the colonial
promised to the Creek Nation involvement in public higher period, at the time, were only
was a federal land, the court education began and huge for men. With WWII, free
gives this land to the Indian land areas were destined to higher education was granted
citizens, remembering the each state for higher to veterans (ex-soldiers) and
Trail of Tears, remembering education; so, each state half the people in college
that promise, remembering decided to dedicate huge were veterans, many of them
how these people had to spaces to new education from working-class families.
leave their original lands to institutions. So, that was when mass
occupy this new land because education started, regarded as
of that removal policy. After 1865 (after the Civil a right rather than a privilege.
War), new immigrants started
LEZIONE 10 been assimilated through In 1954, there was an attempt
US EDUCATION schools. Remember that it to end segregation and to
was the period of the arrival establish racial balance in
of immigrants from Southern schools until1974, when the
In US education reading,
and Eastern Europe and Asia; government tried to
writing and arithmetic, the so-

desegregate US public schools Local control is characteristic US EDUCATION FOLLOWS 3
through the so- called bussing. of US education institutions, STAGES:
There were busses that drove so it is all decided on a local
students to other districts for base. 1. Elementary school or
racial balance: Whites went to grade school (from
schools in the suburbs or to While states offer free public 5/6 and for 6years)
private schools. That education to students, within 2.
experiment failed and there a certain age range, they also Middle school or
was a new segregation. That specify the years in which junior high school (for
was until the early 1970s. attendance is mandatory. 3 years)
3. High school
From the 1960s, there was an In all states the age range (studentsbetween16
involvement of the state in offered is greater than the and 18 years old)
educational programs against range in which attendance is
prejudice and the government compulsory. SCHOOL HOLIDAYS
efforts were collectively called The age requirements for a -Thanksgiving: 2/3 days (end
“affirmative action”; then, free education (the second of November)
with the Higher Education Act column in the table) refer to -Christmas: December 23rd to
of 1965, minority and the years in which a student first weekday in January
disadvantaged students were must be admitted into a public -Winter break: 1 week
helped with college loans school free of charge: it is a (February or March)
(=prestiti). Affirmative action right, the right to be admitted -Spring: 1 week (April)
of President Johnson to into a school. -Summer: 10/11weeks
improve women’s and Total: 180 schooldays/year
minority groups’ access to A range of age 5-21 means
education were important. that the district provides THE PROM
children with free education,
Remember that 1965 was also beginning on their 5th PROM = short English version
the year of the Immigration birthday and continuing of the word “promenade”.
and Naturalization Act. So, in through their 21st birthday. A prom is a formal dance for
1965 quotas became
high school students that is
unconstitutional and these The third column indicates the usually at the end of the year.
affirmative actions continued age requirements for
until the early 2000s, when compulsory education, It is a cultural aspect of US
they ended in several states. referring to the years in which education, of high school
a student is required to attend education.
AGE REQUIREMENTS FOR school: it is a duty. A school or
FREE AND COMPULSORY an equivalent program
HOLIDAYS FOR COLLEGES
EDUCATION defined by law; in fact, in the
column on the right (Statute) OR UNIVERSITIES
There are age requirements (more or less the same)
for free and compulsory you will find all the legal
education. Education is free references and the code.
for all from 5/6 to 18/21.
- Thanksgiving: 2/3days
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
(end of November)
24 states and the District of SCHOOLS
- Christmas: December
Columbia require students to 90% receive free education
23 - mid/end January
attend school until they turn from public funds.
- Springbreak:1week(M
18. 10% attend fee paying schools
arch or early April)
In Massachusetts, children as (4 out of 5 are parochial
- Summer: early/mid-
young as 3 years old are schools).
May to early
considered to be of school
September
age.

COLLEGES AND You can earn a bachelor’s
UNIVERSITIES degree at either a college or a
- YALE
What is the difference university. However, students - COLUMBIA

between ‘college’ and in the U.S.A. prefer to use the
‘university’? word “college” rather than WHAT ARE THE CHANCES FOR
U.S. university or college the word “university ” when STUDENTS TO GO TO
follows after high school, or they talk about four- year UNIVERSITY? The American
secondary school. under graduate programs and system is completely different
A college in the U.S.A. is not a the bachelor’s degree. They from the European system.
high school or secondary use phrases like,“ going to University committees
school. College and university college” and “a college examine the high school
programs begin in the degree”, when they talk grades of future students and
thirteenth year of school, about under graduate choose the best.
when a student is 17 or 18 programs at either a college
years old or older. A two-year or a university. Most Students, in turn, send their
college offers an associate's “colleges” are separate application to several
degree, as well as certificates. schools .They are not located universities, to have better
A four-year college or in a university. Some colleges chances to be accepted. If you
university offers a bachelor's are part of a university and are very good, you can obtain
degree(BA or BSc). Programs are located on the university a bursary or study grants to
that offer these degrees are campus. (The “campus” is the cover the huge costs (a whole
called “undergraduate” school buildings and cycle of study may cost over
schools. surrounding area, sometimes 40.000$!)
including sports areas,
A “university” is a group of supermarkets, cinemas...). A It is a very competitive
schools for studies after few colleges offer graduate system. Your high school
secondary school. At least one programs in selected subjects. grades are important because
of these schools is a college However, it is usually you receive recommendations
where students receive a universities that offer from your teachers and you
bachelor’s degree (B.A.). The graduate programs. So, have more opportunities to be
other schools in a university Americans use the word admitted into one of the most
are “graduate” (also known as “university” and not “college” prestigious universities if you
“postgraduate”) schools when they talk about do well in high school.
where students receive graduate study.
advanced degrees. Therefore, SPORT GRANTS
a university offers both the That is the famous Ivy League:
If you are very good at sports,
bachelor’s degree and a league of the most
you have big chances to study
graduate degrees such as the important and prestigious
in a prestigious university.
master’s (M.A.) and doctorate private universities in the
Sport is an essential part of
(Ph.D.). USA.
universities’ activity and they
attract the most promising
A clear majority of colleges They are all located in the
students and put them in their
and universities in the US are green area in the map, so
teams.
private, but 3 out of 4 of high- Northern-East of the USA.
You have to be clever or very
school graduates choose good at sports to get into
public institutions. So, the THE MOST IMPORTANT U.S. prestigious universities in
majority of students attend UNVERSITIES America.
public universities, but the
number of private universities
is higher.
- HARVARD UNIVERSITY SPORTS
- MIT

TABELLA P. 333 American The media are considered the The first modern American
Civilization → the structure of guardians of US democracy, newspaper was the New York
education in the US but there is growing criticism Herald, in 1835, helped by the
about the way news is telegraph. The New York
We can add that education is managed (fake news). So, they Tribune and The New York
not mentioned in the are both guardians and Times followed.
Constitution because it is sometimes enemies of
reserved to States, according democracy because they can In 1900 newspapers became
to the tenth amendment. be very aggressive and the the primary means of
Local authorities set up content of news is not always communication. The first
independent school districts trustworthy. modern tabloid was the NY
(kindergartens, elementary, Daily News, founded in
middle and high schools) with Most newspapers, magazines, 1919.Newspapersstartedto
several variants from state to publishers, radio and TV depend on advertising as the
state. stations are private. main source of income. Large
There is a decline of the chains dominated the media
The federal government traditional media (i.e. business. Investigative
started interfering with local newspapers). This is true not journalism, called muck raking
schools only in the 1950s to only for the USA, but all over became a feature of the print
protect civil rights and with the world because the new industries (distinctive trait of
grants and a Department of media have supplanted all the American journalism).
education only exists since old media.
1969. The advent of commercial
U.S. media have travelled a radio at the beginning of the
long road since the first 20thcentury ended print's
newspaper was published in monopoly of the media in
THE MEDIA IN THE USA Boston, Massachusetts, in America, giving nationwide
1690 (and banned by the and, later, global audiences
Main sources of political news British). Paper became a unprecedented access to live
and information: unifying force in the fight for audio programs(more or less
independence, because the the same years as in the UK).
Americans wanted an Television entered the scene
independent in 1939 and became dominant
- Television press/journalism, they were after World War II.
striking to get that.
- Internet
The early 21st century saw
- Newspapers The first relatively great advances for the
comprehensive newspaper, internet and other digital
- Radio James Franklin’s New England media. Satellite technology
- Other people and Courant, was published in has allowed U.S. TV networks,
Boston in 1721 (Monday, especially cable networks, to
social media
August 7th, 1721). reach overseas audiences
anywhere on the globe.
1791: First Amendment
Within 50 years, magazines Interactive media, fueled by
guarantees freedom of the
also began appearing in the advance of digital
press. It was approved in
several major American cities technology and the growing
1791. The media became the
(since 1741).New magazines convergence of the computer,
so-called «Fourth Estate», an
emerged after 1825; from telephone and cable
appellation that suggests the
1852 paperback books television, represent the
press shares equal stature
(novels) were sold as principal trend of the end of
with the other 3 branches of
supplements to newspapers. the 20thand the beginning of
government created by the
the 21stcenturies.
Constitution.

FREEDOM OF THE MEDIA disclosed the Watergate television, and now on the
First Amendment: Congress scandal. On June 17th, 1972, Internet.
shall not make any law that some men working for the
limits freedom of speech or Committee to re-elect While nonprofit and advocacy
the press. But freedom from President Nixon(who was organizations have significant
«prior restraint» is not president at the time) broke voices, most of the public's
absolute. The press in the USA into the Democratic Party’s primary sources of
is seen as watchdog over headquarters in the information are in business to
official actions (guardian of Watergate, a hotel-office make money(there is a big
democracy). The media have building in Washington D.C. percentage of private
often pursued an adversarial They got caught going through organizations).
line towards public authorities files and trying to plant
and individuals (publishing listening devices (they were Media and communications
official secrets, revealing spying on the Democratic are one of America's largest
classified documents, Party). While Nixon continued business groups. The media
exposing corrupt to deny any involvement, it are a great engine in American
practices).That is why it is like was revealed he routinely society, providing jobs for
a fourth branch, a part of this made secret tapes of hundreds of thousands of
checks and balances system. conversations; he was technicians, writers, artists,
listening to what the performers and intellectuals
Tabloid newspapers, TV news Democratic Party’s members and shaping attitudes and
channel sand independent were saying about the beliefs.
blogs today probe the private presidential campaign, getting
and official lives of public important information from THE PRESS
figures(they have to be careful them. The print and electronic The US does not have a
not saying inconvenient things media in the United States, national press or newspapers
or not having incorrect offering wide news and that are available in all parts
behaviours, because they are entertainment options, are a of the country, except for the
always under the media pervasive element in popular tabloid USA Today.
scrutiny). American society. But some large quality
According to a recent survey: metropolitan newspapers,
THE WATERGATE SCANDAL 98% of Americans have a such as the New York Times,
A famous example of this kind television; 82% of those watch the Washington Post, the Los
of attitude of the US media is "prime time" (=evening Angeles Times and the Wall
the Watergate scandal. programs) and 71% cable Street Journal, have a national
The Watergate scandal was a programming in an average (and often international)
political scandal in the United week. influence.
States involving the Remember that the press is
administration of U.S. 84% of Americans listen to monopolistic in the USA, in
President Richard Nixon from radio regularly. fact 75% of daily papers are
1972 to 1974 that led to 79%are newspaper readers. owned by newspaper chains.
Nixon's resignation. In 1971 45% of the whole American Important are also the US-
the New York Times begins population has access to the based news agencies
publishing the Pentagon Internet, while for certain (Associated Press, Bloomberg
Papers -the Defense demographic groups that and United Press
Department's secret history of percentage reaches a high of International).
the Vietnam War. The close to 70%. The practice of print
Washington Post will begin syndication is the action of
publishing the papers later Economics plays a major role distributing news content,
that same week. That was the in shaping the information including articles and
first scandal in 1971. served up to the U.S. public in columns, to various
The Washington Post also newspapers, on radio and publications (they can publish

an article in one newspaper There are no license fees for 40 years ago).
and then that article can be owning television sets(in the In the 1990s the world wide
bought by other papers and UK there are fees). web became commercially
distributed elsewhere in the Most commercial TV stations available Creation of
country). receive programs from the Big competitive search engines
Four private television (Google, Yahoo!, AOL and Bing
AVERAGE CIRCULATION OF networks (ABC, NBC, CBS, in the US).
MAIN DAILY NEWSPAPERS Fox). E-commerce, online shopping
Cable stations attract 1/3 of mainly on Amazon.com
MAGAZINES the TV audience (networks Increase in independent
General magazines such as like Discovery Channel, blogging as a form of
Reader’s Digest are an CNN/HLN). Fox News is the alternative news media.
important element of leading US cable news It is difficult to assess media
American cultural life network. bias (so, the distortion
(Reader’s Digest was inherent to the media when
translated in Italy until a few THE RADIO they tend to favour some
years ago). Heading into its groups of population against
100th anniversary, it is Overtaken by TV in the 1940s other media bias).
America’s fourth largest- (during WWII).
circulation magazine brand. 98% of American households Let’s go back to a few points:
But the majority of all have at least one radio set. Remember the importance of
magazines and periodicals are investigative journalism
“trade” or specialist The US does not have one (muckraking), which is the
publications. national radio station either activity, especially by
The market leaders used to be (because it is such a big newspapers and reporters, of
Time, Newsweek, US News country that they only have trying to find out unpleasant
and World Report. Now local radio). information about people or
Newsweek merged with the organizations in order to make
Daily Beast and switched from Commercial radio ownership it public (to denounce bad
paper to a digital online is concentrated in the hands behaviours of politicians or
publication(remember the of few conglomerates (here public figures).
same happened to The too we have a form of
Independent in the UK). monopolistic market). The concept of «prior
Some magazines like Vogue restraint». It is a limitation to
and Cosmopolitan sell well The National Public Radio freedom of the media, a sort
internationally. network was voted the most of preventive censorship for
trusted news source in the US. reasons of public security. For
E-BOOKS (according to a survey, example, in war times there
the constant raise of E-book American citizens tend to was a bigger control over
sales. trust the radio more than any information, so that prior
other media). restraint is put in place.
THE BROADCASTING MEDIA
THE INTERNET Watergate scandal, during the
There are two sectors:
The internet was born in the Nixon’s re-election
commercial and non-
USA. First used by the US committee. He had run the so-
commercial.
Defense Department in 1969 called “dirty tricks campaign”
Non-commercial sector: radio
to improve information against the democrats and the
and TV such as the television
exchange between Nixon administration had
Public Broadcasting Service
government agencies. illegally wiretapped the
(PBS), without advertising, run
In 1980 other computer phones of their enemies (the
by colleges and universities,
networks were allowed to use democrats), such as
with very good quality
the government system(only journalists who had been
programs.

critical on Nixon’s presidency. - Frison (spoken in occupied the South- Western
The main actors involved were some parts of regions of Britain.
the New York Times and the Germany);
Washington Post. From then on, that part of the
Germanic languages are one island was known as Engla-
The revenues from the E-book branch of the Indo- European land, ‘land of the Angles’.
sales have dramatically language family. They settled in that region and
increased, but, despite this, established seven kingdoms,
hard copybooks are still the known as heptarchy.
preferred choice for readers, The oldest attested forms of
E-books are not killing the Germanic languages are the The kingdoms of the
print industry: they go ones here in italics (Gothic, Heptarchy (8th century) and
together, they are not Old Icelandic...) and then, their relative languages
enemies. from these older languages (dialects of Old English).
derive the modern English,
TV stations, radio stations, the German... HOW CAN WE KNOW ABOUT
Internet... THE LANGUAGE THEY SPOKE?
Independent blogging Celtic languages (Irish, Scots
providing an alternative Gaelic...) are different; they The Latin alphabet got to
source of information. belong with different families. Britain after the process of
Christianisation begun by St.
LEZIONE 11 WHERE IS ENGLISH SPOKEN? Augustine, who was sent by
A SHORT HISTORY pope Gregory the Great.
Mediterranean Sea at those
OF THE ENGLISH times) until the I century B.C., Augustine reached Kent and
LANGUAGE: Part 1 – when Julius Caesar and the converted king Ethelbert in
historian Tacitus started 597. With the introduction of
Old English talking about this island called the Bible, we also had the
Britannia. diffusion of written culture, in
AN INTRODUCTION: THE a country that had been
GERMANIC LANGUAGES Caesar started the occupation characterised by oral customs.
English belongs to Germanic of the island in 55 B.C. and
languages, a family of faced the resistance of local In fact, Anglo-Saxons used to
languages that include: peoples, of Celtic origins, who transmit laws, traditions and
spoke a language that is the literary works (poems) orally.
- German (spoken in ancestor of nowadays’ Welsh Actually, they knew a form of
Germany, Austria, or Irish. writing, which was used in
parts of Switzerland, very limited contexts: the
in North-East Italy); So, neither the first settlers runes.
- Netherlandish (Dutch, nor the new occupiers spoke
spoken in the any form of English. Actually, THE FRANKS CASKET
Netherlands; they did not spoke a Germanic (7thCENTURY)
- Flemish, spoken in language at all.
part of Belgium; All the countries here are
- Afrikaans, spoken in To hear a Germanic person parts of the English-speaking
South Africa); speak in those places we must world. There are 5 branches
- Scandinavian wait until the5thcentury of contemporary world
languages (Swedish, (officially in 449 A.D.), when English:
Norwegian, Danish, three Germanic peoples –the
Faroese, spoken in the Angles, the Saxons and the HOW DO WE KNOW
Faroe Islands); Jutes – coming from Northern GERMANIC? Actually, we do
Germany and Denmark, not know it.

Unlike other older languages monuments and manuscripts 2. New English (NE) or
that gave birth to modern with runic inscriptions. Modern English.
languages (such as Latin, from 3. The New English
which Italian, French, Spanish, However, runic elements period (NE) lasts to
Portuguese, Romanian were were also introduced in the the present day.
born), Germanic is not Latin alphabet, to express
attested anywhere: the sounds that were not present
father/mother of modern in the Latin language (traces OE begins with the beginning
Germanic languages is not of the runes remained in the of writing (end of the 7th
readable anywhere. Latin alphabet). Ƿ (wynn), century) and ends with the
used to express the labiovelar Norman Conquest (1066). ME
In fact, we do not possess any approximant [w] begins with the Norman
written proof that this Conquest and ends on the
language really existed (we do þ (thorn), used to express the introduction of printing
not have documents testing voiceless linguolabial fricative (1475).
that language). [θ] ]
However, we can guess that Place- names provide

the ancestors of the English, intriguing evidence about the OLD ENGLISH
the Germans and the Dutch developing relationships The tribal dialects gradually
spoke that language (or between the British and the changed into local or regional
something very similar), Anglo-Saxons (remember that dialects: West Saxon, Kentish,
basing on a backward the Anglo-Saxons arrived Mercian and Northumbrian
reconstruction. We compare when the British were already (mappa sopra).
the languages we suppose there). With the rise of the Kingdom
belonging to the same family There are large numbers of of Wessex, the West Saxon
and find the linguistic Celtic place- names in England dialect prevailed and most
elements they share/have in like Arden, Avon, Exe, Leeds, written records of this period
common. These features must Severn, and compound names have survived in this dialect.
have belonged to the ancestor with a Celtic component: OE was a typical Old Germanic
language. comb (deep valley); dun language, with a purely
(hillfort), lin (lake) and several Germanic vocabulary and few
As we all know, the first place words for ‘hill’ (torr, pen, foreign borrowings.
where English was spoken is crug, bre, mamm). OE was an inflected or
Britain. Ex. Berkshire; Bray; Bredon; “synthetic” language with a
But was English the first (or Cambridge; Lancaster; well-developed system of
the only) language spoken by Leicester; Lincoln; morphological categories,
the people of Britain? Manchester; Doncaster. especially in the noun and
adjective.
As already mentioned briefly CHRONOLOGICAL
in one of the first classes, DIVISIONS IN THE HISTORY AN OUTLINE OF OLD
Britain remained isolated OF ENGLISH ENGLISH GRAMMAR
from the rest of the civilised The commonly accepted, Old English retains the flexive
world traditional periodization system of Germanic (in turn
divides English history into inherited from Indo-European
THE FRANKS CASKET –THE three periods: ex. Latin has a flexive system,
FRONT PANEL too), but with some
simplifications.
Runes were widely used in 1. Old English (OE) or
Anglo- Saxon England, as Anglo-Saxon Middle masculine, feminine, neuter
demonstrated by the many English (ME) are kept. four cases instead of
the five of Germanic (and the

eight of Indo- BEOWULF NINTH CENTURY – THE
European):nominative, It is the earliest epic poem in DANISH OCCUPATION
accusative, genitive, dative
e English literature. During the 9th century, a
simplified version. So, Old It talks about Beowulf, a major event happened: the
English is a synthetic Swedish hero who came to Danish occupation. Viking
language, unlike modern Denmark to free the realm of raiders attacked the North-
English. king Hrothgar from a monster Eastern coasts of England and
called Grendel. eventually occupied part of
SYNTAX The account goes on with an the English kingdom.
Old English had a high aged Beowulf who, become
syntactic freedom of words the king of Sweden, has to The figure of king Alfred was
within a sentence, due to the defend his kingdom from a crucial: he convinced the
high grade of inflection. dragon, waken up by one of Danish leader to sign the
Old English basic order was Beowulf’s servants who peace treaty.
SOV, but also SVO, OVS, VSO entered the dragon’s den and A peace treaty between the
were present. stole a cup from his treasure. Danish leader Guthrum and
Beowulf kills the dragon, but the king of Wessex Alfred the
Ex: gif þu sie Godes sunuSe tu
u he dies too. Great established the birth of
sia figlio di Dio a new political entity, known
Taken from a translation of = To glorify the past as Dane lagu, or Dane law
the Bible into Old English; sie= (‘Danish jurisdiction’ here in
son, sunu= sia SOV 🡪 we get to know how people brown).
used to live at that time
ALFRED THE GREAT (849- ANGLO-SAXON
899) It started as an oral poem CHRONICLE. THE FIRST
He is acknowledged to be the VIKING RAID
first English monarch. BEOWULF Another important work
King of Wessex, he stopped Lines 1-3: Translated in which helps us understand
the Danish invasion of Modern English by Seamus how life was at that time is
England. Heaney (from Old English). the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
With the ‘Alfredian A sample of the poem:
Renaissance’, the Wessex It is a collection of annals in
variety of Old English became There are many figures of Old English, chronicling the
the standard for all England speech, some letters are history of the Anglo-Saxons,
(at that time that dialect was underlined because they are tracing back events and giving
imposed on the other dialects alliterating. The text has a us the chance to have an idea
thanks to Alfred’s policy and peculiar rhythm and some of the imagery of people at
cultural efforts, in order to repetitions of vowels that time (Anglo-Saxon
spread knowledge of the (assonance is present). Chronicle: historical events,
language). Beowulf = fantastic, but the
It is a very polished language. imagery is the same in both
King Alfred’s cultural policy: He tries to translate from Old works).
he promoted the translation English into Modern English.
of Latin works and the records English is much more analytic The original manuscript of the
of accounts coming from the than Anglo-Saxon (which was chronicle was created late in
Germanic lore and traditions a synthetic language). We also the 9th century, probably in
(both classic and local works). notice that there are letters of Wessex, during the reign of
the Anglo- Saxon alphabet, Alfred the Great. Multiple
One of them is the story of introduced from the runes: copies were made of that one
Beowulf. 2nd and 3rd lines. original and then distributed
to monasteries across
England, where they were

independently updated (it was As well as politically, this There are over 2,000
like a work in progress, they occupation also had a Scandinavian place-names,
were always adding material dramatic influence in the ending in - by (the Old Norse
overtime). In one case the evolution of the English word for a farmstead or
chronicle was still being language. The contacts town–like Rugby) and in –
actively updated in 1144. between the Anglo-Saxons Thorpe («village»).
and the Danish
Here is a section about the (=Vikings)determined the There are also many family
first Viking raid, as introduction of new linguistic names, such as those ending
remembered by the author of elements in Old English. in –son: Johnson, Henderson,
the chronicle. Jackson...
According to some
Ann. dccxciii. Her wæron reðe researchers, it was because of On January to October 1066,
forebecna cumene ofer this contact that English when he was defeated by
norðhymbra land . 7 þæt folc syntax turned from OV to VO. another man of Scandinavian
earmlic bre?don þæt wæron This influence is more visible origins, William Duke of
ormete þodenas 7 lig rescas . in vocabulary. Normandy.
7 fyrenne dracan wæron
gesewene on þam lifte The monster stands for evil THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY
fleogende . þam tacnum sona This conquest is recorded in
fyligde mycelhunger This work stresses... the Bayeux Tapestry, with
very vivid images of the battle.
. 7 litel æfter þam þæs ilcan + religious elements Here: Harold is mortally
geares . on . vi . id. ianr . wounded by an arrow in the
earmlice hæthenra manna The following is a list of eye. William is the new king of
hergunc adilegode godes Modern English words with a England.
cyrican in Lindisfarna ee . þurh Scandinavian origin: There are words in Latin: “HIC
hreaflac 7 mansliht . 7 Sicga Egg< ON egg HAROLD REX INTERFECTUS
forthferde . on . viii . EST”.
kl.martius. Get< ON geta
Gift< ON gift This occupation had dramatic
Year 793. Here were dreadful Husband < ON husbondi effects not only for the
forewarnings come over the (master of the house) political and social future of
land of North umbria, and Knife < ON knifr England, but also for the
woefully terrified the people: Law < ON lagu evolution of the English
these were amazing lightnings They < ON þeir (OE had had language. After the victory,
and whirlwinds, and fiery hie) William substituted all the
dragons were seen flying in Anglo-Saxon nobility and the
the sky. A great famine soon They derive from the Danish clergy with French people,
followed these signs, and language (Old Norse). who spoke French only. This
shortly after in the same year, The pronoun “they” was meant the disappearance of
on the sixth day before the introduced in this period, English from all the official
ides of January, the woeful thanks to the contact with Old contexts of the kingdom –
raids of heathen men Norse. administration, business,
destroyed God’s church in religious texts started being
Lindisfarne island doing fierce The –sending for the 3rd written in French or in Latin.
robbery and slaughter. And person singular present-tense
Sicga died on the eighth day form of the verb was almost (Parallel of this situation:
before the calends of March. certainly a Scandinavian nowadays, English is the
feature. official language of the
SCANDINAVIAN European Union).
INFLUENCES IN ENGLISH For about a century, English

disappeared from written English: language of the county, power, authority,
records, with very few people parliament, money, rich, poor.
exceptions. Latin: language of religious
expression French: language Justice and law: justice, judge,
English began to re-emerge of clergy and aristocracy debt, prison, traitor, case,
only in the 13th century, when When English started being prove, crime, family,
the Normans started mixing used again in official written marriage, age, heir.
with the locals and when the texts, it looked pretty Feudal system: baron, count,
English kings felt the need to different from the language prince, honour, noble, sir,
detach from their motherland spoken by king Alfred the madam, servant, order, obey.
and to determine their Great.
kingdom as a nation. When Military: war, army, tower,
Edward III declared himself The 12th century marks the soldier, navy enemy, danger,
«King of England and France» beginning of an intermediate force. Literature, arts, science:
in 1340, French became the period that will last for four art, verse, poem, poetry,
language of the enemy (the centuries, until the end of the beauty, colour, image,
opposition between England 15thcentury. This phase is
and France started in this called Middle English.
period).
As English had not been used
Moreover, the number of officially (in official contexts) LEZIONE 12
Normans in England was fora long time, no standard
never sufficient for their was available.
language to have made much In fact, a number of varieties A SHORT HISTORY
of an impact on the general co- existed in different areas,
population. which can be identified as
OF THE ENGLISH
dialects. LANGUAGE: Part 2 –
It is true that French was the Middle English
official language of public Two big language boundaries
servants, the king and nobles, and several dialect
1066. THE BATTLE OF
but, at a deeper level, English boundaries.
remained the language of the In the course of the HASTINGS AND THE
people: French did not have 14thcentury, the activity of NORMAN CONQUEST OF
much of an impact on the Geoffrey Chaucer and the ENGLAND
population. success of his works Middle English starts
determined the supremacy of conventionally in 1066 with
The vast majority of them the South-Eastern dialect (the the battle of Hastings and the
would have had little or no dialect spoken in London) as Norman conquest.
contact with French at literary language over the
other dialects. After the peace signed by the
all and would continue to Danish leader Guthrum and
speak Old English. The Norman domination Alfred, king of Wessex, a
Latin also continued to be the determined the introduction relatively long period of peace
primary language of religious (or, rather, imposition) of a followed.
expression. huge number of French and
Latinate words that are still At the turn of the year 1000,
We have a situation of present in current English. the Danish even got to the
trilingualism (triglossia: three throne of England, even
language with different social Government and though this domination did
functions spoken by different
s administration: government, not last long.
people or by the same people court, crown, peace, country,
but in different situations). The last of the Danish kings
was Harold II, who reigned

from January to October never sufficient for their The Norman domination
1066, when he was defeated language to have made much determined the introduction
by another man of of an impact on the general (or, rather, imposition) of a
Scandinavian origins, William population. The vast majority huge number of French and
Duke of Normandy. of them would have had little Latinate words that are still
or no contact with French at present in current English.
THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY all and would continue to Government and
Battle of Hastings: portrayed speak Old English (king, administration, justice and
in the Bayeux tapestry. noblemen and clergy switched law, feudal system, military,
Harold is mortally wounded to French). literature, arts, science,
by an arrow in the eye. fashion, cookery, religion.
William is the new king of Latin also continued to be the (sono le stesse parole della
England. This will have major primary language of religious lezione 11 )
consequences for England and expression. We have a
English language. situation of trilingualism HOW DID ENGLISH CHANGE
(triglossia: three language IN THIS PERIOD?
This occupation had dramatic with different social
effects not only for the functions). When English Along with the introduction of
political and social future of started being used again in thousands of Romance words,
England, but also for the official written texts, it looked the most visible change in
evolution of the English pretty different from the English is the almost complete
language. After the victory, language spoken by king loss of inflection in nouns (in
William substituted all the Alfred the Great. Old English all names, verbs,
Anglo-Saxon nobility and the adjectives... were inflected).
clergy with French people, The 12th century marks the
who spoke French only. This beginning of an intermediate Now, plurals are just
meant the disappearance of period that will last for four distinguished from singulars
English from all the official centuries, until the end of the by the addition of a suffix in -
contexts of the kingdom – 15th century. This phase is es. (Current plural suffix was
administration, business, called Middle English. introduced in this period -s/-
religious texts started being es). Also adjectives lost almost
written in French or in Latin. As English had not been used all inflection. Plurals are just
For about a century, English officially for a long time, no distinguished from singulars
disappeared from written standard was available. In by the addition of a suffix in -
records, with very few fact, a number of varieties co- e.
exceptions. existed in different areas,
which can be identified as The determinatives se,
English began to re-emerge dialects (at that time they seoþætare totally lost. New
only in the 13th century, when were called “varieties” since forms þis, þat/þoseandþeare
the Normans started mixing there was no standard used for all genders, cases and
with the locals and when the language). numbers.
English kings felt the need to
detach from their motherland In the course of the 14th The only category to have
and to determine their century, the activity of shown some resistance is that
kingdom as a nation. When Geoffrey Chaucer and the of personal pronouns.
Edward III declared himself success of his works We can see an increasing
«King of England and France» determined the supremacy of reliance on alternative means
in 1340, French became the the South-Eastern dialect (the of expression, using word
language of the enemy. dialect spoken in London) as order (SVO) and prepositional
literary language over the constructions rather than
Moreover, the number of other dialects. word endings to express
Normans in England was meaning relationships.

The progressive form is modeled on Boccaccio’s Some sentences make instant
emerged and the range of Decameron. This work, and in sense; others may unravel
auxiliary verbs broadened. general, Chaucer’s activity, are partway through.
The infinitive form of a verb fundamental for the birth of a
starts to be marked by to. standard literary language, This is an example of Middle
which became that spoken by English and of how Middle
Here we still have cases, but Chaucer himself, who was English has been flooded with
from these tables we notice born and lived in London (the French. Chaucer’s poetic
how the pronouns changed in dialect/variety spoken in vocabulary contains about
time from Old English, to Early London became the standard 8000 words, of which about
Middle English and to Late English). 4000 are French. Here, the
Middle English (similar to our underlined words come from
pronouns). The language varies according French.
to the themes: French words, Chaucer’s function words, on
In this period, even in Late erudite expositions, technique the contrary, are from Old
Middle English, the 2nd of the gloss (he puts together English: there is a mix of
person in the plural is old words and new words, so Middle English and Old
different from the 2nd person that the old words could English.
in the singular. ↓ explain the new words),
words with German and We notice how the
PERSONAL PRONOUNS - French roots, very rich inflectional system of English
NOMINATIVE vocabulary... has decayed considerably by
Chaucer’s day.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS – THE OPENING LINES Extract from the first edition
ACCUSATIVE / DATIVE Each of the major literary of the CT with an image of the
works of the Middle English author indicating his own
PERSONAL PRONOUNS – period provides evidence of work
GENITIVE (POSSESSIVE) the way new French loans
were continuing to arrive and LEXICAL ALTERNATIVES
GEOFFREY CHAUCER, THE older loans being Chaucer uses the so-called
CANTERBURY TALES consolidated. “gloss”, which is a technique
The most important author in By the time were ach the that puts together new words
the Middle English period is opening lines of The and old words, so that the old
Geoffrey Chaucer. The Canterbury Tales the French words are used to explain the
Canterbury Tales are a lexical content is a major meaning of the new words.
collection of tales written by linguistic feature: The reader immediately
Geoffrey Chaucer between understands because he sees
1387 and 1400. When that Aprill with his the couple as one thing: in this
These tales are told by a shoures soote. The droghte of way Chaucer used Germanic
group of pilgrims heading to March hath percedto the words together with French
the shrine of St. Thomas roote, words in the Canterbury Tales.
Becket at Canterbury And bathed every veyne in This also applies to other
Cathedral, where all the swich licour Of which vertu erudite works, as Chaucer was
members of the society of engendred is the flour... a scholar apart from being an
that times are portrayed intellectual and a writer.
ironically. French influenced English:
many of the words in Chaucer (the future Henry VII) marked
This is a social portrait which are the same as in Present the end of the War of the
gives us the opportunity to Day English, others are Roses and the beginning of a
have an idea of the language recognizable but strangely period of political stability,
of the time: forms, spelled and others are which favoured a huge
vocabulary, syntax... The work completely unintelligible. cultural development and the

beginning of English The different phases of the increasing military
Renaissance. Great Vowel Shift and political power
(Elizabethan Age)
Here is the turning point, with The end of the Middle English - New literary
these two events. period is traditionally placed consciousness:
between 1476and1483. Chaucer and other
THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT These years mark two authors
The passage from Middle fundamental events in the - Since mid-16th
English to Modern English is history of England: 1476: century: introduction
marked by a fundamental William Caxton, the first of new literary models
linguistic change, which English printer, sets his coming from the
involved phonology. This was printing press at Westminster. Continent (Europe):
a very long process that last Thomas Wyatt’s
about two centuries and that The press contributed sonnets...
brought English to be, enormously to the process of - King James’
fundamentally, the language language standardization (the Bible(1611): “the
we study and speak East Midlands dialect and the authorized version of
nowadays. dialect of the London area in the Bible” promoted
This phenomenon is called particular, becomes the by King James I,
Great Vowel Shift. This national standard). The fixity «appointed to be read
process implies a series of of the printed word and the in Churches» + The
changes in the pronunciation distribution of books made Book of Common
of the accented long vowels. the London variety of English Prayer
Researchers suppose that the standard for the whole - The works of William
what triggered the chain was kingdom. Shakespeare (plays
the changed pronunciation of and sonnets)
Middle English /i:/ and /u:/, 1483:the death of Richard III - First vocabularies,
two long vowels which started of the House of York by the actually glossaries:
to be pronounced as a hand of Henry Tudor foreign or difficult
diphthong, perhaps to English words with
distinguish two different RENAISSANCE their
words written in the same Renaissance marks a very definition/explanation
way (ex. ‘wind’ vs ‘to wind’). important period for the
For example, consider verbs English language: A TEXT FROM 1611 (vedi slide
such as written, which had a 21 lezione 12)
/i:/ in the infinitive and a /i/ in - Linguistic
the past participle. transformations (GVS, From Matthew
As a consequence to this further morphological Pronouns/adjectives we have
difficulty in distinguishing simplification) seen before (thy/thine)
between the two sounds, we - New linguistic 2nd person singular to refer to
have a shift of all the other consciousness: English God (to mark the proximity
vowels as well, until a new became the language between people and God)
balance was established (GVS of the nations: that
then involved all the other situation of SHAKESPEARE IDIOMS
vowels). trilingualism was There is no doubt that William
Basically, the long vowels gradually abandoned. Shakespeare gave a lot to
shifted upwards: a vowel that - English as important literature and to the English
used to be pronounced in one as the major language, but did you know
place in the mouth would be European that one of the most
pronounced in a different languages(Latin, influential playwrights of all
place, higher up in the mouth. Italian, French, time also coined some of the
Spanish), due to the

best-known idioms we still use THE RENAISSANCE linguistic phenomena of this
today in English? The Renaissance brought a century brought to the English
widening of horizons. Words we study nowadays. It was
“The king’s a bawcock, and a were introduced from all the only then that grammarians
heart of gold, a lad of life, an major European languages. worked for a regularization of
imp of fame, of parents good, The atmosphere of global the language.
of fist most valiant.” – Henry V exploration is unmistakable. The first dictionaries started
Direct loans into English, being produced at the
“This is a way to kill a wife however, had to wait for the beginning of the 17thand
with kindness, and thus I’ll first English settlement finally in the 18th century,
curb her mad (towards the beginning of the after a period of
17th century, exploration was unprecedented social and
and headstrong humor.” –The only at its start). political upheaval (the
Taming of the Shrew The new vocabulary can be Reformation, the Civil Wars,
seen even in the first written the execution of the king, Irish
“Pray you let us not be accounts which reached and Scottish rebellions, the
laughing-stocks to other Britain, demonstrating the Glorious Revolution): a
men's humours; I desire you speed with which languages «century of revolution» was
in friendship, and I will one adapt to new circumstances. followed by an «age of
way or other make you learning and politeness».
amends.” –The Merry Wives In 1608 a London printer
of Windsor published a recently written 1755: the first complete
account by Captain John English dictionary by Samuel
“O, beware, my lord, of Smith of the early exploration Johnson (one of the most
jealousy! It is the green-eyed of Virginia. His story contains famous dictionaries in
monster, which doth mock many Amerindian place- history).
the meat it feeds on." – names. In Smith’s later writing
Othello (The color green was we find such words as The dictionary took just over 8
often referenced to being moccasin. years to complete, required 6
unwell or sick.) helpers and listed 40 000
The new words generally words. Each word was defined
“Flower of this purple dye, hit reflect an encounter with the in detail: the definitions
with Cupid’s archery, sink in various aspects of culture and illustrated with quotations
apple of his eye.” –A religion, like harem, magazine, covering every branch of
Midsummer Night’s Dream. sofa(Arabic); coffee, yoghurt learning.
(Turkish).As the British East
“If it be so, sir, that you are India Company was It was a huge scholarly
the man must stead us all and established in India in 1600, achievement, a more
me amongst the rest, and if we find words as bungalow, extensive and complex
you break the ice and do this catamaran, curry, mango and, dictionary than any of its
feat, achieve the elder, set the from the Far East, bamboo, predecessors.
younger free for our access, ketchup, kimono (all these
whose hap shall be to have words became English words, It was commissioned by a
her will not so graceless be to they were integrated into the group of London booksellers,
be ingrate.” –The Taming of vocabulary). as they hoped that a book of
the Shrew this kind would help stabilize
18TH CENTURY: the rules governing the
In this particular period, the STABILIZING DISORDER English language.
language was so rich that new Another big turning point: In the preface to the book,
words from foreign languages various attempts to stabilize Johnson explains how he had
and idioms coined by author disorder, not only in politics found the language to be
entered the language. but also language. All the ‘copious without order, and

energetic without rules’ Shakespeare...). Therefore, its unconventional
(according to him...). the quotations reflect his own preferences in spelling, its
distinct literary taste and tendency to advocate U.S.
In his view, English was in political views. rather than British usage and
desperate need of some spelling and its inclusion of
discipline. He said: “wherever Here is Johnson, posing with nonliterary words, particularly
I turned my view, there was quill and ink, shortly after the technical terms from the arts
perplexity to be disentangled dictionary was published in and sciences.
and confusion to be 1755.
regulated”. The dictionary contained
THE STANDARDISATION OF about 70000 entries and
However, in the process of AMERICAN ENGLISH between 30000 and 40000
compiling the dictionary, More or less in the same definitions that had not
Johnson recognized that the period, in America, we have appeared in any earlier
language was impossible to the same process of dictionary. Despite Webster’s
fix, because of its constantly standardization of American frequent disparagement of
changing nature, and that his English. Johnson, his indebtedness to
role was to record the Johnson’s literary vocabulary
language of the day, rather In America, Noah Webster is apparent in both definitions
than to form it. (1758- 1843) proposed the and citations (he took from
institution of a national Johnson, even though he said
Johnson details the ways in American standard. he did not like his dictionary).
which languages change 1828: American English
overtime. However much the Dictionary, in which a new THE STANDARDIZATION OF
lexicographer may want to fix spelling system was codified, AMERICAN ENGLISH
or “embalm” his language, was published. Webster was successful in
new words, phrases and changing – rewords to –
pronunciations are constantly dictionary) that “grammar is er(center) and in omitting u
appearing, whether brought formed on language, and not from words ending in –our
from abroad (by merchants language on grammar. ”He (color). Today, most of the
and travelers) or extracted spoke of American English as differences between American
from the workrooms of “Federal English,” always and British spelling are due to
geometricians and physicians contrasting the superior usage the American words having
or found in the minds of of American with the alleged fewer letters (in 2/3 of cases
poets. affectations of London (he )one vowel instead of two)
thought American usage was main difference.
There are over 114 000 superior).
quotations in the dictionary. Consonant changes included
Johnson was the first English The reader consisted mainly the use of z for sin verb
lexicographer to use citations of American selections chosen endings (advertize, analyze),
in this way: a method that to promote democratic ideals replacing -ceby –se (defense,
greatly influenced the style of and responsible moral and offense) and simplifying the
future dictionaries all over the political conduct. double consonant before a
world. suffix (traveling, appareled).
The first edition of An
He had scoured books American Dictionary of the
stretching back to the 16th English Language was
century, so he searched for published in two volumes in
words in older books, often LEZIONE 13
1828, when he was 70 years
quoting from those thought to old. It sold out in little more
be great works (poemas by Webster was instrumental in
than a year, despite harsh
Milton, poems or plays by giving American English a
attacks on its “Americanisms,”
dignity and vitality of its own.

He first published the Webster’s principle /er/, /ir/, /ur/ are
American Spelling Book, then (enunciated later in his pronounced/ə:/. This is a new
the American Dictionary of phoneme which started
the English Language, in two A SHORT HISTORY appearing in this period.
volumes and in two editions
(1828 and 1840). OF THE ENGLISH /r/ also disappears when
LANGUAGE: Part 3 – found at the end of the word
Both these books (the speller and followed by a vowel: car,
and the dictionary) reflected From Modern star, river.
his principle that spelling, English to World
grammar and usage should be /k/ disappears before /n/ at
based upon the living, spoken English the beginning of a word:
language rather than on knight, knee, knock.
artificial rules. He also made THE VICTORIAN AGE (1837-
useful contributions as a 1901) AND PRESENT DAY /w/ disappears before /r/ at
teacher, grammarian, ENGLISH the beginning of a word:
journalist, essayist, lecturer Standard English was taught write, wrong, wrap.
and lobbyist. throughout all Great Britain,
especially in public schools /l/ disappears before /k/ and,
Webster entered Yale (which are not state schools only in auxiliaries,
University (Ivy League) in but very prestigious private before/d/:walk, talk, should,
1774, interrupted his studies schools). This is the era of RP= would.
to serve briefly in the Received Pronunciation
American Revolution and was Prevalence of the pronoun
then graduated. He taught The standard English “you” instead of “thou, thee”
school, did clerical work and pronunciation, coming from for the 2ndperson, which was
studied law. South-East (the London used with people of a lower
area),taught in all schools and class or to denote an intimate
While teaching in New York, used by the upper class (this is relationship (as with God).
Webster became dissatisfied the period of the spread of
with texts for children that literacy). “You” began to be used as a
ignored the American culture polite form.
and he began his lifelong Dialects became marks of
efforts to promote a social (more than local) The subjunctive almost
distinctively American differentiation. disappears and remains only
education. Moreover, colonialism in fixed forms like:
contributed to the spreading
His first step in this direction of English in the world. If I were you (together with If I
was the preparation of A was you); I wish I were there;
Grammatical Institute of the FEATURES OF RP Long live the queen (viva la
English Language, the first Vowels are pronounced after regina) Heaven forbid(Dio ne
part being The American the Great Vowel Shift. guardi); God bless you (Dio ti
Spelling Book, which has benedica) ; So help me God
never been out of print. The /r/, if found in a closed (formula pronunciata dai
spelling book provided much syllable (i.e., a syllable ending presidenti americani al
of Webster’s income for the with a consonant), looses its momento del giuramento)
rest of his life, it was very sound but extends the
successful. duration of the preceding Introduction of the form “in
vowel: herb, birth, bird, order to” in XVIII century.
A grammar and a reader church, course, curse, first,
completed his Institute. start.
The grammar was based on

Use of the verb “to do” in and an accent closer to where they appear in the
negative and interrogative ‘estuary’. middle of sentences such as
sentences. ‘Where’s he gone?’ and ‘It’s in
The issue is certainly a talking her handbag’.
Use of have to instead of must point; there have been plenty Where’s he gone? It’s in her
(not completely of column inches on Prince handbag.
interchangeable, not the same William and Kate Middleton’s
meaning). varying levels of ‘RP’ recently, SAM WELLER FROM THE
with some bloggers claiming PICKWICK PAPERS (1837)
COCKNEY (ESTUARY William has ‘quite a bit of
ENGLISH) This is a dialect Estuary’ in his speech (even Here we have a character
that developed in the London the prince has been criticized made by Charles Dickens in
area in the 19th century. It was for speaking this variety of The Pickwick Papers called
spoken by the lower class, in English). Sam Weller, whose English is
opposition to the RP. very marked from a social
WHAT ARE THE KEY point of view (very low-class
Its vowels are different due to DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RP & man).
a further development of the ESTUARY?
Vowel Shift. 1. Intrusive /r/ As we can see from this
Cockney differs from RP Intrusive /r/ is a joining /r/ extract, he speaks a variety of
phonologically, but it is sound between one word English which is very close to
particularly interesting from ending in /ə/ or /ɔ:/ and Estuary English (we find
an idiomatic point of view. another word beginning with typical traits of EE, Dickens is
a vowel. (EG ‘China and India’ great at trying to show how
COCKNEY IDIOMS or ‘law and order’). people actually spokein those
Apples and Pears – ‘stairs’: days).
“Let’s get you up those apples RP
and pears.” An RP speaker would not add INVARIABLE  INWARIABLE,
Pete Tong –‘wrong’: “It’s all an /r/ sound in order to join VERY  WERY (substitution of
gone Pete Tong!” (rhyming two words, instead placing a V with W) CREATURE 
slang phrase used in Britain pause. China and India, law CREETUR, AGAIN AGIN
from the 1980s, referring to and order (mocking the pronunciation of
the BBC Radio 1 DJ Pete Tong, diphthongs)
who went completely deaf) Estuary
Barney Rubble –‘trouble’: An Estuary speaker would use UNNATURAL  UNNAT’RAL
“Are you making Barney intrusive /r/ making all words etc. (omission of some letters)
Rubble again?” and sounds join together.
Baked Bean –‘Queen’: “Look China/r/and India, law/r/and ENGLISH(ES) IN THE
who’s on TV, it’s the baked order
WORLD As we all know,
bean!” English is acknowledged to be
Pig’s ear –‘beer’: “I think I owe 2. /h/ dropping the international language
you a pig’s ear.” RP nowadays. It is, in fact, the
Trouble and strife –‘wife’: “I An RP speaker may never most spoken language in the
had an argument with the drop an /h/ sound, even in world. After WWII the huge
trouble and strife last night.” function words such as ‘he’, mass of anglicisms which has
‘her’, ‘have’ etc. pervaded all Europe is more
COCKNEY (ESTUARY he, her, have evident than ever, thanks to
ENGLISH) the military, economic and
Estuary political power of the USA.
Estuary speakers would Today anglicisms pertain to
A lot of native speakers in the
certainly drop the /h/ in the field of trade and
South of England tend to
function words, particularly communication, with words
switch constantly between RP

like marketing, leasing, buyer, Ulster and people from all fibre, litre, manoeuvre,
budget, film, cast, set, walks of life, a variety of meagre, metre, nitre,
deadline, computer, software, English pretty different from sepulchre, spectre, theatre all
download, etc. English is the the contemporary British have- erin AE (caliber, center,
lingua franca of standard appeared. fiber, etc.)
communication, sailing, pilots,
information, technology, DIFFERENCES IN SPELLING -ysevs -yze
internet, but is also the Many of the differences The ending -yseis BE and -
language of diplomacy and between American and British yzeis GA. Thus, in BE analyse,
the international science English date back to a time catalyse, hydrolyse and
community. when spelling standards had paralyse, but in GA analyze,
not yet been developed. In catalyze, hydrolyze and
LOCAL VARIETY COCKNEY; fact, some spellings seen as paralyze.
GLOBAL VARIETY ENGLISH ‘American’ today were once
AS A LINGUA FRANCA commonly used in Britain and This is interesting because,
some spellings seen as sometimes, when the same
WHAT IS AMERICAN ENGLISH ‘British’ were once commonly book is published in the USA
(AE)? used in the United States. A and in Britain,
It is the variety of English ‘British standard’ began to
spoken in North America (US emerge following the 1755 In a nation of more than 300
and Canada). publication of Samuel million people, it is little
It is not the official language Johnson’s A Dictionary of the wonder that their accents vary
of the U.S., though. English Language and an widely.
‘American standard’ started More than a decade ago,
Only 32 out of the 50 States following the work of Noah Robert Delaney, a reference
have given official status to it. Webster and, in particular, his associate at Long Island
An American Dictionary of the University, put together this
AMERICAN ENGLISH English Language, first map of the 24 regions of
Generally speaking, we refer published in 1828. American English (here:
to U.S. English as General simplified version of the
American (GA). The linguist -our vs –or (the U drops) Most Delaney hierarchy with an
William Labov describes GA as words ending in -ourin indication of the dialect
‘a fairly uniform broadcast BE:colour, flavour, behaviour, regions).
standard in the mass media’. harbour, honour, humour,
Nevertheless, English is not as labour, neighbour, rumour, ENGLISH(ES) IN THE
uniform as Labov seems to survivour, splendour WORLD
suggest (even in the USA we end in -or in GA: color, flavor,
have different varieties). behavior, harbor, honor,
humor, labor, neighbor, World English vs World
Even though the foundation rumor, survivor, splendor Englishes: World English refers
of the English colonies in to the English language as a
America startedin the XVII -ervs -re lingua franca used in business,
century, only in the next In BE, some words from trade, diplomacy and other
century can wedistinguish an French, Latin or Greek end spheres of global activity,
American English, with the with a consonant followed by while World Englishes refer to
arrival of a significant number an unstressed -re. In AE, most the different varieties of
of immigrants. From this of these words have the English and English- based
mixture of the languages of ending- er. creoles developed in different
immigrants of different The difference is most regions of the world. The
origins, English men and common for words ending - ‘New Englishes’ became the
women of various regions, but breor -tre: dominant development in the
also Scottisha nd Irish from BE spellings calibre, centre,

second half of the 20th their countries, where they the language of the occupied
century. became in the margins of
communication (the language
HOW DID ENGLISH SPREAD governors, presidents, prime of the occupied becomes a
WORLDWIDE? ministers... They had a big sort of dialect, spoken only in
The first phase English education: that is why informal communication).
The first phase started with English became a crucial Lingua franca: a third
the first big migration, which language of the government language is used to
involved relatively large- scale in those countries. Even after communicate (ex. Europe:
movements of mother- their independence, English Britain is no longer a member,
tongue English speakers from remained the official language but we still use English as a
England, Scotland and Ireland for many of them (ex. in India, lingua franca).
predominantly to North English is one of the two
America and the Caribbean, official languages, together Pidgins and creoles: mixture
Australia and New Zealand. In with Hindi). English was of the two languages. Usually,
contrast to the English spoken formally introduced into the basis is the language of
in Great Britain, the varieties South Asia(India, Bangladesh, the occupiers (some variations
spoken in modern North Pakistan, Srilanka, Nepaland are introduced in the
America and the Caribbean, Bhutan) in the second half of language of the occupiers,
South Africa, Australia and the 18th century. During the coming from the language of
New Zealand have been period of the British the occupied).
modified as being in contact sovereignty (the Raj),English
with indigenous Native became the medium of LANGUAGES IN CONTACT:
American, Aboriginal and administration and education PIDGINS AND CREOLES
Maori populations in the throughout the subcontinent
colonies. The language of the (Gandhi himself was very A pidgin is most commonly
locals is called substrate fluent in English). Britishi employed in situations such as
language; the language of the nfluence in South- East Asia trade. Fundamentally, a pidgin
occupiers is the superstrate and the South Pacific began in is a simplified means of
language. the late 18th century, linguistic communication,
involving primarily the where grammar is not as
The second phase The second territories now known as important as immediate
migration was the result of Singapore, Malaysia, Hong verbal exchange. There is an
the colonization of Asia and Kong and Papua New Guinea, emergency of language use
Africa. English in West Africa also a British protectorate, for very practical purpose,
began with trade, particularly with his English- based Tok especially in contexts of trade
the slave trade. English soon Pisin (mixture of English and and commerce.
gained official status in what local substrate language).
are today Gambia, Ghana, A pidgin is not the native
Nigeria and Cameroon. As for LINGUISTIC CONTACT language of any speech
East Africa, extensive British It happens during economic community but is learned as a
settlements were established exchanges, colonizations or second language.
in what are now Kenya, occupations. Pidgins allow people who
Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, The language of the occupiers have no common language to
Zambia and Zimbabwe, where has a higher status than that communicate with each other.
English became a crucial of the occupied. However,
language of the government, communication must be Pidgins usually have low
education and law. established between the two. prestige if compared to other
Many of the members of It is realised in various ways: languages (because they are a
aristocracy and important Imposition of the language of mixture, they have not been
families went to England to the occupiers, which systematized as languages).
learn British language and determines the exclusion of
culture and then went back to

A ‘commerce’ pidgin <beachee, of being apart", literally
creolelanguageisastablenatura variant of ‘beach’ used in “apart-hood”. Its first
llangua Southern Seas recorded use was in 1929.
gedevelopedfromamixtureofd
ifferent languages. pidgin < Chinese péiqián‘to Racial segregation was a social
Creolesdifferfrompidginsintha pay damages, to be fined’ and political reality in South
t,while Africa from the earliest
apidginhasahighlysimplifiedlin POST-COLONIAL WRITERS colonial times under Dutch
guistics New Englishes can be used, and British rule (white
tructurethatdevelopsasamean apart from the purposes of minority in South Africa were
sofcom commerce, trade, the descendants of the Dutch
municationbetweentwoormor technology..., for literacy and settlers), but it became
ediffer creative purposes. institutionalized after WWII in
entlanguagegroups,acreolelan Post-colonial writers made an a system called ‘apartheid’.
guageis important contribution to
morecomplex,usedforfullcom contemporary literature in Through a series of vigorously
municat English. The main figures are enforced laws (it was made
ivepurposesinacommunityand authors living or born in legal), apartheid maintained
acquire former British colonies and white supremacy and
dbychildrenasanativelanguage British writers from mixed Afrikaner minority rule by
(it is a new language which ethnic backgrounds (two suppressing the rights of the
emerges from this contact). groups). non-white majority (there was
Creolelanguages(liketheEnglis The former usually dealt with a government of the few
hspoke Britain’s imperialist history white people and the majority
nbythegrowingblackpopulatio from the perspective of the was discriminated against).
n),ther colonized (inversion of the
efore,haveafullydevelopedvoc perspective from that of the The discrimination affected
abulary grammar. colonizers to that of the housing, schooling, medical
A creole language is different colonized). care and the use of
from a pidgin in that it is a
natural language, which can An outstanding example is the public transport. The 1994
be acquired by children as a South African writer Nadine general election officially
native language. Gordimer, who focused on ended apartheid, thanks to an
racial issues, power opposition led by the militant
ETYMOLOGY OF THESE TWO relationships, exile and activist Nelson Mandela.
TERMS Creole: < from alienation, and the
Portuguese crioulu, originally psychological tensions of life One of the best-known
used to identify a white man in her racially divided country. postcolonial writers is Salman
born and raised in the tropical Rushdie (1947–).
colonies; then, it was In her novels, she highlighted He was born in Bombay(now
extended to native people. the importance of tolerance, Mumbai) in 1947 into a
free speech and Muslim family. He spent his
Pidgin, term of uncertain understanding and she is very childhood there, in what was
etymology. According to aware of being a white at the time a courtly, open
Mühlhäusler (scholar), at least privileged woman in a context city. He started his education
five are the possible of different treatments for at an English mission school
derivations of the term: different races. there, before moving to
Britain and attending Rugby
pidgin < English ‘business’ In her works we find School, a famous boarding
pidgin <Chinese rendering of references to apartheid. This school in England. He went on
Portuguese occupação is an Afrikaans word meaning to attend the University of
pidgin < Hebrew pidjom, "separateness" or "the state Cambridge, where he received

a master’s degree in History in (Bachelor of Arts) in Creative and works in London. He was
1968. His most famous novel Writing from Hamilton College awarded the Nobel Prize for
Midnight’s Children (1981), in Clinton, New York, and an Literature in 2017 and he
which won prizes and awards MFA (Master of Fine Arts) became hugely famous.
in Britain and was translated from the University of
into twelve languages, Massachusetts Amherst. All these writers define
belongs to the current of themselves as translating men
magic realism, since it This is another example of a and women, in that they lived
combines reality and history writer born in Pakistan, between different cultures,
with fantastic and brought up there, who then were mediators between
supernatural events. decided to move to the States these cultures and their books
for education and eventually are full of references to their
It is set in India in 1947, the coming back to Britain. culture origins but also to
date when India became English literature. So, they can
independent from Britain, but In 2013 Shamsie was included be considered as English
was also the date when the in the Grantalist of twenty novelists, even though they
country was split into two best young British come from other countries,
parts with the famous novelists(became a British cultures and religions.
“partition” between India, novelist).Now, she writes for
Pakistan and the region that The Guardian and some A summary of the history of
was then called Bangladesh. magazines, and broadcasts on English:
1947 is also the year when the radio. She lives in London https://www.youtube.com/w
Rushdie was born and all his and has dual nationality. Her atch?v=H3r9bOkYW9s
characters were born at novel Home Fire is set
midnight of that famous year: between 2014 and 2015 in
he puts together reality and London, Massachusetts,
history. Turkey, Syria and Pakistan. It
follows the lives of five British
His novel The Satanic Muslim characters (different
Verses(1988) became the cultures, religions and
centre of international lifestyles in her books).
controversy, as Muslims
denounced the novel as A British novelist of Japanese
blasphemous and Rushdie was origins is Kazuo Ishiguro, who
publicly denounced, banned analyses the abuse of power
and threatened with death. by social authority and the
First, he was protected by the ambiguous results of scientific
police in Britain (by Scotland advances like the issue of
Yard), then he moved to the cloning in his novels.
USA.
Kazuo Ishiguro was born in
A recent striking example is Nagasaki, Japan, in 1954. At
the British-Pakistani novelist the age of five, he moved with
Kamila Shamsie, who analyses his parents to England, where
the importance of politics and he received his education.
history in people’s lives and
focuses on the instability of He obtained his Bachelor’s
national identity for degree of Arts from the
minorities, Islamophobia and University of Kent in 1978 and
racism. She was brought up in a Master in Creative Writing
Karachi, the largest city of from the University of East
Pakistan. She has a BA Anglia in 1980. He now lives


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They also built an This was the occasion when

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The executive, that is the A third important party is:

Lords, Commons and the

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Is the imprisoned lightning2, Lazarus was an activist, an

Immigration, Native Glows world-wide welcome; MELTING POT

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