XII CHEMISTRY 2023 FOCUS QUICK REVISION NOTES Non ideal solutions having positive Non ideal solutions

Non ideal solutions having positive Non ideal solutions having negative 12. By using relative lowering of vapour pressure, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of
deviation deviation solute.
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM 𝑷𝑨𝟎 − 𝑷𝑨 𝑾𝑩 𝑴𝑨
=
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑴𝑩 𝑾𝑨
========================================================================= 𝑾𝑩 𝑴𝑨 𝑷𝑨 𝟎
𝑩 𝑾𝑨 (𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨 )
CHAPTER 2 : SOLUTIONS (QUICK REVISION) 13. With the help of graph explain elevation in boiling point.

1. Number of moles of the solute per kilogram of the solvent is: Molality
2. Define mole fraction When a non volatile solute is added to pure
Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of the solvent, boiling point of the solution is increased.
solution. The increase in boiling point is called elevation of
3. Number of moles of solute in one litre of the solution is : Molarity boiling point.
4. State Henry’s law and give its applications.
∆Tb = Tb – Tb0
Solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. 𝒎 ∝𝑷
∆Tb = elevation in boiling point,
Applications: Soda water , Scuba diving apparatus
Tb = boiling point of solution ,
5. State Raoult’s law 𝑷𝑨 > 𝑷𝑨𝟎 𝑿𝑨 , 𝑷𝑩 > 𝑷𝑩
𝟎
𝑿𝑩 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑨𝟎 𝑿𝑨 , 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑩
𝟎
𝑿𝑩 Tb0 = boiling point of pure solvent.
The partial vapour pressure of each component is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution.
∆V mixing> 0 ∆V mixing <0
𝑷𝑨 ∝ 𝑿𝑨 , OR 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑿𝑨 ∆H mixing> 0 ∆H mixing< 0
𝟎
𝑷𝑩 ∝ 𝑿𝑩 , OR 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑩 𝑿𝑩 A-B interaction < A-A
A interaction or A-B interaction > A-A
A interaction or B-B
B
B-B interaction interaction
PA = Partial pressure of solvent in
Examples: Alcohol and acetone Examples: Chloroform and acetone 14. By using elevation in boiling point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
solution ,
PB = Partial pressure of solute in 8. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixture? Explain each. 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃 𝒎 = 𝑲𝒃
solution Liquid mixtures which boil at constant temperature. 𝑴𝑩 × 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑷𝑨𝟎 = Partial pressure of solvent in pure These are two types . (1) Maximum boiling azeotropes and ( 2) Minimum boiling azeotropes 𝑲𝒃 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑩 =
state , Maximum boiling azeotropes Minimum boiling azeotropes ∆𝑻𝒃 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑷𝟎𝑩 = Partial pressure of solute in pure These are formed by non ideal solutions These are formed by non ideal solutions showing 15. With the help of graph explain depression in freezing point.
state showing negative deviation. positive deviation.
XA = Mole fraction of solvent , e.g. HNO3 (68 %) and water (32%) mixture e.g. Ethanol(95.6 %) and water (4.4%) mixture When a non volatile solute is added to
9. What are colligative properties? solvent, freezing point is decreased. The
XB = Mole fraction of solute
Properties that depend only on the number of particles of solute present in solution decrease in freezing point is called
depression of freezing point.
10. Which are four colligative properties?
(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
∆Tf = Tf0 - Tf
∆Tf = depression in freezing point
6. What are ideal solutions? (b) Elevation of boiling point Tf 0 = freezing point of pure solvent.
Solutions which obey Raoult’s law. 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑿𝑨 , 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝟎𝑩 𝑿𝑩 (c) Depression of freezing point Tf = freezing point of solution
∆V mixing = 0 , ∆H mixing = 0 (d) Osmotic pressure
A-B interaction = A-A interaction or B-B interaction 11.Relative lowering of vapour pressure :-
7. What are non ideal solutions? 𝑷𝟎𝑨 − 𝑷𝑨
Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law = 𝑿𝑩 16. During winter season salt is spreading on the road to lower the freezing point.
𝑷𝟎𝑨 17. By using depression in freezing point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
∆V mixing ≠ 0 ∆H mixing≠ 0
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝑨 ∆𝑻𝒇 ∝ 𝒎 , 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
A-B interaction ≠ A-A interaction or B-B interaction = Relative lowering of vapour pressure . X B = Mole fraction of solute
𝑷𝟎𝑨
Non ideal solutions are two types. This shows that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile
non solute is 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(i) Non ideal solutions having positive deviation equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the soluti
solution.
∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇 𝒎 = 𝑲𝒇
𝑴𝑩 × 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
(ii) Non ideal solutions having negative deviation

𝑲𝒇 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 CHAPTER 3: ELECTROCHEMISTRY (QUICK REVISION) 6. Write anode reaction, cathode reaction, overall reaction and Nernst equation of Cu-Ag
Cu cell.
𝑴𝑩 =
∆𝑻𝒇 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎) At anode (oxidation) Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-
18. What is osmotic pressure and give its equations.
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM At cathode (reduction) 2 Ag + + 2e-→2 Ag
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure to be applied on the solution side to prevent osmosis. ======================================================================== Overall reaction Cu + 2 Ag + → Cu2+ + 2 Ag
𝒏𝑹𝑻
Osmotic pressure, 𝝅 = 𝑪𝑹𝑻 = C = concentration , n= number of moles
1. With the help of diagram and equations explain Daniel cell (electrochemical cell) Nernst equation is 𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 −
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑪𝒖𝟐 ]
at 298 K
𝑽 𝟐 [𝑨𝒈 ]𝟐
19. For determining molecular mass of solute, osmotic pressure method is preferred. Why? Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4 7. What is molar conductivity and give the relation connecting specific conductance (κ) and molar
(I) The measurement is carried out at room temperature.
Cathode→ Copper rod dipped in CuSO4 conductance (Ʌm) ?
(II) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solution. 2+ -
20. By using osmotic pressure (π), derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute(M B) At anode (oxidation) Zn→ Zn + 2e Molar conductivity is the conductance of the solution containing one mole of the electrolyte kept
𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑾𝑩 𝑹𝑻
At cathode (reduction) Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu between two electrodes at a distance of unit length.
𝝅= = 𝐊 𝑲 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽 𝑴𝑩 𝑽
𝑾𝑩 𝑹𝑻 Overall reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, Ʌ𝐦 = =
𝑴𝑩 = 𝐂 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝝅𝑽
21. What are Isotonic solutions
Representation of Daniell cell is Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu 8. With the help of graph, explain the variation of molar conductance of strong electrolytes and weak
Solutions which have same osmotic pressure. electrolyte on dilution.
Eg. 0.9 % NaCl solution is isotonic with human blood. So it is used for intravenous injections.
22. What is reverse osmosis and give its application. Strong electrolytes ionize completely in aqueous
The direction of osmosis is reversed if a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution.
solution side.
On dilution inter ionic forces decreases. As a
It is used in the desalination of sea water to produce drinking water.
result molar conductance increases slightly.
23. What are Abnormal molecular masses?
These are wrong molecular mass obtained from colligative properties. Weak electrolytes are slightly
sligh ionized.
Abnormal molecular mass is due to association or dissociation of solute particles in solutions. On dilution, the degree of dissociation of weak
Abnormality is explained by van’t Hoff factor (i). electrolytes increases and molar conductance
𝐎𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲 increases sharply.
𝐯𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐇𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐢) =
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲
Solute Van’t Hoff factor (i) Splitting
9. State Kohlrausch’s law and give their applications.
NaCl 2 Na+ + Cl-
KCl 2 K+ + Cl- Kohlrausch’s law states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electroly
electrolyte
te is the sum of the limiting
K2SO4 3 2K+ +SO4 2- 2. EMF (Cell Potential) = E cathode - E anode= E right - E left molar conductivities of cations and anions of the electrolyte present in the solution.
Ethanoic acid in benzene 0.5 3. Describe about standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) OR Normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). Example:
Al(NO3)3 4 Al3+ + 3NO3 - The electrode potential of SHE is taken as zero. Ʌ0m (Al2(SO4)3 = 2 λ0(Al3+) + 3 λ0(SO4 2− )
Al2(SO4)3 5 2Al3+ + 3 SO4 2- It can act as both anode and cathode. Applications:
CaCl2 3 Ca2+ + 2 Cl - If SHE acts as anode ½ H 2 → H+ + e -
24. The value of van’t Hoff factor (i) for aqueous KCl solution is close to 2, while that for ethanoic acid in If SHE acts as cathode H+ + e-→ ½ H2
(i) It is used to calculate the limiting molar conductivity of weak electrolytes.
benzene is 0.5. Why? Example:
SHE is used to calculate the potential of an electrode.
This is caused by the dissociation in the case of KCl and association in the case of acetic acid. (1) CH3COOH is a weak electrolyte Ʌ0(CH3COOH) = Ʌ0(CH3COONa) + Ʌ0(HCl) − Ʌ0(NaCl)
When SHE is used as cathode , it is represented as, H+/H2,Pt
(2) NH4OH is a weak electrolyte (base) Ʌ0(NH4OH) = Ʌ0(NH4Cl) + Ʌ0(KOH) - Ʌ0(KCl)
When SHE is used as anode, it is represented as, Pt, H2/ H+
10. State Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
4. Write the Nernst equation for the single electrode potential.
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 (I) Faraday’s first law :- The mass of substance liberated (or deposited) at the electrode is directly
𝟎
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM 𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑴𝒏 ] proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte solution.
𝒏
5. With the help of Daniell cell, derive Nernst equation for cell potential. i.e. , w α Q But Q= It
======================================================================== 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 [𝑪𝒖𝟐 ] w= mass of the substance formed I = current, t = time, Z= electrochemical equivalent
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒏 [𝒁𝒏𝟐 ] (II) Faraday’s second law :- When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different
Here n=2 electrolytes , the masses of substances formed at the electrodes are proportional to their
t respective
𝟎 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 [𝑪𝒖𝟐 ] chemical equivalent masses.
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟐 [𝒁𝒏𝟐 ]
 11. Differentiate primary cells and secondary cells with examples. CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL KINETICS (QUICK REVISION) 9. Half
lf life period of a zero order reaction is directly proportional to the initial concentration of the
Primary cell Secondary cell reactant. Give its equation
The electrode reactions are not reversible The electrode reactions are reversible [𝑹𝟎 ]
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM alf life period for zero order reaction is 𝐭 𝟏/𝟐
Half =
These are not rechargeable These are rechargeable 𝟐𝒌
Eg. Dry cell , mercury cell Eg. Lead storage cell, Nickel Cadmium cell ====================================================================== 10. What are Pseudo first order reactions and give examples?
12. In mercury cell, cell potential 1.35 remain constant during its life .Why? Reactions which appear to be of higher order but actually follow first order kinetics are called pseudo
Because the overall reaction does not involve any ion in solution . 1. Rate law or rate expression: first order reactions.
13. Explain Lead storage battery For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A] x[B]y , k = rate constant Examples: (i) The hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in the presence of dilute acids
Anode→ Lead , Rate law is the experimentally determined relationship between the rate of a reaction and the (ii) Inversion of cane sugar in the presence of dilute acid.
Cathode→ → Grid of lead packed with lead dioxide , concentration of reactants. 11. What is the effect of temperature on reaction rate?
Electrolyte→→ 38 % sulphuric acid
1-n n-1 -1
2. The general formula to find the unit of rate constant is mol L s Most of the reactions are increased by increase in temperature
For zero order mol L-1 s-1 , For first order s -1 , For second order mol -1 L s-1 When temperature increases, molecules having activation energy increase
increases,
s, effective collision
At anode Pb + SO42- → PbSO4 + 2 e-
increases and the rate of the reaction increases.
At cathode PbO2 + SO42-+4 H++ 2 e- → PbSO4+ 2H2O 3. What are the differences between order and molecularity?
12. Write Arrhenius equation and explain each term.
Overall reaction: Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , 𝑬𝒂
Use: It is used in automobiles and invertors Order= x +y , Molecularity = a +b 𝒌=𝑨𝒆 𝑹𝑻

14. What are fuel cells? Give examples for fuel cells. Order Molecularity k= rate constant, Ea = activation energy, R = universal gas constant, T = temperatu
temperature
re
Order is the sum of the power of the Molecuarity is the number of reacting species A = Arrhenius factor (frequency factor) .
Fuel cells are devices which convert the energy produced by the combustion of fuel directly in to electrical
concentration terms in the rate equation undergoing simultaneous collision 13. What is activation energy? How will you calculate activation energy?
energy. Experimentally Theoretical The excess energy which must be supplied to the reactant molecules to undergo chemical reaction is called
Examples (i) hydrogen-oxygen
oxygen fuel cell (ii) methane oxygen fuel cell Zero, fractional and integral numbers Integral number activation energy.
15. With the help of diagram explain hydrogen
hydrogen-oxygen
oxygen fuel cell. Give its reactions also. 4. What is first order reaction and give examples Activation energy
gy can be calculated by measuring the values of rate constants at different temperatures.
If the rate of the reaction is proportional to the first power of the concentration of the reactant. 𝒌𝟐 𝑬𝒂 𝑻 𝟐 𝑻𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈 =
It consists of porous carbon electrodes Examples for first order reaction : Radioactive decay 𝒌𝟏 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻𝟐
containing suitable catalysts 5. Integrated rate equation of first order reaction. 14. With the help of graph, explain the effect of catalyst on rate of a reaction.
H2 and O2 gases are bubbled through the 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎 ]
𝒌= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
porous electrodes in to aqueous NaOH or KOH 𝒕 [𝑹]
solution. [R0] = initial concentration of reactant, [R] = concentration of reactant at time t.
At anode 2 H2 + 4 OH-→ 4 H2O + 4 e-
Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time
At cathode O2 + 2 H2O +4 e-→ 4 OH-
Overall reaction 2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O 6. Half life period of a first order reaction is independent of the initial concentration of the reactant.
Prove.
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝐭 𝟏/𝟐 =
𝒌
No concentration terms in half life period equation, and so half life period of a first order reaction is
16. What are the advantages of fuel cells? independent of the initial concentration of the reactants.
Fuel cells have long life. They are highly efficient . They are pollution free. 7. What is zero order reaction and give example
17. Explain electro chemical theory of corrosion (Rusting of iron). A reaction is said to be zero order if the rate is independent of the concentration of the reactants.
At anode Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e- Example: Decomposition of ammonia on platinum surface at high pressure
The ferrous ions are further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form rust, Fe2O3 .x H2O Straight line plot between [R] vs time A catalyst provides an alternate path for the reaction with lower activation energy. Hence the rate of the
18. What are the methods used to prevent corrosion. 8. Give the integrated rate equation of zero order reaction. reaction increases.
(I) Covering the surface with paint [𝐑 𝟎 ] − [𝐑]
∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐤 =
(II) Cover the surface of metal with other metals (Sn ,Zn etc.) that are inert or react to 𝐭
save the object. [R0] = initial concentration of reactant,
[R] = concentration of reactant at time t.

UNIT 8 : THE d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS (QUICK REVISION) 12. Potassium dichromate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
(I) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes H2S to S.
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM
CH DSM No. of unpaired electrons = 3 Cr2O72- + 8 H+ + 3 H2S → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 S
(II) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes ferrous salt to ferric salt.
===================================================================================== Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 Fe2+ → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 6 Fe3+
• Manganese, Mn: [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Mn2+ 3 d5 13. Give some uses of potassium dichromate( K2 Cr2O7)
1. What are Transition elements? Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury of group 12 are not Transition elements.
It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis. It is used as oxidizing agent.
Why?
14. Describe the method of preparation of potassium permanganate from pyrolusite ore.
Transition elements are elements having incompletely fill filled d –orbitals
orbitals in their free state or in any one
No. of unpaired electrons = 5 Potassium permanganate is prepared from pyrolusite ore (MnO 2)
of their oxidation states.
Pyrolusite ore is fused with potassium hydroxide in the presence of air, potassium manganate is
orbitals in their free state (d10) and in
Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury of group 12 have completely filled d –orbitals
formed.
their common oxidation states. So they are not transition elements. • Copper, Cu : [Ar] 3d10 4s1 Cu2+ 3 d9 2 MnO2 + 4 KOH + O2 → 2 K2 MnO4 + 2H2O
2. Copper, Silver and gold atoms have completely filled d orbitals (d 10). But they are transition elements.
Why? Potasium manganate is then oxidized by electrolysis to potassium permanganate.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Because they have incompletely filled d configuration in any one of its oxidation state. No. of unpaired electrons = 1 MnO4 2- ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ MnO4-
3. What are the properties of transition elements? Manganate permanganate
(I) All are metals with high melting and boiling points. • Zinc, Zn : [Ar] 3d10 4s2 Zn2+ 3 d10 15. Draw structures of manganate and permanganate ions.
(II) They show variable oxidation states.
(III) Most of them are paramagnetic.
(IV) Most of them form coloured compounds. • No. of unpaired electrons = 0
4. Explain melting and boiling point of transition elements.
Transition elements have very high me melting
lting and boiling point due to the presence of strong metallic 7. The transition element compounds show colour. Give reason.
bonding in them. The colour of transition metal compounds are due to the presence of unpaired ‘d’ electrons. (d-d
(d
Greater the number of unpaired electrons, stronger the bonding and higher the melting point and transition)
enthalpy of atomisation. Eg:- Sc3+ colourless ( d0 since no unpaired electron.)
Tungsten has highest melting point among the d –block elements Cu 2+ 9
coloured (d due to unpaired electron, d d-d
d transition is possible).
5. Why transition elements show variable oxidation states? Zn2+ colourless ( d10 completely filled , no unpaired electron)
Due to the participation of both ns and (n(n-1)
1) d electrons for compound formation due to small 8. Why transition elements form complex compounds?
difference in energies of ns and (n
(n-1) d orbitals . 16. Potassium permanganate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
Due to the vacant d orbitals
Manganese ,Mn ( 3d5 4s2) shows largest nu number
mber of oxidation states among 3d series from +2 to +7. (I) Acidified K MnO4 oxidises ferrous salt to ferric salt.
9. Why transition elements show catalytic properties?
6. Explain magnetic property of transition elements. (II) Acidified K MnO4 oxidises iodide to iodine.
It is due to the ability to show variable oxidation states
Most of the transition elements are paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electrons 17. What is Lanthanoid contraction? Give the reason for it. What are its consequences?
10. Describe the method of preparation of potassium dichromate.
Greater the number of unpaired electrons, greater the paramagnetism. The steady decrease in the size of atoms or ions of the lanthanoids with increase in atomic number is
Ore :- Chromite ore (FeCr2O4)
Magnetic moment , µ = 𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐) where n= no. of unpaired electrons called lanthanoid contraction.
Chromite ore (FeCr2O4) + Sodium carbonate + Air → Sodium chromate.
The reason lanthanoid contraction :- 4 f orbitals cannot effectively screen the nucleus from the
• Scandium ,Sc : [Ar] 3d1 4s2 Sc3+ 3 d0 No. of unpaired electrons = 0 4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2 CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2 CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8 CO2
outermost electron
Sodium chromate + sulphuric acid → Sodium dichromate Consequences of lanthanoid contraction :-The atomic radii of elements of 4 d series and 5 d series of
2 Na2 CrO4 + H2 SO4 → Na2 Cr2O7 + Na2 SO4 + H2O same group are similar due to lanthanoid contraction.
• Titanium , Ti: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 Ti3+ 3 d1 Sodium dichromate + Potassium chloride → Potassium dichromate (orange crystal). Eg. Zirconium(Zr) and hafnium(Hf) has similar size. Hence their properties are similar, they exist
Na2 Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K2 Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl together and difficult to separate.
11. Draw structures of chromate and dichromate ions. 18. What are the similarities of lanthanoids and actinoids?
No. of unpaired electrons = 1 Both the series are formed by progressive filling of f orbitals and both show +3 oxidation state
predominantly.
• Vanadium , V: [Ar] 3d3 4s2 V3+ 3 d2 19. Colour of lanthanoids is due to f-f transition.
20. What are the differences between lanthanoids and actinoids?
Lanthanides Actinides
No. of unpaired electrons = 2 Besides common oxidation state of +3, Besides common oxidation state of +3,
lanthanides show +2 and +4 states. actinides show +4, +5,+6 and +7 states.
Except promethium, all elements are non- All elements are radioactive.
• Chromium , Cr : [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Cr3+ 3 d3
radioactive.
 21. Give some applications of d-block elements First complex give the test of sulphate ion and second give the test of bromide ion.
ion 13. What are the important features of valence bond theory.
(I) Iron ( Fe) in Haber process for manufacture of ammonia. Vanadium pentoxide(V 2O5) in contact (II) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) ::- Isomers having same molecular formula but different (I) The central metal atom provides a number of empty orbitals ,which is equal to the co ordination
process for manufacture of sulphuric acid number of water molecules inside and outside the coordination sphere. number of the central metal ion.
(II) Iron and steels are most important construction materials (II) The appropriate empty atomic orbitals of the metal hybridise to form a set of equivalent hybridized
Eg. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 [Cr(H2O)5 Cl]Cl2 . H2O [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl .2 H2O
22. Give some applications of f-block elements orbitals with definite geometry.
(I) Misch metal is an alloy of 95 % lanthanoids and 5 % iron. It is used mainly for bullets, shell and (III) Linkage isomerism :- Linkage isomerism is shown by complexes containing ambidentate ligands.
Coordination number Hybridisation Geometry
lighter flint. Here the linkage of ambidentate ligand to the central metal atom is different. 4 sp3 Tetrahedral
(II) Uranium , Thorium are used as fuels in nuclear reactors Eg. NO2 − can link through nitrogen atom or oxygen atom. 4 dsp2 Square planar
[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 , [Co(NH3)5 (ONO)]Cl2 6 sp3d2 or d2sp3 Octahedral
(IV) Coordination isomerism :- Coordination isomerism occurs in compounds containing both cationic (III) The empty hybridized orbitals of the central metal atom overlap with the filled orbitals of the ligand
9 : COORDINATION COMPOUNDS (QUICK REVISION) and anionic coordination spheres. This isomerism arises due to interchange of ligands
ligand between to form metal – ligand coordinate bonds.
cationic and anionic coordination spheres. 14. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the geometry and magnetism of [Co(NH 3)6]3+.
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM d2sp3 hybridisation, Octahedral complex .
[Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6 ] , [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6 ]
No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic .
8. Explain Geometrical isomerism. Draw the Geometrical isomers of [Pt (NH 3)2Cl2] 15. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the magnetic property, inner orbital complex and geometry
================================================================ It is common in square planar complexes and in octahedral complexes
complexes. of [Fe(CN)6]3- .
Eg. diammine dichloro platinum (II) shows cis and trans form d2sp3 hybridisation, Octahedral complex .
1. What are ligands ? What is the condition to be ligand ?
Inner d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Inner orbital complex.
The neutral molecules or ions which surround the central metal atoms are called ligands. Unpaired electron is present, so it is paramagnetic.
Every ligand should contain at least one electron pair. 16. [FeF6]3- is an outer orbital complex or high spin complex. Prove.
2. How will you classify ligands depending on the number of electron pairs donated by atoms? Explain each. Sp3 d2 hybridisation , Octahedral complex.
(I) Mono dentate ligands provide one electron pair per molecule or ion.e.g. NH 3 , H2O Outer d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Outer orbital complex
(II) Di dentate ligands(bidentate ligand) provide two electron pair per molecule or ion. Large number of unpaired electrons, So high spin complex. It is paramagnetic
e.g. Oxalate ion (ox), Ethylene diamine (en) or ethane-1,2 –diamine 9. Draw the cis and trans form of tetra ammine dichloridocobalt (III)ion 17. With the help of VBT, explain [Ni(CN)4]2-is square planar complex and [NiCl4] 2- is tetrahedral.
(III) Poly dentate ligands provide several pair of electrons per molecule or ion. e.g. EDTA ion [Ni(CN)4]2-
dsp2 hybridisation .Square planar geometry.
3. What are Ambidentate ligands and Chelating ligands?
No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
Ambidentate ligands :-Certain mono dentate ligands are capable of ligating through two different atoms
present in it. They are called ambidentate ligands. E.g. NO2− , SCN-−
[NiCl4] 2-
sp3 hybridisation , Tetrahedral geometry.
Chelating ligands:- When a didentate ligand or polydentate ligand is attached by two or more atoms to the Unpaired electrons are present , it is paramagnetic.
central metal ion and forms a ring structure, the ligand is called chelating ligand. 18. With the help of valence bond theory, explain [Ni(CO)4]is is tetrahedral and diamagnetic.
4. What is Coordination number? sp3 hybridisation, tetrahedral geometry.
The total number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is directly bonded. No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
[Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br → Its coordina on number is 6 10. Why is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes? 19. What are the limitations of valence bond theory?
[CoCl2(en)2]+ → Its coordina on number is 6 It is because the relative positions of the ligands attached to the central metal atom are same with respect (I) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds.
5. Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds to each other. 20. Draw the crystal field splitting of octahedral complexes
(I) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 → Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride 11. Draw optical isomers of (a) tris(ethylene diamine)cobalt(III)ion.(b) [CoCl 2(en)2]+
(II) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 → Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride
(III) K3[Fe(CN)6] → Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)
(IV) K2[PdCl4] → Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)
6. Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds
(I) Tetraamineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride → [ Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2
(II) Potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II) → K2[Zn(OH)4]
(III) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III) → K3[Al(C2O4) 3]
(IV) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) → [ CoCl2(en)2] + 12. What are the postulates off Werner’s theory
7. Explain each type of structural isomerism with examples. (I) In coordination compounds, metal atom exhibit two types of valancies, primary valency and
(I) Ionization isomerism:- Isomers having same molecular formula but different ions in solution. secondary valancy.
Eg. [Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4 , [Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br (II) The primary valency is ionisable and secondary valency is non ionisable.
(III) Every metal atom or ion has a fixed number of secondary valancies equal to its co ordination number.

21. With the help of crystal field theory, explain colour of [Ti(H 2O)6]3+ 10: HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES (QUICK REVISION) 8. What is racemic mixture?
Ti (3d2 4s2) , Here Ti3+ (3d1) → t12g e0g An equimolar mixture of enantiomers are called racemic mixture (dl or ± ) .
For the excitation of electron from t 2g orbital to eg orbital, green and yellow light are absorbed. PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
Racemic mixture is optically inactive. It is due to rotation due to one enantiomer is cancelled by the
The complimentary colour is purple.
rotation due to the other enantiomer.
22. Draw the crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes. ===============================================================
9. What are the differences between SN1 reaction and SN2 reaction?
1. Give methods for the preparation of alkyl halide from alcohols. SN1 reaction SN2 reaction
Alcohol + Thionyl chloride → Alkyl halide Rate depend on the concentration of alkyl Rate depend on the concentration of both
CH3 CH2OH + SOCl2 → CH3 CH2Cl+ HCl + SO2 halide only alkyl halide and nucleophile
For the preparation of pure alkyl halide, reaction of alcohol with thionyl chloride is the best method Takes place in two steps and carbocation is Takes place in one step and carbocation is
because by products are gases and easily escape out. the intermediate not the intermediate
2. Alkyl iodide is prepared by Finkelstein reaction. Write the reaction. Reactivity order is Reactivity order is
Alkyl chloride or bromide + Sodium iodide → Alkyl iodide tertiary alkyl halide> secondary alkyl halide> tertiary alkyl halide<secondary alkyl halide<
CH3 CH2Cl + NaI → CH3 CH2I + NaCl primary alkyl halide primary alkyl halide
3. Alkyl fluoride is prepared by Swartz reaction. Write the reaction. Racemic mixture is formed Inversion of configuration takesplace
Alkyl chloride or bromide + Metallic fluorides → Alkyl fluoride (Both retention and inversion)
CH3 CH2Cl + AgF → CH3 CH2F + AgCl 10. Give example for dehydrohalogenation reaction ( elimination reaction).
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
4. What are nucleophilic substitution reactions. Give examples. CH3 CH2Br ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2 = CH2
Halogen of the alkyl halide is replaced by a nucleophile is called nucleophilic substitution reactions 11. State and explain Zaitsev’s rule.
R –X + KOH → ROH + KX ( Alcohol forma on) According to Saytzeff’s rule, when two alkenes can be formed by dehydrohalogenation, the major
Nucleophilic substitution reactions are two types. SN1 reactions and SN2 reactions . product is more alkyl group substituted alkene.
23. What are the merits of cystal field theory
theory? 5. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution bimolecular reactions. When 2-bromo butane is treated with alcoholic KOH , But-2-ene (2- butane) is the major product
(I) It can explain colour of the coordination compounds 𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
(II) It can explain magnetic properties. CH3 CH2CH (Br) CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH2 CH= CH2 + CH3 CH= CH CH3
24. What are the limitations of crystal field theory? 2-bromo butane But-1-ene But-2-ene (major)
It considers metal-ligand
ligand bond as ionic and does not take in to account the covalent nature of the bond 12. What is Grignard reagent ? How is it prepared?
25. What are Metal carbonyls? Alkyl halides react with magnesium in dry ether to form alkyl magnesium halide is called Grignard
Complexes containing carbon monoxides as ligands are called metal carbonyls reagent.
It occurs in one step and the reaction is second order. 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
Ni(CO)4 → Tetracarbonyl nickel(0) → Tetrahedral R X + Mg ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R MgX ( Grignard reagent)
Rate = k [alkyl halide] [Nucleophile]
26. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls. 13. Grignard reagent should be kept away from moisture. Why?
Reactivity order : Primary alkyl halide > Secondary alkyl halide > Tertiary alkyl halide.
Because it is highly reactive and react with moisture to form the hydrocarbons.
The M-CC bond in metal carbonyl has sigma( σ ) as well as pi ( π ) character. CH3Br > CH3 CH2Br > (CH3 )2CHBr > (CH3 )3CBr
14. What is Wurts reaction?
The metal carbon sigma bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons on the carbonyl 6. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution unimolecular reactions.
Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to form higher alkanes is called Wurts reaction.
carbon in
n to a vacant orbital of metal. It occurs in two steps and the reaction 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
is first order. 𝐑 − 𝐗 + 𝟐 𝐍𝐚 + 𝐗 − 𝐑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐑 − 𝐑 + 𝟐 𝐍𝐚𝐗
The metal carbon pi bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from a filled d-orbital
d 𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
Rate = k [alkyl halide] 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑪𝒍 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍
of the metal in to the anti bonding pi molecular orbital of carbon monoxide.
The metal to ligand bonding creates a synerg
synergic
ic effect which strengthens the bond between CO and 15. Give any method for the preparation of chloro benzene (Haloarene).
the metal.
27. What are the factors which govern the stability of complexes? The tertiary alkyl halides are more
(I) Greater the charge on the central metal ion , greater the stability of the complexes. reactive towards SN1 reaction because
K3[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[Fe(CN)6] tertiary carbocation is more stable.
(II) Greater the strength of the ligand, greater the stability of the complexes.
K4[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[FeCl6] Reactivity order : Tertiary alkyl halide > Secondary alkyl halide > Primary alkyl halide 16. Explain sandmeyer’s reaction (For the preparation of chlorobenzene and bromobenzene)
28. Give some applications of coordination compounds. (CH3 )3CBr > (CH3 )2CHBr > CH3 CH2Br > CH3Br
(I) Biological systems :-Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is a coordination compound of Iron. 7. What are enantiomers?
(II) Medicinal chemistry :-
The complex cis [Pt Cl2 (NH3)2] is called cisplatin and is used for the treatment of tumours(cancer) Enantiomers are non super imposable mirror images which rotate the
plane polarized light in equal amount but in opposite direction.
Enantiomers have same physical properties, but their behavior towards
plane polarized light is different.
 When aniline is treated with sodium nitrite and dilute HCl (or Nitrous acid), benzene diazonium chloride is 6. What happens when zinc is added to phenol?
formed(diazatisation) .
11 ALCOHOLS,PHENOLS AND ETHERS ( QUICK REVISION)
Phenol + Zinc → Benzene
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated with Cu2Cl2, chlorobenzene is formed. When benzene diazonium PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM 7. Electrophic substitution reactions of phenol.
chloride is treated with Cu2Br2, bromobenzene is formed. This reaction is called Sandmeyer’s reaction.
In phenol –OH
OH group is ortho para directing group
17. Give a method for the preparation of iodo benzene. =========================================================================
Benzene diazonium chloride + Potassium iodide → iodo benzene (I) Nitration : Phenol + Dilute nitric acid → Ortho nitro phenol + Para nitro phenol
18. Aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution. Give reasons. 1. How will you prepare primary alcohol and secondary alcohol from aldehydes and ketones using Grignard
Due to Resonance effect:-In chlorobenzene, due to resonance , the C-Cl bond acquires a partial double reagent?
bond character and the cleavage bond is very difficult.
Formaldehyde (Methanal) on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give primary
19. How will you convert chlorobenzene in to phenol (Nucleophilic substitution reaction of aryl halides). 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
alcohol. H–CH=O + CH3 MgBr → CH3 –CH2–OMg Br ⎯ CH3 –CH2–OH
Other aldehydes on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give secondary alcohol.
𝑯𝟐 𝑶
CH3 –CH=O + CH3 Mg Br → (CH3) 2–CH–OMg Br ⎯ (CH3) 2–CH–OH
Ketones on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give tertiary alcohol. Phenol + Con. HNO3 →Picric
Picric acid (2,4,6
(2,4,6- tri nitro phenol)
𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(CH3)2 C=O + CH3 MgBr → R3–C–OMgX ⎯ (CH3)3 –C –OH
2. Explain the oxidation of alcohols.
20. Give examples for the electrophilic substitution reactions of chlorobenzene.
Primary alcohol on oxidation gives aldehyde, which on further oxidation gives acid with same number
(i) Friedel Craft reaction : of carbon atoms.
Secondary alcohol on oxidation gives ketone.
Tertiary alcohol do not undergo oxidation under normal conditions.
3. What is esterification. Give example. (II) Bromination:-
Alcohol or phenol reacts with acids, acid chlorides or acid anhydrides gives ester is called esterification Phenol + Bromine in CCl4 → Ortho bromo phenol + Para bromo phenol ( Major product)
𝑯
R–OH + R’ –COOH R–O CO R’ + H2O Phenol + Bromine water → 2,4,6-tribromophenol
4. How will you distinguish 10, 20 and 30 alcohol using Lucas test? 8. Reimer –Tiemann reaction:
𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚𝒅 𝒁𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟐 Phenol + Chloroform+ aqueous NaOH → Salicylaldehyde(2- hydroxyl benzaldehyde)
R–OH + HX ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R –X + H2O
Lucas reagent is a mixture of concentrated HCl and anhydrous zinc chloride.
Tertiary alcohol gives immediate turbity.
Secondary alcohol gives turbidity after five minutes.
Primary alcohol gives turbidity only on heating.
5. How will you prepare phenol?
9. E
(i) Phenol from chlorobenzene :- When chlorobenzene is heated with aqueous NaOH under high
21. What is Wurts-Fittig reaction ? pressure of 300atm and high temperature of 623 K, phenol is formed. 9. Kolbe’s reaction
Aryl halide + Alkyl halide +Sodium → Alkyl benzene Phenol + NaOH → Sodium phenoxide ⎯
𝑪𝑶𝟐
Salicylic acid
22. What is fittig reaction ?
Aryl halides + Sodium → Diphenyl
23. Which is the first chlorinated insecticide? Write its full form
DDT → Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro ethane
24. Why chloroform is kept in dark coloured bottles?
Chloroform is slowly oxidized by air in the presence of sun light to a poisonous gas phosgene(carbonyl
chloride) . (ii) Phenol from benzene diazonium chloride:- On warming benzene diazonium salt with water, phenol 10. Explain the acidity of alcohols
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 is formed.
2 CHCl3 + O2 ⎯⎯ 2 COCl2 + 2 HCl The acidity of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O
O-H bond.
25. What are Freons? How is it prepared ? An electron releasing alkyl groups increases electron density on oxygen tending to decrease the polarity
Freons are chloro fluoro carbon compounds of methane and ethane. of O-HH bond. This will reduce the acid strength.
Freon -1,2 (dichloro difluoro methane) is prepared by the swarts reaction of carbon tetra chloride. Acidity decreases in the order

Alcohols react with active metals give hydrogen gas and alkoxide. This reaction shows that alcohol is 12 ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS (QUICK
acidic. 3. How will you distinguish aldehydes and ketones?
11. Phenol is weakly acidic. Explain with example. REVISION) (i) Tollen’s test(Silver mirror test) : Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal silver nitrate solution .
Phenol react with alkali like NaOH gives salt and water. PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM Aldehydes give silver mirror with tollen’s reagent. Ketones does not.
Reaction with alkali shows that phenol is more acidic than alcohols.
RCHO + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3 OH- → RCOO- + 2Ag + 2 H2O + 4 NH3
12. Why phenol is more acidic than alcohols? =============================================================
In phenol, due to resonance develop a partial positive charge on oxygen and it tries to attract the 1. How will you prepare aldehydes? (ii) Fehling’s test: Aliphatic aldehyde give red brown precipitate with fehling solution .
electron pair of O-H bond. This makes the O-H bond weak and the hydrogen atom can be easily (i) Rosenmund’s reduction : Aldehydes are obtained by the reduction of acid chloride
chlor in the Aromatic aldehydes and ketones do not give this test.
released as proton presence of palladium and barium sulphate is called Rosenmund’s reduction. RCHO + 2 Cu2+ + 5 OH- → RCOO- + Cu2O + 3 H 2O
13. Compare the acidity of phenols 𝑷𝒅 𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 Red brown precipitate
Electron releasing group decreases acidity of phenol. 𝑹𝑪𝑶𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ RCHO
𝑷𝒅/ 𝑩𝒂𝑺
𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒
4. Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reason.
Electron withdrawing group increases acidity of phenol. CH3COCl + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯ CH3CHO (i) Aldehydes and ketones form crystalline addition product with sodium bi sulphite. It is
As the number of electron withdrawing group increases acidity of phenols also increases. e.g. Conversion of benzoyl chloride to benzaldehyde separated and regenerated using dilute acid or alkali. So this reaction is used for separation and
e.g. 4-methyl phenol < phenol<3-nitrophenol< 3,5- dinitrophenol < 2,4,6-trinitrophenol purification of aldehydes and ketones.
14. How will you distinguish alcohol and phenols? 5. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reasons.
Phenol gives violet color with neutral ferric chloride. Alcohol does not. (i) Due to Inductive effect
15. Methanol is known as wood spirit. How is it manufactured? (ii) Due to Sterric effect
6. Aromatic aldehydes and ketones are less reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reason.
Methanol is manufactured by passing a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen through a catalytic
Due to resonance effect the positive charge of carbonyl carbon decreases.
mixture of ZnO and Cr2O3 at a pressure of 200 atm to 300atm and temperature of 573 K to673 K
(ii) Etard’s reaction : Toluene is oxidized to benzaldehyde using chromyl chlorides is called 7. Give example for addition of ammonia derivatives to aldehydes and ketones
Use of methanol:- (i) in the manufacture of formaldehyde, (ii)for denaturation of ethanol ( Nucleophilic addition followed by elimination of water molecule)
Etard’s reaction.
16. How will you manufacture ethanol? (I) Addition of hydrazine to aldehydes or ketones gives hydrazone
Molasses is diluted to 10% sugar solution . Yeast is added and at a temperature of about 305 K. 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑶 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐 𝑵𝑯𝟐 → 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑵𝑯𝑵𝑯𝟐
Yeast supplies enzymes invertase and zymase which brings about the fermentation. 8. How will you identify aldehydes and ketones?
Aldehydes and ketones react with 2,4- dinitro phenyl hydrazine( Borsche’s reagent) gives orange red
6-10 % ethanol is called wash.
𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒆
precipitate of 2,4 dinitro phenyl hydrazones.
C12H22O11 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 9. Explain Haloform( iodoform) reactions.
(iii) Gattermann-Koch
Koch reaction :
Glucose Fructose Aldehydes and ketones containing CH3CO- group when treated with iodine and alkali ( sodium hypo
𝒛𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒆
C6H12O6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 iodite ) give the corresponding iodoform (yellow precipitate) . This reaction is called iodoform reaction .
It is an example of haloform reaction. It is used to distinguish methyl ketones from other ketones.
Uses of ethanol : (i) Alcoholic beverage (ii) industrial solvent
Only methyl ketones gives yellow precipitate of iodoform
17. Explain Williamson’s ether synthesis.
Alkyl halide + Sodium alkoxide → Ether
CH3ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → CH3O CH2 CH3 + NaBr
By this method both symmetric and unsymmetric ethers can be prepared.
When benzene is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of
For the preparation of alkyl aryl ether, alkyl halide 10. Explain the following name reactions:
anhydrous aluminium chloride or CuCl, ben
benzaldehyde
zaldehyde is formed .This reaction is called
and sodium phenoxide must be heated.
Gattermann-Koch
Koch reaction (a) Clemmenson’s reduction : Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
Reason: Halogen attached to benzene ring is not hydrocarbons in the presence of zinc amalgam and concentrated HCl is called clemmenson
reactive. (iv) By Stephen reaction: Nitrile + Stannous chloride + HCl → Aldehyde
reduction.
2. How will you prepare Ketones? 𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝒈 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
By friedel craft acylation of benzene. 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
C6H5ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → C6H5O CH2 CH3 + NaBr 𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝒈 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
18. Give the reaction of ethers with Hydrogen halides. 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
R–O–R + HX → RX + R –OH (b) Wolf –Kishner reduction: Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝒍
hydrocarbon by treating with hydrazine followed by heating with KOH in ethylene glycol solvent.
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 𝑲𝑶𝑯 /𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒍
19. Anisole + HI→ phenol + methyl iodide C 6H5O CH3 + HI → C6H5O H + CH3I 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
𝑲𝑶𝑯 /𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒍
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
 (c) Aldol condensation :-- Aldehydes and ketones having alpha hydrogen when treated with As the electronegativity of halogen increases, acidity increases.
CHAPTER 13 AMINES (QUICK REVISION)
dilute alkali give beta hydroxyl aldehyde or beta hydroxyl ketone. This on heating give alpha beta F CH2COOH > CI CH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > I CH2COOH
unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. This reaction is called aldol condensation. Electron releasing groups decrease the acidic strength . PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
Acetaldehyde ( ethanal) has α α- hydrogen and so it give aldol condensation CH3COOH is weaker acid than HCOOH
18. Why is benzoic acid is more acidic than acetic acid. ================================================================
𝒅𝒊𝒍.𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯
𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ∆ In benzoic acid, -COOH group is connected to sp2 hybridised carbon atom
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯(𝑶𝑯) − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 1. Which is the best method for the preparation of primary amine?
19. Explain Hell-Volhard –Zelinsky reaction.
When carboxylic acids having alpha hydrogen are treated with chlorine or bromine in the presence of Gabriel ohthalimide synthesis
(d) Cannizaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not contain αα- hydrogen when treated with 2. How will you prepare amines by ammonolysis of alkyl halides?
red phosphorus, alpha halo acids are produced. This reaction is called HVZ reaction.
concentrated
centrated alkali, one aldehyde is oxidized to acid and the other is reduced to alcohol . 𝑩𝒓𝟐 ,𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒖𝒔 𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝑵𝑯𝟑 → 𝑹𝑵𝑯𝟐 + HX
CH3 COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Br-CH2 COOH
Formaldehyde( Methanal ) and benzaldehyde give this test because they have no α- α hydrogen, 3. How eill you prepare primary amine by Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction ?
Ethanoic acid 2-bromo ethanoic acid
acetaldehyde does not give this test. 𝑪𝒍𝟐 ,𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒖𝒔 .Acid amides on reduction with bromine in the presence of alkali give primary amines having one
CH3 CH2 COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH(Cl) COOH
H-CHO + H-CHO
CHO + Conc. KOH → CH3OH + HCOOK carbon atom less than the parent amide. This reaction is called Hoffmann bromamide degradation
Propanoic acid 2-chloropropanoic acid
Formaldehyde Methanol Potassium formate reaction.
20. Explain electrophilic substitution of benzoic acid.
11. How will you distinguish methanal (formaldehyde ) and ethanal (acetaldehyde)? (i) Benzoic acid to Meta nitro benzoic acid 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(i) By aldol condensation :- Acetaldehyde ( ethanal) has α α- hydrogen and so give aldol condensation.
co 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Fomaldhyde do not have alpha hydrogen and does not give aldol condensation. 4. What is Carbylamines reaction? What is its importance?
(ii) By Cannizaro reaction:- Formaldehyde( Methanal ) give this test because they have no α- α hydrogen. Aliphatic or aromatic primary amines on heated with chloroform and alcoholic KOH , produce foul
Acetaldehyde does not give this test. smell isocynide or carbylamines. This is a test for primary amine. Secondary and tertiary amines do not
12. How will you prepare carboxylic acids using Grignard reagent ? give this test. So Carbylamines reaction is used to distinguish primary amines from other amines.
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
Carbon dioxide + Grignard reagent → Carboxylic acid 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑶𝑯 ⎯ 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑪 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
13. How will
ill you prepare benzoic acid
acid?
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
By side chain oxidation of alkyl benzene with alkaline potassium permanganate. 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑶𝑯 ⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑪 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
e.g. conversion of toluene to benzoic acid by adding alkaline potassium permanganate (ii) Benzoic acid to Meta bromo benzoic acid
Methanamine methyl carbylamine

5. How will you distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary amines using Hindsberg reagent?
Hindsberg’s reagent is benzene sulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl)
(i) Primary amine react with Hindsberg’s reagent gives N-alkyl benzene suphonamide which is
soluble in alkali
14. Carboxylic acid is acidic. Give reactions. (ii) Secondary amine react with Hindsberg’s reagent gives N,N-dialkyl benzene suphonamide which
Carboxylic acids are acidic because they readily lose proton and the carboxylate ion formed is is insoluble in alkali.
resonance stabilized. (iii) Tertiary amine do not react with Hindsberg’s reagent
Carboxylic acid react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of carbon 6. Amines are basic. Why?
dioxide gas. 21. Give reactions of formation of acid derivatives Due to the presence of lone pair of electrons
15. Why is carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol?
(i) Acid chloride :- Acid + Thionyl chloride → Acid chloride 7. Explain basic strength of amines.
In phenoxide ion, negative charge is localized over one oxygen atom Alkyl amines are stronger bases than ammonia due to the presence electron releasing alkyl groups (+I
But in carboxylate ion, negative charge is delocalized over two electronegative oxygen atoms and so it (ii) Esters : - Acid + Alcohol → Ester effect).
is more stabilized than phenoxide ion. (iii) Acid amides : Acid + Ammonia → Acid amides In gas phase only +I effect and so basic order, Tertiary amine> Secondary amine > Primary amine.
16. With the help of an example, explain carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol. In aqueous solutions, resultant of three effects (+I effect, sterric effect and hydration effect) determine
( How will you distinguish phenol and carboxylic acid?) 22. Complete the table
the basic strength.
Phenol does not react with sodium bi carbonate. Reactant Reagent Organic product Name of reaction
(C2H5)2NH >(C2H5)3N >C2H5NH2 > NH3
Carboxylic acids react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of CH3CH2COCl H2-Pd/BaSO4 CH3CH2CHO Rosenmund’s reduction 2
0
3
0
1
0

carbon dioxide gas. C6H5COCH3 Zn-Hg/HCl C6H5CH2CH3 Clemmenson reduction

17. Explain the effects of substituents on acidity of carboxylic acid. C6H5CH3 CrO2Cl2 and H3O+ C6H5CHO Etard’s reaction (CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3
Electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids. 0 0 0
2 1 3
As the number of electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids increases.
e.g. trichloroacetic
oacetic acid > dichloroacetic acid >acetic acid. ================================================================ 8. Aryl amines are less basic than ammonia. Why?
Cl3CCOOH > Cl2CHCOOH > CI CH2COOH > CH3COOH Due to delocalization of electron pair, it is less available for protonation.

9. Explain electrophilic substitution of aniline. 14. How will you prepare of benzene from benzene diazonium chloride 6. What are the limitations of open structure of glucose?
(i) Halogenation: Aniline + Bromine water → 2,4,6-tribromoaniline 𝑯𝟑 𝑷𝑶𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 Glucose exist in two crystalline forms alpha D(+) glucose and Beta D (+) glucose. It cannot be explained by
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑯𝟑 𝑷𝑶𝟑 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
For the preparation ortho and para bromo aniline, amino group should be deactivated by doing open structure.
acetylation. 15. How will you prepare Fluoro benzene from benzene diazonium chloride
𝑯𝑩𝑭𝟒 7. Draw the cyclic structure of glucose.
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑭 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑩𝑭𝟑
16. How will you prepare iodo benzene from benzene diazonium chloride
𝑲𝑰
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑰 + 𝑵𝟐 +𝑲𝑪𝒍
17. How will you prepare phenol from benzene diazonium chloride
𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒎
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝟐 +𝑯𝑪𝒍 𝑯𝑪𝒍
18. Explain coupling reaction
eaction of benzene diazonium salt with examples
Aniline Acetanilide Para bromo acetanilide Para bromo aniline Benzene diazonium chloide +Phenol or Aniline (or their derivatives) → Azo dye
Benzene diazonium chloide + Phenol → Para hydroxy azo benzene
(ii) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline using HNO3 gives about 47% meta nitro aniline. This is Benzene diazonium chloide + Aniline → Para amino azo benzene
because aniline gets protonated to anilinium ion 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑵𝑯𝟑 which is meta directing.
For the preparation of ortho and para nitro aniline –NH2 group is first deactivated using acetic
anhydride and then nitrating mixture is added. 8. What are Anomers ? Give example for it.
A pair of stereo isomeric ring forms of a sugar which differ in configuration at C
C-1
1 (anomeric carbon) are
called anomers. Thus alpha D(+) glucose and Beta D (+) glucose are anomers
9. Structure of fructose.
Fructose has molecular formula C6H12O6 .Fructose is Ketohexose.
===============================================================
10. Disaccharides

Disaccharides Reducing/non reducing sugar On hydrolysis

(iii) Sulphonation: CHAPTER 14 BIOMOLECULES ( QUICK REVISION) Sucrose (cane sugar) Non reducing sugar Glucose and Fructose
ructose
Aniline + Concentrated sulphuric acid → Para amino benzene suphonic acid (Sulphanilic acid) PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM Maltose(malt sugar) Reducing sugar Glucose
10. Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction. Why? Lactose (milk sugar) Reducing sugar Glucose and Galactose
alactose
Aniline forms salt with AlCl3 . Due to this , nitrogen of aniline acquires partial positive charge and hence 1. What are Carbohydrates ? 11. What is glycosidic linkage?
act as a strong deactivating group for further reaction. Carbohydrates are optically active poly hydroxy aldehydes or poly hydroxy ketones or compounds which The linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
11. How will you prepare benzene diazonium chloride? 12. Explain inversion of cane sugar.(hydrolysis of cane sugar)
give these on hydrolysis.
When aniline is treated with nitrous acid (sodium nitrite and HCl) in ice cold condition, benzene 𝑯
2. How will you classify carbohydrates depending on their behavior towards hydrolysis.
diazonium chloride is formed.
(I) Monosaccharides:- e.g. Glucose( C6H12O6) , Fructose( C6H12O6)
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (II) Oligosaccharides:- E.g. Sucrose, maltose , lactose (disaccharides). Glucose Fructose
Aniline Benzene diazonium chloide (III) Poly saccharides :- . E.g. starch, cellulose. Aqueous solution of sucrose is dextrorotatory. When hydrolysed by dilute acid, sucrose
sucro gives an
3. What are reducing sugar and non reducing sugar? equimolar mixture of D(+) glucose and D( D(-) fructose.
12. Substitution reactions of benzene diazonium chloride
Reducing sugar :- Carbohydrates which reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling
Fehling’s
’s solution.
solution Since the laevorotation of fructose ( -92.40) is more than the dextro rotation of glucose (+52.5 0), the
Sandmeyer reaction (For the preparation of chloro benzene, bromo benzene or cyano benzene)
eg.,
g., All monosaccharides, maltose, lactose. mixture will be laevorotatory. Thus the hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of
𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍/𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝟐 Non-reducing sugars :-Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates which cannot reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
solution rotation from dextro to laevo. Hence this reaction is called inversion of cane sugar and the product
E.g., sucrose , starch, cellulose mixture is called invert sugar.
𝑪𝒖𝑩𝒓/𝑯𝑩𝒓
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑵𝟐 4. How glucose is prepared?
When sucrose is boiled with dilute acids, glucose and fructose are formed. 13. Explain different type polysaccharides.
𝑪𝒖𝑪𝑵/𝑯𝑪𝑵
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝟐 5. Explain the structure of glucose.
Glucose has molecular formula C 6H12O6
Polysaccharides Components Uses
13. What is Gatterman reaction?
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated with Cu/HCl , chlorobenzene is formed. Glcose is an aldohexose Starch Amylose and amylo pectin Polymer of α- D glucose Energy storage of plants
(α- D glucose)
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated with Cu/HBr , bromobenzene is formed. On prolonged heating with hydrogen iodide, it forms n-hexane indicate
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝒖/𝑯𝑪𝒍
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍 the presence of six carbon atoms linked in a straight chain. Cellulose β-D glucose Linear polymer of β-D Structural material of the
glucose cell wall of plant cells
𝑪𝒖/𝑯𝑩𝒓
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍 glycogen α- D glucose Similar to amylo pectin Animal starch.
14. What are amino acids? 26. Vitamin-D is syntesised in the body.
Aminoacids are compounds containing both amino and carboxyl groups. 27. What are nucleic acids?
Aminoacids are formed by the hydrolysis of proteins. Nucleic acids are polymer of nucleotides. So they are called poly nucleotides.
15. Classify amino acids in to neutral, acidic and basic. Nucleic acids are two types (i) Deoxyribo nucleic acid(DNA) (ii) Ribo nucleic acid(RNA)
Neutral aminoacids :- E.g. glycine and alanine
28. What are nucleoside and nucleotide?
Acidic aminoacid :-E.g.
E.g. aspartic acid and glutamic acid Nucleoside :- Pentose sugar + nitrogeneous base
Basic aminoacid :- E.g. lysine argynine and histidine. Nucleotide :- Pentose sugar + nitrogeneous base + Phosphate ester linkage
16. Which is an optically inactive amino acid found in proteins.
Glycine 29. Explain the structure of nucleic acid.
17. What are Essencial amino acids and N Non essencial aminoacids?
Essencial amino acids:-Human
Human body cannot synthesise. These must be supplied through diet. E.g. Lysine,
Non essencial aminoacids :-Human
uman body can synthesise. These are not essencial in the diet. E.g. glycine,
18. What are zwitter ion?
30. What are the difference between DNA and RNA?
Since amino acids contain both basic and acidic groups , they neutralize each other forming a dipolar ion
Deoxy ribo nucleic acid (DNA) Ribo nucleic acid (RNA)
called zwitter ion. So amino acids have high melting point and soluble in water
Pentose sugar is β-D-2- deoxy ribose Pentose sugar is β-D -ribose
19. What are Proteins ? Bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine Bases are adenine , uracil, cytosine and guanine
Chemically all proteins are polymer of alpha aminoacids. DNA has double stranded α-helix structure. RNA has single stranded α-helix structure.
Proteins are polypeptides having molecular mass more than 10000. DNA controls the heredity(Genetic information is stored RNA controls the synthesis of proteins
20. What is peptide linkage? in DNA)
The –CO-NH- bond connecting the amino acids is called peptide linkage or peptide bond. DNA undergo replication RNA does not undergo replication
21. What is denaturation of protein? 31. Biological functions of nucleic acids
The phenomenon in which proteins undergo changes in physica physicall and biological properties without Genetic information of a species and individual is stored in DNA and it is the chemical basis of heredity.
affecting its chemical composition under the effect of heat or chemical reagents is called denaturation Proteins are synthesised by RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the synthesis of a particular
of protein. protein is stored in DNA
During denaturation secondary and tertiary structure will change. .Primary structure will not change.
E.g. Coagulation of egg white on boiling, curding of milk. =========================================================================
22. Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins.
Fibrous proteins Globular proteins PREPARED BY:
Here poly peptide chains lie side by side to form fibre Here poly peptide chains coil around or folded
like structures. to give a spherical shape
They are insoluble in water They are soluble in water
e.g. Keratin ( present in hair , wool) e.g. insulin (hormone),
YOOSAFALI T K ,
myosine (present in muscles) albumin (in egg white) GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM M(14038) ,
23. Explain the structure of protein.
MOBILE : 9947444175
Primary structure It explains which aminoacids are present and sequence of amino acids
Secondary stucture Folding of poly peptide chain results to α
α-helix and β-pleated
pleated structure YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
Tertiary structure Three dimens
dimensional
ional folding results fibrous and globular shape.
Quarternary Spatial arrangement of poly peptide sub units
============================================================
structure
24. How will you classify vitamins?
(i) Water soluble vitamins . e.g. vitamin B ,C
(ii) Fat soluble vitamins . e.g. Vitamin A, D. E, K
25. Vitamin C cannot be stored in our body
body. Why?
Because it is soluble in water and readily excreted through urine.