-= GNCHM2 S01E04 =- Two factors:
Physical 1. Inherent tendency towards disorder
Properties
----- OF -----
SOLUTIONS
Solutions
Definition of Terms
 Solution – homogeneous mixture
 Solute – component dissolved in solvent;
usually in smaller amount
 Solvent – medium into which solutes are
mixed; usually in greater amount
 Concentration – describes how much
solute there is in a solvent
 Dilute – small amount of solute
 Concentrated – large amount of solute
A solution is a liquid mixture in which the
minor component (the solute) is uniformly
distributed within the major component (the
solvent). When referring to solutions, there
are three degrees of saturation: unsaturated,
saturated, and supersaturated.
 Unsaturated – the solvent is capable of
dissolving more solute.
 Saturated – the solvent has dissolved the
maximum amount of solute that it can at
the given temperature.
 Supersaturated solution – solution that
contains more solute than what the
solvent can dissolve.
 Crystallization is the process in which
dissolved solutes will come out of
solution and form crystals.
THE SOLUTION PROCESS
A solution is formed when one substance
disperses uniformly throughout another.
2. Intermolecular interactions
Inherent tendency towards disorder
 The extent of spreading molecules and
their associated kinetic energies is related
to their thermodynamic quantity called
entropy.
 Formation of solution is favored by the
increase in the entropy that accompanies
mixing
Types of Interactions
1. Solvent-solvent interaction
2. Solute-solute interaction
3. Solute-solvent interactions
𝛥𝐻1 = disruption of solvent-solvent interactions
𝛥𝐻2 = disruption of solute-solute interactions
𝛥𝐻3 = formation of solute-solvent interactions
Step 1 (disruption of solvent-solvent
interactions) and Step 2 (disruption of solute-
solute particles) require energy input to break
attractive intermolecular forces.
(Endothermic)
Step 3 (formation of solute-solvent
interactions):
 Solute-solvent interactions > solute-solute
and solvent-solvent interactions –
Exothermic
 Solute-solvent interactions < solute-solute
and solvent-solvent interactions -
Endothermic
“Like dissolves like”..
This pertains to the
intermolecular forces
present in solute vs.
solvent.
 CCl4 dissolves in benzene (C6H6): both Sometimes we express the concentration of a
nonpolar solution by parts per million (ppm) or parts
 Water (H2O) and methanol (CH3OH) per billion (ppb).
dissolve in each other: both polar
 Ionic compounds are not soluble in 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
ppm = 𝑥 106
nonpolar solvents 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Ionic compounds dissolve in polar 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
ppb = 𝑥 109
compounds due to solvation 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Solvation is the process of in which an
ion or molecule is surrounded by
solvent molecules arranged in a MOLE FRACTION
specific manner. Mole fraction of Component A
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴
=
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

MOLARITY
Molarity (M) is the concentration of a solution
expressed as the number of moles of solute
per liter of solution.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
M=
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(don’t 4get guyssss …) MOLALITY

Molality (m) is a property of a solution and is
defined as the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent. The SI unit for molality is
mol/kg.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
m=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
Two liquids that are soluble in
each other in all proportions
are called miscible (opposite is
immiscible).

Water and oil are immiscible.

Concentration
Units
Quantitative study of the solution requires
knowing its concentration.
Concentration is the amount of solute present
in a given amount of solution.

PERCENT BY MASS
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by mass = x 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= x 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒+𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Put sugar and iced tea PRESSURE
together, that’s The effect of pressure on the solubility of
SOLUBILITEA solids and liquids is negligible.
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to its pressure.

Factors
Affecting
Solubility
NATURE OF SOLVENT AND SOLUTE
1. The more similar the intermolecular
interactions, the more likely one
substance is to be soluble in another.
2. Polar substances tend to dissolve in
polar solvents.
3. Nonpolar substances dissolve in
nonpolar solvents.
Henry’s Law
𝑆𝑔 = k𝑃𝑔
 Sg is the solubility of the gas
 k is the Henry’s law constant for the gas in
a particular solvent
 Pg is the partial pressure of the gas above
the liquid
This equation indicates that, at constant T,
when the partial pressure decreases, the
concentration of the gas in a liquid also
decreases, and consequently, the solubility of
gas decreases.

TEMPERATURE
Le Chatelier's Principle
 Changes in the temperature, pressure,
volume, or concentration of a system will Colligative
result in predictable and opposing changes Properties
in the system in order to achieve a new These are properties that depend only on the
equilibrium state. number of solute particles in a solution and
 Effect of temperature depends on not on the nature of the solute.
whether a reaction is endothermic or
exothermic. VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING
 Endothermic – Increase in T results Because of the solute-solvent interactions,
stress on the reactant’s side from higher concentrations of nonvolatile solutes
additional heat. Le Chatelier’s principle make it harder for the solvent to escape the
predicts that the system will shift on vapor phase.
the product’s side. By shifting, more
solid is dissociated, resulting in higher
solubility
 Exothermic – Increase in T results
stress on the product’s side from
additional heat. Le Chatelier’s principle
predicts that the system will shift on
the reactant’s side. By shifting, less
solid is dissociated, resulting in lower
solubility.
Raoult’s Law  In order to form a solid, a lower
Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a temperature is required.
solvent above a solution is equal to the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent at the same The change in freezing point can be found
temperature scaled by the mole fraction of the similarly:
solvent present Tf = Kf  m
PA = XAPA Here Kf is the molal freezing point depression
Where: constant of the solvent.
 XA is the mole fraction of compound A, and
 PA is the normal vapor pressure of A at that OSMOTIC PRESSURE
temperature Osmosis is the selective
NOTE: In a solution containing one solute, passage of solvent
XA = 1 – XB where XB is the mole fraction of the molecules through a
solute semipermeable
PA = XAPA membrane which blocks
PA = (1 – XB) PA the passage of solute
PA = PA - XBPA molecules. It occurs from
PA - PA = - XBPA a more dilute solution to
ΔP = XBPA a more concentrated one.

BOILING POINT ELEVATION The pressure required to stop osmosis, known

 Boiling point is when vapor pressure = as osmotic pressure, ᴨ, is
atmospheric pressure
 Non-volatile solute lowers the solvent ᴨ = MRT
vapor pressure
 Higher temperature is needed to reach ᴨ - osmotic pressure (atm)
boiling point M – molarity of the solution
R – gas constant (0.08206 L•atm/mol•K)
The change in boiling point is T – temperature (K)
proportional to the molality of
the solution:
Tb = Kb  m
where Kb is the molal boiling
point elevation constant, a
property of the solvent.

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

 Solute interferes with the formation of an

ordered solid.