Physical Pharmacy: Different Types of Solutions

PHYSICAL
PHARMACY DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

I. Solutions of gases in liquids
SOLUTION -‐ homogeneous dispersion of 2/more 1) Effect of PRESSURE on solubility
substances in each other -‐ é partial pressure = é solubility
1. Saturated -‐ contains maximum amount of solute -‐ Gas -‐ molecules far apart; éKE
that can be dissolved in solvent (solution in equilibrium) -‐ PT = P1 + P2
2. Unsaturated -‐ contains less than maximum solute (Total pressure = Psolvent + Psolute)
that can be dissolved in solvent
3. Supersaturated -‐ contains more solute than can be HENRY’S LAW
dissolved -‐ conc. of dissolved gas in solvent is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas (with
SOLUTE -‐ dissolved substance (solid, liquid, gas) constant temperature)
SOLVENT -‐ dissolving medium -‐ é P = é C = é solubility
!! !!
-‐ =
!! !!
3 most important types of solutions:
1. Solid in liquid 2) Effect of TEMPERATURE on solubility
2. Liquid in liquid -‐ solubility of gas decreases with an increase in
3. Gas in liquid temperature therefore increase in kinetic energy
-‐ é KE = é motion in molecules = break
DISSOLUTION -‐ transfer of molecules/ions from a solid intermolecular bonds & escape from solution
state into solution -‐ é temp = ê solubility
-‐ rate of solution
3) Effect of DISSOLVED SUBSTANCE on solubility
SOLUBILITY -‐ extent to which dissolution proceeds under -‐ presence of dissolved substance (electrolytes)
experimental conditions lowers solubility of gas (competition)
-‐ amount of solid passing in solution with -‐ é dissolved substance = ê solubility
equilibrium (form saturated solution) between
solution & excess (undissolved) substance II. Solutions of liquids in liquids
-‐ amount which can be dissolved
*Dissolution and Solubility -‐ not the same and not RAOULT’S LAW
necessarily related -‐ Vapor pressure of a component in a solution is
-‐ in practice: é drug solubility = é dissolution rate directly proportional to its mole fraction and is
equal to mole fraction multiplied by its vapor
USP Descriptive Terms of solubility pressure in pure state at that temperature
Description Volume (mL) solvent that -‐ Dependent on amount of solute added
dissolves 1 g or 1 part solute -‐ For volatile substances
Very soluble <1 -‐ PT = P1 + P2 ; PT = P1oX1 + P2oX2
Freely soluble 1 -‐ 10 -‐ ΔP1 = P1o -‐ P1
Soluble 10 -‐ 30 -‐ X1 = n1___ ; X2 = n2___
Sparingly soluble 30 -‐ 100 n1 + n2
n1 + n2
Slightly soluble 100 -‐ 1,000 where:
Very slightly soluble 1,000 -‐ 10,000 P1o = vapor pressure of solvent at pure state
Practically insoluble > 10,000 P2o = vapor pressure of solute at pure state
P1 = vapor pressure of solvent in solution
*Prediction of solubility -‐ “like dissolves like” P2 = vapor pressure of solute in solution
-‐ solvent dissolves best in solvent with similar chemical X1 = mole fraction of solvent
properties (polar in polar; nonpolar in nonpolar) X2 = mole fraction of solute
MISCIBILITY -‐ solubility between gases or liquids ΔP1 = vapor pressure lowering of solvent
n1 = moles of solvent
n2 = moles of solute
**if solute is nonvolatile, PT = P1
MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY 1

III. Solutions of solids in liquids ΔTf = freezing point elevation of solvent
4) Osmotic pressure (π)
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES -‐ Pressure required to stop osmosis
-‐ depend on concentration (# of particles) of solute -‐ PV = nRT à π = MRT / π = mRT
molecules of ions in solution but not on the where:
chemical identity of solute π = osmotic pressure
-‐ Δ in colligative properties: M/m = molarity/molality of solute
ions/electrolytes > nonelectrolytes R = 0.0821 Latm / molK
T = temperature
1) Vapor pressure lowering -‐ Cryoscopic method:
-‐ Pressure of pure solvent decreases when solute is π = ΔTf RT
added Kf
-‐ Pressure change dependent on SUMMARY
amount/concentration of solute added Colligative prop. Non-‐electrolytes Electrolytes
-‐ P1o > P1 ΔP1 P1oX2 i P1oX2
-‐ ΔP1 = P1oX2
ΔTb Kbm i Kbm
-‐ ΔP1 = P1o -‐ P1

ΔTf Kfm i Kfm
2) Boiling point elevation π mRT i mRT
-‐ Adding solute to water:

a. Widens phase diagram
i = dissociation constant / Van’t Hoff factor
b. é b. pt., ê m. pt., ê f. pt.
c. é ΔTb = 1 + [dissociation x (# of ions -‐ 1)]
-‐ Tbo < Tb e.g. H2SO4 with 80% dissociation
-‐ ΔTb α m (direct proportionality) i = 1 + [0.8 x (3-‐1)] = 2.6
-‐ ΔTb = Kbm DISSOCIATION VALUES (i) guide
-‐ ΔTb = Kb x Wsolute_____ 80% 60% 50% 20%
MWsolute x kgsolvent Non-‐electrolytes 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
-‐ ΔTb = Tb -‐ Tbo ; Tb = ΔTb + Tbo
Electrolytes (2-‐ion) 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.2
where:
Tbo = boiling point of solvent at pure state
(Tbo of water = 100oC)
Tb = boiling point of solvent in solution

Kb = ebullioscopic constant/molal boiling point constant
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
(Kb of water = 0.51 Co/m)

m = molality of solute
Osmosis
ΔTb = boiling point elevation of solvent
-‐ Spontaneous process

-‐ Diffusion of water across semi-‐permeable
3) Freezing point depression
membrane
-‐ Tfo > Tf
-‐ Semi-‐permeable membrane allows passage of
-‐ ΔTf α m (direct proportionality)
solvent but NOT solute
-‐ ΔTf = Kfm
-‐ Movement of solvent from lower solute conc. to
-‐ ΔTf = Kf x Wsolute_____
higher solute conc.
MWsolute x kgsolvent
-‐ Movement of solvent from higher solvent conc. to
-‐ ΔTf = Tfo -‐ Tf ; Tf = Tfo -‐ ΔTf
lower solvent conc.
where:

Tfo = freezing point of solvent at pure state
Osmotic pressure
(Tfo of water = 0oC)
-‐ Pressure required to stop osmosis
Tf = freezing point of solvent in solution
-‐ Depends on number of solute particles
Kf = cryoscopic constant/molal freezing point constant
-‐ Non-‐electrolytes = molecules
(Kf of water = 1.86 Co/m)
-‐ Electrolytes = ions; é π because of dissociation
m = molality of solute
2 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

-‐ Body fluids (blood, lachrymal fluid) = 0.9% NaCl Procedure:
-‐ Solutions to be mixed with body fluids must have 1. Find difference between freezing point
the same osmotic pressure for: depression (ΔTf or ‘D’ in Co)
a. greater comfort D supplied by NaCl = 0.52 -‐ (D of drug)
b. efficacy
c. safety 2. Calculate amount of NaCl needed to render
-‐ Smaller particle size than pore size of membrane = solution isotonic based on ΔTf or ‘D’ of 0.9% NaCl sol’n
tendency to go in 0.9% : 0.52 = X : D to be supplied by NaCl
= change in tone/concentration
= change in π B. Sodium Chloride/NaCl Equivalent Method
*Tone -‐ original content; must not be changed -‐ NaCl equivalent (‘E’) -‐ g NaCl producing same
osmotic effect as 1g drug
Iso-‐osmotic -‐ solutions with same π -‐ E of H3BO3 = 0.52 (0.52g NaCl produces same
Isotonic -‐ solutions with same π & tone effect as 1g H3BO3
**All isotonic are iso-‐osmotic -‐ E = MWNaCl x isubs__
Not all iso-‐osmotic are isotonic iNaCl MWsubs
Procedure:
H3BO3 (Boric acid) solution 1. Weight of NaCl rep. by drug:
-‐ Preservative in ophthalmic solutions Wtdrug x E
-‐ Iso-‐osmotic with both blood & lachrymal fluid
-‐ Isotonic with lachrymal fluid 2. Weight of NaCl present in isotonic sol’n:
-‐ Pass freely through erythrocyte membrane !.! ! !
= / 0.009 x vol. of Rx
!"" !" !"#. !" !"
regardless of conc. à hemolysis
3. Weight of NaCl to adjust to isotonic:
Solution Types Relative to a Cell Step2 -‐ Step1
1) Isotonic

-‐ conc. of sol’n = conc. of cell 4. Weight of other agent:

0.9% 0.9% Step3___

Eother agent
2) Hypotonic
-‐ conc. of sol’n < conc. of cell Liso = iKf
0.2% 0.9%

ΔTf = iKfm

ΔTf = Lisom
-‐ hemolysis

3) Hypertonic Class II
-‐ conc. of sol’n < conc. of cell A. White-‐Vincent Method
2.0 % 0.9%

-‐ Addition of water to drugs to make isotonic

solution
-‐ crenation/shrinking -‐ Addition of isotonic/isotonic-‐buffered diluting
solution to bring solution to final volume
METHODS OF ADJUSTING SOLUTION TO ISOTONICITY -‐ Examples of isotonic/isotonic-‐buffered diluting
Class I solutions:
A. Cryoscopic method a. Dextrose solution 5.6%
-‐ -‐0.52oC -‐ freezing point of body fluids b. NaNO3 solution 1.3%
-‐ for hypotonic solution (Tf above -‐0.52oC): add c. Isotonic NaCl solution USP 0.9%
therapeutically active solute e.g. NaCl, dextrose, B. Sprowl’s Method
KNO3, H3BO3 -‐ Simplification of White-‐Vincent
-‐ for hypertonic solution (Tf below -‐0.52oC): dilute -‐ Wtdrug fixed as 0.3 g for 1 fl.oz. of 1% solution
solution
-‐ 0.9% NaCl has -‐0.52oC Tf like body fluids


INTERFACIAL TENSION CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACTANTS
-‐ study of interfacial phenomena
-‐ Interface -‐ boundary between 2 immiscible phases I. Chemically
existing together 1. ANIONIC -‐ soaps; bacteriostatic; (-‐) charge
-‐ Examples: a. carboxylates – soaps
a. solid-‐solid (powder) b. sulfonates – dialkyl sodium sulfosuccinate
b. solid-‐liquid (suspension) e.g. sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate
c. liquid-‐liquid (emulsion) c. sulfates – sodium lauryl sulfate
d. solid-‐gas (foam)
e. liquid-‐gas (foam) SOAPS:
-‐ Interfacial forces: a. alkali soaps e.g. K+, Na+, & NH4+ salts of
1) Cohesive force -‐ bet. molecules of same phase lauric acid & oleic acid à o/w emulsifying
2) Adhesive force -‐ bet. molecules of diff. phases agent (but with disagreeable taste, GI
e.g. Wetting -‐ process in which water forms a irritant, for external use)
film over a glass/metal due to existence of b. Ca, Mg & Al salts of fatty acids à w/o,
adhesive forces liniments & creams
c. Salts formed from fatty acids & an organic
SURFACE TENSION (γ) amine e.g. triethanolamine à o/w, for
-‐ force with which the surface of one side of a line external use
1 cm in length pulls/attracts surface of other side
of line 2. CATIONIC -‐ antiseptic; bactericidal; (+) charge
-‐ deals with molecules situated on boundary 1. amine salts
-‐ UNITS: dynes/cm, erg/cm2, g/sec2 2. quaternary amine cpds.
-‐ Surface -‐ either gas/solid & gas/liquid interface a. Tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide
𝐅 (!"#$%)
𝛄 = b. Benzalkonium chloride – inactivated in
𝟐𝐋 (!")
where: F (force) = ma presence of anions; preservative for eye-‐
2L = distance of surface over which drops
force is operating (top & bottom)
Since W = FΔd, 3. NON-‐IONIC -‐ most stable (not susceptible to
W W (𝑒𝑟𝑔) pH change/presence of electrolytes);
𝛄 = ; undissociated surfactants; most widely used
2L(Δd) ΔA (𝑐𝑚 ! )

Factors affecting surface tension: A. sorbitan esters -‐ sorbitan monooleate
1) Temperature -‐ éT = êγ B. glyceryl ester – glyceryl monostearate
2) Adding substances C. polysorbates – polyoxyethylene sorbitan
a. electrolytes -‐ éγ monopalmitate
b. non-‐electrolytes -‐ êγ D. polyethylene glycol ester – polyethylene
glycol 400 monostearate
Surface-‐active agents / surfactants / amphiphiles E. fatty acid alcohol – Cetomacrogol &
-‐ colloidal substances macrogol ether (emulsifying wax in o/w
-‐ molecules & ions move on their own accord to emulsion, solubilizer for volatile oil)
the interface when dispersed on liquid à ê γ
-‐ amphiphatic compounds -‐ with portions: 4. AMPHOTERIC -‐ contains both anion & cation
(1) hydrophilic -‐ anionic, cationic, non-‐ionic Ex. Lecithin, cephalin, proteins
(2) lipophilic -‐ saturated & unsaturated HC chain,
heterocyclic/aromatic systems II. System of Hydrophile-‐Lipophile Classification:
-‐ main uses: -‐ used to classify non-‐ionic surfactant
-‐ wetting agent HLB: 1-‐10 à lipophilic surfactant (w/o emulsion)
-‐ solubilizing agent HLB: >10-‐20 à hydrophilic surfactant (o/w emulsion)
-‐ emulsifying agent éHLB = éhydrophilic
-‐ detergent SLS -‐ HLB = 40

GIBB’S EQUATION -‐ Adsorption equation
1. Lipophilic – sorbitan esters -‐ to compute for surface excess or surface
-‐ uses: concentration of surfactant
a. antifoaming agents -‐ UNIT: n/cm3
b. w/o emulsifying agent C ∆γ
𝚪=− x
c. wetting agent RT ∆C
-‐ commercially available:
∆! !"#$%/!" 𝐜𝐦𝟑
1. Span slope of line = = =
7
; R = 8.32x10 erg/n-‐K
∆! !/!"! 𝐬𝟐
2. Arlacel
3. Glyceryl monstearate Methods of determining surface tension
1) Dropweight method
2. Hydrophilic – polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters -‐ stalagmometer (w/capillary) & weighing bottle
-‐ uses:
a. o/w emulsifying agent 2) Capillary rise method
b. detergents -‐ use capillary tube, test, tube, sample
c. solubilizing agent -‐ stop when force of gravity = force of surface
-‐ commerically available: tension (equilibrium)
1. Tween Fg = mg ; 2πrγ = mg
2. Myrj γ = ½hdgr
3. Polysorbate (h = cm; d = g/cm3; g = cm/s2; r = cm)

Commercially available surfactants: γ!" m!"
(mono: ends in “0”; tri: ends in “5”) =
γ!"# m!"#
wt. of liquid
m (unit: grams) =
1. SPAN (lipophilic) # of drops
Span 20 – Sorbitan monolaurate
Span 40 – Sorbitan monopalmitate 3) Du Noüy ring method
Span 60 – Sorbitan monostearate -‐ Tensiometer
Span 65 – Sorbitan tristearate -‐ Force needed to break away the ring from liquid
Span 80 – Sorbitan monooleate is dependent on ring size
Span 85 – Sorbitan trioleate
dial reading (𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠)
γ = x C. F (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
2. TWEEN (hydrophilic) 2 x ring circumference (𝑐𝑚)
Tween 20 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan monolaurate
Tween 40 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan monopalmitate
Tween 60 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan monostearate
Tween 65 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan tristearate
Tween 80 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan monooleate Tween
85 – Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan trioleate

Macrogol ether
Brij 30 – Polyoxyethylene lauryl ether
Brij 72 – Polyoxyethylene stearyl ether
Brij 92 – Polyoxyethylene oleyl ether

Arlacel 83 – Sorbitan sesquioleate
Myrj 45 – Polyoxyethylene monostearate

Natural emulsifying agents:
methylcellulose, agar, gelatin, cholesterol, acacia, lecithin


RHEOLOGY DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY
− “rheo” -‐ flow I. Single-‐point viscometers -‐ operate at single rate
− “logos” -‐ science of shear
− branch of Physics dealing with deformation & A. Capillary viscometer -‐ provide relative viscosity
flow of matter (flow depends on viscosity) Principle: based on rate of flow of liquid
through an orifice; X measure/read η directly
Viscosity (η) 1. Ostwald viscometer
− Absolute viscosity
− internal friction/resistance of fluid to flow 2. Saybolt viscometer
− opposite: Fluidity or Mobility − cylinder, thermometer, holes, stopper,
− Unit: poise (p) or dyness/cm2 ; 1 p = 100 cp receiver, Saybolt flask

Newtonian’s Law of Flow: B. Falling sphere viscometer
éη = éshearing stress to produce rate of shear Principle: based on rate of fall of ball in liquid

Hoeppler viscometer
η = F = F’χ = dynes/cm2 = dynes  s = poise (p)
− steel ball rolls down an almost vertical glass
G Aν 1/s cm2
tube w/test liquid

F (dynes/cm2) -‐ shearing stress; force applied

per unit area to apply & produce shear
II. Multi-‐point viscometers -‐ operate at various rate
F = F’ = ma = dynes
of shear
A cm2 cm2
A. Cup and bob viscometer -‐ provide absolute

G (1/s) -‐ rate of shear; rate of velocity change

viscosity
w/respect to distance
Principle: based on resistance of metallic body
G = ν = cm/s = 1
to rotate when in contact w/or immersed in
χ cm2 s
liquid
Poise (p) -‐ shearing force to produce 1 cm/s
1. Searle type -‐ bub rotating; cup stationary
velocity bet. 2 parallel liquid surfaces separated
Examples: Stormer, Haake-‐Rotovisco,
by 1 cm distance and 1 cm2 area
Brookfield Synchro-‐Lectric
2. Couette type -‐ cup rotating; bob stationary
1. Kinematic Viscosity (ηK) -‐ absolute viscosity to
Examples: MacMichael, Coaxial-‐cylinder
density

− Unit: stokes (s) or centistokes (cs)
B. Cone and plate viscometer
ηK = ηsubs_
Principle: based on resistance of rotation of
ρ
metallic cone in contact w/liquid on a stationary
2. Relative Viscosity (ηR) -‐ absolute viscosity of
plate
liquid to water
Example: Ferranti-‐Shirley
− No unit

ηK = ηsubs_
Kv (Instrumental constant) -‐ no unit
ηwater
η = kv  w_ (g) μ = kv  w -‐ wf
ηR = 1 à ηsx = ηstd | ηR > 1 à ηsx > ηstd | ηR < 1 à ηsx < ηstd
ν (rpm) ν

η = kv  F_ μ = kv  F -‐ f

Fluidity (φ) or Mobility
G G
− ability to flow

− reciprocal of η *if no kv value, remove from formula
!
− φ =
!
Factors affecting viscosity:
Gases -‐ éT = éη (independent of pressure)
Liquids -‐ éT = êη, éφ
êMW = êη
+ electrolytes = êη
+ organic substances = éη

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ACCDG TO FLOW CHARACTER
TYPE OF FLOW CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION RELATIONSHIP EXAMPLES GRAPH
1. Newtonian -‐ follows Newtonian law éF = éG -‐ simple liquids
-‐ Direct proportionality bet. éG -‐ solutions
shearing stress & rate of shear =constant η (η) (G)

éη = éF

(G) (F)

2. Plastic -‐ Associated with flocculated éF = éG -‐ semi-‐solids
(Non-‐ particles *F starts at -‐ Bingham bodies
newtonian) -‐ Starts when yield value is yield value -‐ ointment (η) (G)

exceeded éG = êη -‐ paste

-‐ cream
(G) (F)
Yield stress / Yield value (f) -‐ F -‐ cerate

exceeded before substance flows -‐ cataplasm
1. Rheogram does not start at
like liquid -‐ butter
zero
-‐ F value if G = 0; pt. of -‐ margarine

intersection
Elastic material -‐ at stress below yield
-‐ Once exceeded
value
à η constant
Free-‐flowing liquid -‐ “ ” above yield

value
*Non-‐Newtonian -‐éG =change η

Advantage: ointments & butter
not drip from finger & spatula
3. -‐ Shear thinning behavior éG = êη -‐ polymers in
Pseudoplastic -‐ materials more fluid when stirred éF = éG solution
(Non-‐ faster -‐ Natural &
(η) (G)
newtonian) synthetic gums

*At rest: -‐ liquid dispersion
Coiled, solvent immobilized of tragacanth (G) (F)

*In shear field: -‐ sodium alginate,

Aligned, release solvent methylcellulose
4. Dilatant -‐ Shear thickening behavior éF = êG, -‐ suspension
(Non-‐ -‐ Opposite of pseudoplastic then no > 50% conc
newtonian) change in -‐ Particles w/c do (η) (G)

*At rest: velocity not aggregate
Close-‐packed, êvoid volume, -‐ paint
sufficient vehicle, -‐ suspension of (G) (F)
Relatively low consistency starch in water
*In shear field:
Open-‐packed (dilated), évoid
volume, insufficient vehicle,
Relatively high viscosity
5. Thixotropic -‐ Reversible gel-‐sol -‐ aq. dispersion of Pharmaceutical significance of
transformation 8% w/w thixotropy:
-‐ network gel formed upon setting bentonite (1) formulate suspension & emulsion
(stabilize suspension & gel) -‐ colloidal SiO2 (prevent sedimentation & creaming)
-‐ when stressed = matrix relax & -‐ Mg bentonite (2) impart longer therapeutic action
form sol’n - lotions
- Veegum
Standing = gel; Shake = solution *clays

*Rheogram -‐ graph of viscosity
7

MICROMERITICS
-‐ the science and technology of small particles. 2. Packing arrangement
-‐ most powders have porosity bet. 30 – 50%
Methods of Determining Particle Size a. closest/rhombohedral – low porosity -‐ 26%
1. Optical Microscopy or Microscopic Method – b. open/cubic – loosest – highest porosity -‐ 48%
most accurate
-‐ microscope eyepiece fitted with micrometer by 3. Density
which the size of particles may be estimated a. True density (ρ = W/Vp) – density of actual
-‐ Unit of particle size – micrometer or micron solid, exclusive of voids & intraparticle pores
(μm or μ)

-‐ 1 μm or μ = 10-‐6 m, 10-‐4 cm, 10-‐3 mm b. Bulk/apparent density (ρ = W/Vb) – from

-‐ 1 millimicron (mμ) = 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-‐9 m bulk volume & weight of dry powder in a
graduated cylinder
2. Sieving (U.S.P. Method) – simplest *Bulkiness – reciprocal of apparent density
-‐ utilizes a series of standard sieves calibrated by
the National Bureau of Standards c. Granule density – by displacement of
-‐ involves size classification followed by mercury, which does not penetrate at ordinary
determination of weight of each fraction pressure into pores smaller than about 10μm

3. Particle Volume Measurement When solid is non-‐porous, true density = granule
-‐ use coulter counter in determining particle density Based on bulk density, powder may be:
volume distribution of material suspended in a. Light – low apparent or bulk density, large
electrolyte-‐containing solution bulk volume and high porosity
b. Heavy – high apparent density, small bulk
4. Sedimentation Method volume and low porosity
-‐ Andreasen apparatus
-‐ employs settling of particles in liquid of a 4. Flow properties
relatively low density under the influence of -‐ Powders may be free-‐flowing or cohesive
gravitational/centrifugal field depending on:
a. Particle size – as the particle size increases,
STOKE’S LAW -‐ expresses rate of settling flow is facilitated
-‐ not applicable for particles which aggregate or b. Shape
clump together. c. Porosity
Δx h d! (ρ! − ρ! ) d. Density
=V= =
Δt t 18 η
Elongated or flat particles – loosely packed – high
where: porosity – low density – does not flow freely
v – rate of settling or velocity of sedimentation (cm/s)
h – distance of fall in time t; ht. of liquid above sampling Nearly spherical particles – closely packed – low
tube orifice porosity – high density – free flowing
d – diameter of particle (cm)
ρs – density of particle in dispersed phase (g/cc) COARSE DISPERSIONS
ρo – density of the dispersion medium (g/cc) -‐ mean size of dispersed particle is 0.5 μm to 10 μm
g – acceleration due to gravity (980.7 cm/s2) 1. Suspensions
η – viscosity of the dispersion medium (poise) 2. Emulsions
3. Semisolids
DERIVED PROPERTIES OF POWDERS
1. Porosity or voids (Є)
void volume V! − V!
𝛜= x100 = 𝑥100
bulk volume V!

where: Vb – bulk volume; Vp – true volume

I. SUSPENSIONS – coarse dispersion in which b. Changing the phase volume ratio
insoluble solid particles are dispersed in a liquid
medium III. SEMISOLIDS

Factors affecting sedimentation Gels – a solid or semisolid system of at least 2
(based on Stoke’s Law) constituents, consisting of a condensed mass enclosing
a. Particle size and density – larger particles and interpenetrated by a liquid.
sediment more rapidly than smaller particles a. Jelly – when the coherent matrix is liquid
b. Viscosity of the medium – inversely proportional Ex. Table jellies
to the sedimentation rate b. Xerogel – when the liquid is removed and
only the framework remains
II. EMULSIONS – dispersed system consisting of at Ex. Gelatin sheets, tragacanth ribbon,
least two immiscible liquid phases, one of which is acacia tears
dispersed as globules in other liquid phase.
Changes observed in gels:
A. Type of emulsion 1. Syneresis – natural shrinking of a gel after
1. Oil in water (o/w emulsion) standing for sometime with pressing out some
2. Water in oil (w/o emulsion) of the liquid
2. Swelling – taking up of a liquid by a gel with
B. Methods of preparing emulsion an increase in volume
1. Continental / Dry Gum - 4:2:1 method 3. Imbibition – taking up of a liquid without
2. English / Wet Gum increase in volume
3. Bottle / Forbes - for volatile substances
4. In Situ Soap COLLOIDAL DISPERSIONS
C. Methods of detecting type of emulsion -‐ heterogeneous system, mean particle size of
1. Dilution test -‐ oil is added to an o/w emulsion dispersed phase is 1 nm to 0.5 μm
or water to a w/o emulsion, separation is apparent
2. Conductivity test a. sol – colloidal dispersion of solid in liquid
o/w emulsion – higher conductivity b. aerosol – colloidal dispersion of solid or
w/o emulsion – no or low conductivity liquids in gases
3. Dye-‐solubility test
H2O soluble dye (amaranth green): 1. Types of colloidal system based on interaction of
soluble in o/w emulsion particles, molecules or ions of dispersed phase with
Oil soluble dye (sudan red): molecules of dispersion medium.
soluble in w/o emulsion
D. Forms of instability A. Lyophilic colloids (solvent-‐loving) – system
1. Creaming and sedimentation containing colloidal particles that interact to an
Creaming – is the upward movement of appreciable extent with dispersion medium
the dispersed droplets relative to the continuous phase Ex. Gelatin, acacia
Sedimentation – is the downward
movement of the particles B. Lyophobic colloids (solvent-‐hating)–
materials with very little attraction for
2. Aggregation and coalescence dispersion medium
Aggregation or flocculation – the Ex. Gold, silver, sulfur
dispersed droplets come together but do not fuse
Coalescence – complete fusion of C. Association or amphiphilic colloids – small
droplets leading to the ultimate separation of the 2 molecules in dilute solution tend to associate
immiscible phases into aggregate (micelles) which are of colloidal
dimensions
3. Inversion – change from w/o to o/w and vice-‐ Ex. Surface active agents
versa brought about by:
a. Addition of electrolyte
9

2. Methods of purifying colloids: -‐ Rxn depends on concentration of drug
A. Dialysis – diffusion through a membrane of Ex: Solutions (soluble drug)
parchment cellophane or collodion (removes
molecules or ions which pass through the b. Water is held constant by having large excess
membrane) of insoluble drug
-‐ Rxn becomes pseudo-‐zero order
B. Ultrafiltration – filtration through ultrafilters -‐ Rxn depends on solubility of drug
prepared from colloidion impregnated with and Ex: Suspensions (insoluble drug)
dried for long period, allowing passage of all
substances except colloidal particles 4) Shelf-‐life (t90) -‐ 10% lost, 90% remain
5) Half-‐life (t1/2) -‐ 50% lost, 50% remain
3. Properties of colloids

A. Optical property II. Temperature: Energy of Activation
Tyndall effect – scattering of light -‐ Reaction rates are proportional to # collisions
produced when a strong beam of light is per unit time
passed through a colloidal solution -‐ étemperature = écollisions = érxn rate

B. Kinetic property Energy of activation (Ea) -‐ additional energy
Brownian movement – random movement of possessed by reactants above its average
colloidal particles energy for rxn to take place
êEa = êdrug stability
C. Electrical property
– presence of charge on surface of particles REACTION ORDER CLASSIFICATION

Zero-‐order First-‐order Second-‐order
REACTION KINETICS 1. Rate Rate Rate
Characteristics independent proportional proportional to
-‐ study of rates at which reactions take place
of conc to first power product of conc
of conc of 2 atoms/
Rate of reaction molecules
-‐ moles of reactants disappearing or mole of 2. Sample Decomp of a. Radioactive a. combination
product appearing per unit time Rxns N2O decay of H & O
b. b.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION decomposition decomposition
c. Hydrolysis of HI
I. Concentration (pseudo-‐first) c. hydrolysis of
Reaction order -‐ way in which concentration of ester in alkaline
reactant influences rate of reaction (saponification)
1) Zero-‐order -‐ for long-‐term stability studies 3. Kinetic Conc vs. Conc vs. time -‐
2) First-‐order -‐ for accelerated stability studies Profile time -‐curvilinear
3) Second-‐order -‐ involves single reactant; may -‐linear
Log conc vs.
also be encountered
time
a. Solvent concentration (water) held constant -‐linear
by having large excess of soluble drug 4. t1/2 0.5[D]o / Ko 0.693/K1 -‐ 1/[D]oK2
-‐ Rxn becomes pseudo-‐first order or apparent 5. t90 0.1[D]o / Ko 0.105/K1 -‐
first order


Physical Pharmacy: Different Types of Solutions

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PHYSICAL

PHARMACY DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY 1

0.9% 0.9% Step3___

-‐ Addition of water to drugs to make isotonic

4 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

G (1/s) -‐ rate of shear; rate of velocity change

η = kv  F_ μ = kv  F -‐ f

6 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

Coiled, solvent immobilized of tragacanth (G) (F)

where: Vb – bulk volume; Vp – true volume

8 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

10 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

You might also like

Physical Pharmacy: Different Types of Solutions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

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Share this document

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Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physical Pharmacy: Different Types of Solutions

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Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICAL

PHARMACY DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

MJLA2015 -­‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY 1

0.9% 0.9% Step3___

-­‐ Addition of water to drugs to make isotonic

4 MJLA2015 -­‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

G (1/s) -­‐ rate of shear; rate of velocity change

η = kv  F_ μ = kv  F -­‐ f

6 MJLA2015 -­‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

Coiled, solvent immobilized of tragacanth (G) (F)

where: Vb – bulk volume; Vp – true volume

8 MJLA2015 -­‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

10 MJLA2015 -­‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

You might also like

MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY 1

-‐ Addition of water to drugs to make isotonic

4 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

G (1/s) -‐ rate of shear; rate of velocity change

η = kv  F_ μ = kv  F -‐ f

6 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

8 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY

10 MJLA2015 -‐ PHYSICAL PHARMACY