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p.506

13.1 Types of Solutions

Chapter 13
Physical Properties
Insert picture from
First page of chapter of Solutions foam
solid foam
emulsion
solid emulsion
sol
solid suspension

Liquid Gas aerosol Fog

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13.1 Types of Solutions unsaturated saturated

Solution classifications based on amount of

solute dissolved relative to the maximum:
• Saturated – maximum amount at a given
temperature (This amount is termed the
solubility of the solute.)
• Unsaturated – less than the maximum
• Supersaturated – more than a saturated heat
solution but is an unstable condition
supersaturated
when cooling carefully
to avoid recrystallization
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p.507
Conversion of a Supersaturated Solution to a 13.2 A Molecular View of the
Saturated Solution Solution Process
adding seed crystallization proceeds saturated sol’n Factors that determine solubility
• Intermolecular forces present in the
formation of a solution
– Solute-solute interactions
– Solvent-solvent interactions
– Solute-solvent interactions

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In the example on previous page: exothermic

∆H soln = ∆H1 + ∆H 2 + ∆H3 ∆H soln = ∆H1 + ∆H 2 + ∆H3

endothermic
H2

∆H1 + ∆H 2 < ∆H3 ∆H soln < 0 exothermic

H1

∆H1 + ∆H 2 > ∆H 3 ∆H soln > 0 endothermic

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Solubility can be predicted based on “like

dissolves like” in terms of intermolecular forces. Predict whether Vitamin B6 is water soluble
For example: water and methanol are both polar
and dissolve in each other
or fat soluble.

O
H H

• Two liquids that are soluble in each other in all

proportions are term miscible.

• Ions readily dissolve in polar solvent due to

solvation by the solvent molecules.
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Water soluble, is it blood soluble?

polar groups Q. What else should these compounds be soluble in an organism?

Water soluble due to the presence of polar

groups. Retinol, Vitamin A phytomenadione , Vitamin K
Molecular Formula C20H30O Molecular Formula C31H46O2

11 Metabolic functioning Blood clotting 12

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p.511

• Energy and entropy 13.3 Concentration Units

– Exothermic processes are generally more
favorable than endothermic processes • Molality (m) – number of moles of solute dissolved
– Solutions do form when the overall process is in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent
endothermic moles of solute
– Entropy (randomness or disorder) contributes molality = m =
mass of solvent (in kg)
to the solution process
• Entropy tends to increase for all • Percent by Mass – ratio of mass of solute to the
process mass of the solution times 100
• A solution is more disordered than the mass of solute
percent by mass = x100
isolated solute and solvent mass of solute + mass of solvent
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Units analogous to percent by mass (part per Choice of units depends on the purpose of the
hundred) to express very small concentrations experiment
• Mole fraction – used for gases and vapor
• Parts per million (ppm) pressures of solutions
mass * of solute • Molarity – commonly used since volumes of
ppm = x10 6
mass * of solution solutions are easy to measure
• Parts per billion (ppb) • Molality – temperature independent
• Percent by Mass – temperature independent
mass * of solute and need not know molar masses
ppb = x109
mass * of solution • Conversion between units requires the use of
density if any mass to volume or volume to mass
*masses must be expressed in the same units
conversion in needed.
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Determine the a) molality, b) percent by

Your exercise at home mass and c) the ppm concentrations of a
• Determine a relationship between molality solution prepared by dissolving 15.56 g of
(m) and molarity (M). glucose (C6H12O6) in 255 g of water.

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a) molality b) percent by mass

Molar mass of glucose = 180.2 g/mol
15.56 g
x100 = 5.75% glucose
270.56 g
mol
mol glucose = 15.56 g x = 0.086349 mol
180.2 g
c) ppm

1 10 3 g 15.56 g
m = 0.086349 mol x x = 0.339 m x10 6 = 5.751x10 4 ppm glucose
255 g kg 270.56 g

Calculate the molarity and compare its value with molality.

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p.514
13.4 Factors that Affect Solubility Temperature Dependence of the Solubility
fig.13.4 (p.515) of Selected Solids
• Temperature
– The solubility of solids may increase,
decrease or remain relatively constant
with increasing temperature
– The solubility of gases decreases with
increasing temperature
• Thermal pollution – a consequence of
the relation between gas solubility and
temperature (industrial cooling)
aquatic life

O2(dissolved) ↓
Q. Is oxygen essential to sustain life? 21 22

Molecular View at Different Pressures

• Pressure – significantly affects only the
solubility of gases
P1 P2
– Henry’s law – the solubility of a gas, c, is
directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas, P, over the solution
c∝P
c = kP (13.3)

where c, is in mol/L, k is Henry’s law

constant with units of mol/L. atm and P is
in atm. P1< P2
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Calculate the pressure of O2 necessary to

generate an aqueous solution that is c = kP
3.4 x 10−2 M in O2 at 25°C. The Henry’s law
constant for O2 in water at 25°C is 1.3 x 10 −3 c 3.4x10 −2 mol L ⋅ atm
mol/L . atm.
P= = x
k L 1.3x10 −3 mol

P = 26.2 atm
Check out sample problem 13.5 (p.516)

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p.517
13.5 Colligative Properties – Raoult’s law – quantitative expression of the
solution vapor pressure
Colligative properties depend only on the • Nonvolatile solute (P1 is the solution vapor
number of solute particles in solution and not the pressure, P0 is the vapor pressure of the
pure substance, and χ is the mole fraction.)
nature of the solute
• Vapor-Pressure lowering P1 = χ 1P10
– Nonvolatile solute (no appreciable pressure)
• Vapor pressure of the solvent is decreased • Volatile solute (PT is the solution vapor
– Volatile solute (exhibit appreciable pressure) pressure, PA0 and PB0 are vapor pressures
• Vapor pressure is the sum of the individual of pure solution components)
pressures PT = χ A PA0 + χ BPB0
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fig.13.6 (p.518) Ideal Solution* of Benzene and Toluene

Entropy and Vapor Pressure Lowering fig.13.7
(p.519)

At 20°C,
Pbenzene= 75 mmHg

S Already more chaotic Ptoluene= 22 mmHg
thus, more benzene
0.5 than toluene in 50/50%
Mixture (PT)

S(sol’n
Gas) <
S(Pure Liq’d
Gas)

∴Tendency for solvent molecules entering gas phase ↓

∴ solution always exerts lower vapour pressure rel. pure solvent
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*Obeys Raoult’s law

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Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution

PH2O = χ H2OPH02O
made by dissolving 115 g of urea, a nonvolatile
solute, [(NH2)2CO; molar mass = 60.06 g/mol] mol
molH2O = 485 gx = 26.91 mol
in 485 g of water at 25°C. 18.02 g
(At 25°C, PH2O = 23.8 mmHg.) mol
mol urea = 115 g x = 1.915 mol
60.06 g
26.91 mol
χ H 2O = = 0.9336
26.91 mol + 1.915 mol

PH2O = 0.9392 x 23.8 mmHg = 22.2 mmHg

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• Boiling-Point Elevation (∆Tb)

Urea – The boiling point of a solution, Tb, of a
Usage: nonvolatile solute will be higher than that of the
Industrial: adhesive, plastic, explosives. pure solvent, Tb0 .
Automobile: exhaust system where urea reacts with NOx
producing N2 and H2O by catalytic reactions. ∆Tb = Tb − Tb0
Commercial: browning agent, animal feed components, hair
conditioning, etc.
– Elevation is directly proportional to the molal
concentration.
∆Tb = K b m
Industrial manufacturing process:
2 NH3 + CO2 ↔ H2N-COONH4 ()
The second is an endothermic decomposition of ammonium carbamate
into urea and water:
H2N-COONH4 ↔ (NH2)2CO + H2O – Kb is the molal boiling-point elevation constant.

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fig.13.8 p.520
(p.520) Effect of Vapor Pressure Lowering

new phase curve after

mixing with a compound

Effect on Boiling Point

∆Tb = K b m = (0.52o C / m )(1.00 m ) = 0.52o C

The bpt of a 1.00 m aqueous sol’n of a non-volatile, non-electrolyte

Tb = Tbo + ∆Tb = 100.0o C + 0.52o C = 100.5o C

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• Freezing-Point Depression (∆Tf) Effect of Vapor Pressure Lowering

– The freezing point of a solution, Tf, will be lower
0
than that of the pure solvent, Tf .

∆Tf = Tf 0 − Tf
Effect on Freezing Point

– Depression is directly proportional to the molal

concentration.
∆Tf = K f m

– Kf is the molal freezing-point elevation constant.

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Entropy and Freezing Point
more disorder in sol’n rel. pure solvent
Calculate a) the freezing point and b) the
boiling point of a solution containing 268 g of
ethylene glycol and 1015 g of water. (The
molar mass of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is
62.07 g/mol. Kb and Kf for water are 0.512°C/ m
and 1.86°C/ m, respectively.)

more heat needs to be removed from solution,

so lowering freezing point.

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a) freezing point
b) boiling point
mol
mol ethylene glycol = 268 g x = 4.318 mol
62.07 g
0.512 o C
m = 4.318 mol x
1
x
10 3 g
= 4.254 m ∆Tb = x 4.254 m = 2.18 o C
1015 g kg m

2.18 o C = Tb − 100.00 o C
1.86 o C
∆T f = x 4.254 m = 7.91o C
m
Tb = 102.18 o C
7.91o C = 0.00 o C − Tf

Tf = −7.91o C
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p.522
Osmosis - Selective passage of solvent
molecules through a semipermeable • Osmotic Pressure (π)
membrane – Pressure required to stop osmosis
– Directly proportional to molar concentration, M

π = MRT
solvent solution solvent solution
where R is 0.08206 L.atm/mol . K and T is in
kelvins

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Modified Equations for Colligative Properties

• Solutions of Electrolytes
– Dissociation of strong and weak electrolytes ∆Tf = iK f m
affects the number of particles in a solution
– van’t Hoft factor (i) – accounts for the effect
∆Tb = iK b m
of dissociation

actual number of particles in solution after dissociation π = iRTM

i=
number of formula units initially dissolved in solution
e.g. dissolving NaCl and CaCl2 respectively:
1 Na+ 1 Cl- 1 Ca2+ 2 Cl-
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p.524 fig.13.11 (p.523)

Formation of ion pairs affects colligative properties

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The freezing-point depression of a 0.100 m

MgSO4 solution is 0.225°C. Determine the
experimental van’t Hoff factor of MgSO4 at
this concentration.

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One approach: Another approach to the same problem:

∆Tf = iK f m
Ideal freezing point depression
1.86 o C 1.86 o C
∆Tf = x 0.100 m = 0.186 o C
o
0.225 C = i x 0.100 m
m m
i = 1.21 Compare ideal and real freezing point depression

0.225 o C
Note, at this concentration the dissociation of MgSO4 is
i= = 1.21
0.186 o C
not complete. Can you explain why this is the case?
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A solution made by dissolving 25.0 mg of Calculate the M of the solution

insulin in 5.00 mL of water has an osmotic
pressure of 15.5 mmHg at 25°C. Calculate atm
the molar mass of insulin. (Assume that π = 15.5 mmHg x = 2.039x10 −2 atm
760 mmHg
there is no change in volume when the
insulin is added to the water and that insulin π mol ⋅ K 1
M= = 2.039x10 −2 atm x x
is a nondissociating solute.) RT 0.08206 L ⋅ atm 298 K

8.338 x 10 −4 mol
M = 8.338 x 10 −4 M =
6 insulin molecules assembled L
in a hexamer with a Zn centre
storing glycogen in liver and muscle 53 54

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p.530
13.7 Colloids
Calculate the moles of insulin
A colloid is a dispersion of particles of one
8.340 x 10 −4 mol 10 −3 L substance throughout another substance.
mol = x 5.00 mL x = 4.169 x10 − 6 mol
L mL • Intermediate between a homogenous and
heterogeneous mixture
• Range of particle size: 103 – 106 pm
Molar mass is ratio of grams to moles
• Categories
– Aerosols
10 −3 g
M= 25.0 mg x
1
x – Foams
mg 4.169 x10 − 6 mol
– Emulsions
6.00 x 10 3 g – Sols
M = – Gels
mol
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p.530
• Exhibit the Tyndall effect

colloid solution
scattered by dispersed phase

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Fog – A Familiar Manifestation of the Tyndall Effect • Many important colloids are aqueous and
can be further classified.
– Hydrophilic (water loving)
– Hydrophobic (water fearing)

Hydrophilic groups on the surface of a protein

stabilize the molecule in water
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Removal of Grease by Soap (Sodium Stearate)

Stabilization of Hydrophobic Colloidal Particles by Ion
Adsorption

thus preventing aggregation

useful in e.g. wastewater treatment.
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Soap manufacturing process Emulsification –

• stabilization of an unstable colloid
• accomplished by the addition of an
emulsifier or emulsifying agent

Sodium glycoholate – a bile salt or biological

emulsifying agent for ingested fats
Vitamins are another class important biological compounds
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that are partial-water soluble.

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