➢ Eq.
mass of an acid = molar mass of the acid / basicity
Chapter -2 Solution
1. Explain the following terms
A. Solution— A solution is a homogeneous
mixture if two more chemically non reacting
substances whose composition can be varied
within certain limit.
In homogeneous mix. Particles size up to 10-9m
in diameter and can’t be separated by any
physical method.
B. Solute—A solute is that component of the
solution which is present in smaller amount by
mass than the other component.
C. Solvent—A solvent is that component of the
solution which is present in larger amount by
mass than the other component.
D. Binary solution—A solution containing only
one solute dissolved in a solvent is called binary
solution.
E. Aqueous sol.—solution in water is called
aqueous sol.
F. Non-aqueous sol.—the sol. In which water is
not the solvent are called non-aqueous sol.
Example- benzene, ether, CCl4 etc.
2. Expressing concentration of the
solutions?
A. Percentage—
➢ Mass% of a component(w/w) = (mass of the
component in sol. × 100)/total mass of the sol.
➢ Volume% of the component(v/v) = (volume of the
component in sol. × 100)/total volume of the sol.
➢ Mass/volume % of the component (w/v) = (mass of the
component in sol. × 100)/total volume of the sol.in L.
B. Strength—it is defined as the amount of the
solute in g present in 1L of the sol.
Strength of a sol. = mass of the solute in g
/volume of the sol.in L.
C. Molarity—
➢ M = no. of moles of solute /volume of the sol. In L.
➢ M =strength in g per L /molar mass of solute in gmol-1.
➢ M = gram of the solute ×1000 / molar mass × volume
of sol.
D. Molality =
➢ m = no. of moles of the solute / mass of the solvent in
kg.
➢ m = no. of moles of solute × 1000 /mass of the solvent
in g.
➢ m = g of the solute(w) × 1000 / molar mass of the
solute × g of the solvent.
E. Normality =
➢ N =no. of g equivalent of solute /volume of the sol. In
L.
➢ N = strength in gram per L / eq. mass of solute.
➢ N = w ×1000 /eq. mass of the solute × v.
➢ Eq. mass of an element = atomic mass of the element /
valency of the element.
of the acid.
➢ Eq. mass of a base = molar mass of the base / acidity of
the base.
➢ Eq. mass of a salt = molar mass of the salt / total +ve
valency of the metal atom.
➢ Eq. mass of an ion = formula mass of the ion / charge
on the ion.
➢ Eq. mass of an oxidizing/ reducing agent = molar mass
or atomic mass / no. of electron lost or gain by one
molecule of the substance.
➢ Basicity = is the no. of displaceable H+ ion from one
molecule of the acid.
➢ Acidity = is the no. of displaceable OH- ions for one
molecule of the base.
F. Relation b/w N and M
➢ N = M × molar mass / equivalent mass.
➢ N of acid = M ×basicity
➢ N of base = M × acidity.
G. Mole fraction = mole fraction of a constituent
is the fraction obtained by dividing no. of moles
of that constituent by the total no. of moles of all
the constituent present in the solution.
➢ Mole fraction of solute in sol. = x2 = n2 / n1 + n2.
➢ Mole fraction of solvent in sol. = x1 = n1/ n2 + n2.
H. Part per million (PPM)-- it is the mass of
the solute present in one million (106) parts by
mass of the solution.
Ppm = mass of A ×106 / mass of solution.
I. Normality equation = N1× V1 = N2 × V2.
J. Molarity equation = M1 × V1 = M2 ×V2.
3. Define the following terms.
A. Dissolution—when a solid solute is added
continuously to a liquid solvent, the solute keeps on
dissolving and the concentration of the sol. Keeps on
increasing this process is known as dissolution.
B. Crystallization – the solute particles keep on
colliding on the surface of the solid solute particle and
get separated out of the sol. The process is known as
crystallization.
C. Saturated solution—the solution at a dynamic
equilibrium stage it is said to be saturated solution.
Solute + solvent <--→ solution.
D. Hydrated—the ions moving freely in the solution.
E. Lattice energy—energy is required for the
splitting of the ionic compound into ions.
F. Hydration energy—energy is given out when
the ions get hydrated.
4. Explain solubility of a solid in a liquid
also explain its with factor affecting.
An—solubility—it is defined as the maximum
amount of the solid (solute) in g which can dissolve in
100gof the liquid (solvent) to form the saturated
solution at that particular temp.
Explanation—
➢ The solubility is on account of the fact that there are
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
ions of the crystal and he polar solvent molecule.
➢ The -ve ions being attracted by the +ve poles of the
solvent molecules and vise-versa.
➢ A substance dissolves if hydration energy is greater
than the lattice energy. ∆hyd H > ∆lattiecH.
➢ at constant temp. is directly proportional to the pressure of
Factor affecting –
➢ Nature of the solute and the solvent—
like dissolve like, the ionic polar compound dissolve in
polar solvent.
➢ Effect of temp. –they are divided into three class
• 1) those whose solubility increase continuously with
increase of them. Ex- NaNO3, KNO3, NaCl etc.
• 2) those whose solubility decrease continuously with
increase of them. Ex- LiCO3, cerium sulphate etc.
• 3) those substance whose solubility does not
increases/decrease continuously. Ex-CaCl22.6H2O.
• 8. Explain Raoult’s law for volatile and
5. Explain solubility of a gas in a liquid and
explain it’s factor affecter.
An- solubility – the solubility of any gas in a particular
liquid is the volume of the gas in cc that can dissolve in unit
volume (cc) of the liquid to form the saturated solution at
the temp. of the experiment and under a pressure of one
atmosphere.
Factor affecter—
➢ Nature of gas and solvent- the greater
solubility of gases is due to their reaction with solvent.
ex—H2, O2 dissolve in H2O in small extent.
CO2, HCl, NH3. are highly soluble in water.
➢ Effect of pressure (Henry’s law)
6. What is henry’s law? write it’s limitation
and application?
An- henry law—the mass of a gas dissolve of the liquid
the gas present in equilibrium with the liquid.
or
the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a particular temp.is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in
equilibrium with the liquid at that temp.
m∞p
m= k p ( where m= mass of gas)
(p= pressure of gas, k= constant)
in terms of mole fraction
XA= k PA (XA =mole fraction of gas)
PA= 1/k’ × XA (PA=partial pressure of gas)
PA =KH XA (k’=constant)
KH=henry constant.
Limitation—
➢ It is applied only when if pressure should be low and
the temp. should be high.
➢ Thew gas should not undergo compound formation.
Ex- the law is not applicable in case of dissolution of
ammonia in water because it undergoes compound
formation.
NH3 + H2O ---→NH4OH
Application—
➢ In the production of carbonated beverages.
➢ In the deep sea diving.
➢ In the function of lungs
➢ For climbers or people living at high altitudes.
7. What is vapor pressure of liquid
solution?
An –vapor pressure of a liquid /sol. Is the pressure exerted
by the vapors in equilibrium with the liquid at a particular
temp.
non- volatile solutes.
A. Raoult’s law for volatile solutes—(vapor
pressure of liquid -liquid sol.)—
An-according to raoult’s law, in a sol. The vapor pressure of
a component at a given temp.is equal to the mole fraction of
that component in the sol. Multiplied by the vapor pressure
of that component in the pure state.
Expression-
Let consider
A, B = miscible volatile liquids If the solute is non-volatile and non-electrolyte

XA = mole fraction of A Then

XB = mole fraction of B Vapor pressure of the sol. = (V.P. of the solvent in the
sol.) -----2
PA =partial vapor pressure
Combine 1 & 2
PB = patrial vapor pressure
V.P. of the sol. = (mole fraction of the solvent in sol.) ×
POA =v. p in pure state of A (V.P. of the pure solvent).
PoA = v. p. in pure state of B In terms of symbols
According to raoult’s law P s = X1 P o ____3
(this eq. show that V.P. directly proportional to mole
PA = xA POA
fraction of solvent in the solution)
PB = XB POB
X1 = Ps/Po ----4
By Dalton law of partial pressure
so mole fraction of the solvent in sol.
P = PA + PA =XA POA + XAPOB ---1
X1 = n1 /n1+n2 ------5
We know that mole fraction
Put 5 in 4
XA + XB =1
Ps/Po = n1/n1+n2
XA = 1- XB --2
Subtract 1 both side
Put 2 in 1
1-Ps/Po = 1-n1/n1+n2
P = (1- XB) PO O
A +XBP B
(Po-Ps)/Po =n2/n1+n2 ----6

=POA – POAXB + XBPOB (where Po-Ps =lowering of V.P.)

P = (POA -POB) XB + POA (PO-Ps /PO = Relative lowering of v.p.)

➢ This equation expresses the relative lowering of

V.P. of a sol. Containing a non-volatile solute is
equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the
solution.
9. Explain similarities and dissimilarities
between raoults law and henry law.

B. Raoult’s law for non- volatile solute-
(v.p. of solute of the solids in liquids)
➢ It is observed that, the pressure of a anon-volatile
solute in a sol. Reduces the escaping tendency of the
solvent molecules into the vapor phase (because
some of the solvent molecules on the liquid surface )
and thus lower the vapor pressure of the solvent.
➢ The effect of adding a non-volatile on the lowering the
v.p. can be derived from the roult’s law.
Vapor pressure of the solvent in the sol. = (mole
fraction of the solvent in the sol.) × (vapor pressure of
the pure solvent) ----1
an- similarities –
➢ 1) both apply to the volatile component f the
the sol.
➢ 2) both state that the vapor pressure of any
component in the sol. Is proportional to the
mole fraction of that component in the sol.
Dissimilarities—
➢ The tow laws different in the proportionality constant.
➢ In the raoults law, it is equal to vapor pressure of pure
component (Po) , while in henry law , it is equal to an
experimentally determined value of henry constant.
10. Explain ideal and non-ideal solution and
its types?
An – A) ideal solution—
An ideal sol. Is that sol. In which each component obeys
raoults law under all conditions of temp. and concentration.

Or

An ideal sol. Will satisfy the following conditions

A) There will be no change in volume on mixing the two

components.
B) There will no change in enthalpy.

Or

It may be defined as that sol. In which no volume change
and no enthalpy change take place on mixing the solute and
the solvent in any proportion.
Or
An ideal sol. Of the components A and B is defined as the
sol. In which the intermolecular interaction between the
component (A-B attractions) are of the same magnitude as
the intermolecular interactions founds in the pure
component (A-A attraction and B-B attraction).
b) Non-volatile sol. Showing negative
deviation –
➢ If two component A and B are mix for any composition
of the sol. The partial vapor pressure of each
component will be less and the total vapor pressure of
the sol. Will also be less than that expected from
raoults law. These sol. Are said to show -ve deviation.
➢ Such sol. Have higher boiling point.
➢ Ex—chloroform + benzene
HCl + water
HNO3 + Water.

Ex- 1) benzene + toluene

2)n- hexane + n – heptane

3)chlorobenzene + bromobenzene.

B) non-ideal sol.— a sol. Which does not obey raoults

law is called non-ideal sol.

Or

A non- ideal sol. Is that sol. In who9ch solute and solvent

molecules interact with one another with a different force
than the force of interaction between the molecules of the
pure components.
11. Give the differences between
Types of non-ideal sol. 1. Ideal and non-ideal solution.

a) Non-ideal sol. Showing positive An- ideal solutions—

deviations-
➢ When a component B is added to another component
A, sometimes the partial pressure of A is more than
expected on the basis of raoults law
➢ Similar effect is observed foe other component B in
reversed mixing.
➢ The total vapor pressure for any sol. Is grater than that
corresponding to an ideal sol. Of the same composition
to an ideal sol. Of the same composition, such
behavior of sol. Is known as the positive deviation.
➢ For +ve deviation, sol. Have lower boiling point
(azeotropes.).
➢ Ex- acetone + carbon disulphide
Acetone + benzene
Ethyl alcohol + water
Methyl alcohol +water.
• The interactions between the component are similar to
those in the pure component.
• There is no enthalpy and no volume change on mixing
the components. ∆v=0, ∆H=0.
• Each component obeys raoults law at all temp. and
concentration.
• They do not form azeotrope.
Non- ideal solution—
• The interaction between the component is different
from those of the pure components.
• ∆V≠ 0, ∆H≠0 on mixing the component.
• They do not obey raoults law. they show +ve/-ve
deviation.
• They form azeotrope.
2. Positive and negative deviation. Vapor pressure of the sol. = (V.P. of the solvent in the sol.)
-----2

An- +VE deviation— Combine 1 & 2

• The interaction between the components are less than V.P. of the sol. = (mole fraction of the solvent in sol.) × (V.P.
in the pure component. of the pure solvent).
• ∆V = positive.
• ∆H = positive In terms of symbols
• PA > XAPoA , PB>XBPoB
• To form minimum boiling azeotrope. P s = X1 P o ____3 (this
eq. show that V.P. directly proportional to mole fraction of
-VE deviation solvent in the solution)

X1 = Ps/Po ----4
• The interactions between the components are greater
than the pure components.
• ∆V = -ve so mole fraction of the solvent in sol.
• ∆H = -ve
• PA <XAPoA , PB < XBPoB X1 = n1 /n1+n2 ------5
• To form maximum boiling azeotrope.
Put 5 in 4
12. What is azeotropic mixture?
Ps/Po = n1/n1+n2
An- the liquid mixture having a definite composition and
boiling is called a constant boiling mixture or azeotrope. Subtract 1 both side

13. Define colligative properties? 1-Ps/Po = 1-n1/n1+n2

(Po-Ps)/Po =n2/n1+n2 ----6

An- those properties of the ideal solutions which depend
only on the no. of particles of the solute dissolved in a
(where Po-Ps =lowering of V.P.)
definite amount of the solvent and do not depend on the
nature of solute are called colligative properties.
(Po-Ps /Po = Relative lowering of v.p.)

Types—
➢ Relative lowering of V.P. is a
A) Relative lowering of vapor pressure colligative property –because it depends
B) Osmatic pressure only upon the no. of moles of the solute
C) Elevation in boiling point dissolved in a definite no. of moles of solvent and
D) Depression in freezing point. independent of the nature of the solute.
14. Explain the relating lowering of vapor ➢ Determination of molecular mass of
pressure? solute from lowering of vapor
pressure---
An- This equation expresses the relative lowering of V.P. of Acc. To raoults law
a sol. Containing a non-volatile solute is equal to the mole (Po-Ps)/Po =n2/n1+n1 ---1
If w2 g of solute dissolved in w1 g of the solvent
fraction of the solute in the solution.
M1, M2 molecular mass rpy.
Then n2= w2/M2 and n1=w1/M1
-The effect of adding a non-volatile on the lowering the v.p. So Po-Ps/Po =(W2/M2) / (w1/M1+ w2/M2)
can be derived from the roult’s law. For dil. Sol n2 can be neglected
Than
Vapor pressure of the solvent in the sol. = (mole fraction of Po-Ps/Po=w2 M1 /w1 M2
the solvent in the sol.) × (vapor pressure of the pure solvent) 15. Define following terms
----1 If the solute is non-volatile and non-electrolyte
A. Diffusion—the spontaneous mixing of the solute
and the solvent to form a homogeneous mixture is
Then
called diffusion.
B. Semipermeable membrane—a membrane
which allow the solvent molecules to pass through but
not the solute particle.
Types—
a)- natural semipermeable
membrane— ex—vegetable, animal membrane
which are found just under the outer skin, pig’s
bladder most common animal membrane .
b)—artificial semipermeable
membrane—ex—parchment paper, cellophane,
and certain freshly ppt inorganic substance like copper
ferrocyanide, silicate of Fe, Co, Ni etc.
C. Isotonic sol. – sol. which have the same osmotic
pressure at the same temp. are called isotonic solution
also it is called isomotic.
D. Exosmosis – when the membrane permits the
solvent molecules to come out through the membrane
it is called exosmosis.
E. Endosmosis—when the membrane permits the
solvent molecules to enter inside it is called
endosmosis.
16. Write the difference between osmosis
and diffusion?
An- osmosis-
➢ In osmosis semipermeable membrane is used.
➢ There is only flow of solvent molecule through
semipermeable membrane.
➢ It takes place lower concentration.
➢ It is apply to sol. only.
➢ It can reversed/stopped by applying pressure on the
sol. with higher concentration.
Diffusion—
➢ In diffusion no semipermeable membrane is used.
➢ The solvent as well as the solute molecules move
directly into each other.
➢ It takes place from higher concentration to lower
concentration.
➢ It takes place gases as well as sol.
➢ It cannot be stopped or reversed.
17. Explain osmosis and osmotic pressure
and give its expression.
An- osmosis—the net spontaneous flow of the solvent
molecules from the solvent to the sol. or from a less
concentrated sol. to a more concentrated sol. through a
semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
Osmotic pressure—it may be defined as the equilibrium
hydrostatic pressure of the column set up as a result of
osmosis.
Or
The minimum excess pressure that has to be applied on the
sol. to prevent the entry of the solvent into the sol. through
the semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Expression--
Π= osmotic pressure
C= moler conc. Of the sol.
T=temp.
It is found that παC
ΠαT
Π αC T
Π =RCT (R= gas constant)
But C= n/v
Π =n/v RT ( n=no.of moles)
Vπ= nRT.
➢ Osmotic pressure is a colligative
property—because it depends upon the no.
of mole of solute per L of sol.
➢ Biological importance of osmosis---
• The growth of plants and animals depends
on the phenomenon of osmosis.
• Cell contain s fluid cell sap and it is
composed of a living cytoplasmic
membrane which is semipermeable and is
responsible for osmosis in living organisms.
• If a cell comes in contact with water or
some dilute sol. there will be a tendency of
water to enter into the cell wall. This cause
rupturing of the cell, a process known as
hemolysis.
• If the cell comes in contact with a sol. of
higher osmotic pressure, the cell would
shrink, this shrinking of the cell is called
plasmolysis /crenation.
➢ Determination of molecular mass from
osmotic pressure—
We know that πv = nRT
If n = w2/M2
Then πv = (w2/M2) RT
M2 = wRT /πv.
18. Explain the elevation in boiling points?
➢ An- Boiling point- the boiling point of liquid is the
temp. at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
become equal to the atm pressure.
➢ Elevation in boiling point- it is found that the
boiling point of the sol. is always higher than that of
the pure solvent. The increase is called elevation in
boiling point.
➢ Reason- we know that the vapor pressure of the
sol. is lower than of the pure solvent and vapor
pressure increase with increase in temp. hence the sol.
has to be heated more to make the vapor pressure
equal to the atm pressure.

➢ Expression-- ∆T =kb M
➢ Calculation of molecular mass of the
solute-- M2=1000 kf w2/ ∆Tf w1.
21. What is molal depression constant?
An- it may be defined as the depression in freezing
point when the molarity of the sol. is unit.
➢ Expression—we know that greater the lowering in 22. What are abnormal molecular masses?
V.P. higher is the elevation in boiling point(∆Tb) An- when the molecular mass of a substance
∆Tb α ∆P -----1 determined by studying any of the colligative
Acc. To raoults law ∆P α x2 ------2 put 2 in 1 properties comes out to be different than the
∆Tb α x2 theoretically expected value, the substance is said to
∆T = kx2 ----3 show abnormal molecular mass.
also x2 =n2/n1+n2
if sol. is dil. X2 =n2/n1
➢ Condition for abnormal molecular
x2= n2/(w1/M1) masses—
so ∆Tb =kM1 n2/w1 • When the sol. is no-ideal.
∆Tb=kb m • When the solute undergoes association in
(M=n2/w1 =molality of sol.) the sol.
(kM1= kb= molal elevation constant) • When the solute undergoes dissociation in
➢ Calculate of molecular mass of the the sol.
sol.— 23. What is Von’t Hoff factor?
M =molarity= w2 1000/M2 w1 An – von’t hoff factor is defined as a the ratio of the
So M2 = 1000 kb w2/ ∆Tb w1 experimental value of the colligative property to the
19. What is molal elevation constant? calculated value of the colligative property.
i= (observed value of the colligative property) /
An—it is defined as the elevation in boiling point
(normal value of the same property)
when the molarity of the sol. is unit. Unit of kb
I = calculated molecular mass (Mc)/ observed
=kkgmol-1.
molecular mass (Mo)
20. Explain depression in freezing point? 24. Explain degree of dissociation and
An –freezing point—freezing point of a degree of association?
substance is the temp. at liquid forms of the substance
are in equilibrium. A. an -degree of dissociation—it is
defined as the fraction of the total substance that
➢ Depression in freezing point – it is known undergoes dissociation.
that freezing point of the sol is always lower than that
of the pure solvent. The decrease is called the
Suppose
depression in freezing point.
➢ Reason- the vapor pressure of the sol. is less than A molecule of an electrolyte when dissociation in a
that of pure solvent for the sol., lower the temp. lower solvent dissociates to give n ions
is the vapor pressure.
In general A ----→n1 B + n2 C +…

.. n1 +n2 +…=n

If
1= mole of the solute extent that it does not freeze to form ice. Hence it is
used to clear snow from roads.
(1-α) = moles of undissociated molecules
28. What happen when blood cells are
nα= moles of ions. placed in pure water?
An—due to osmosis, water molecules move into
So total no. of moles of ions and the undissociated solute blood cells through the cell walls, therefore blood cells
molecules = 1-α +nα swell and may even burst.
29. Define reverse osmosis? Give one use
=1 +(n-1) α
of it?
Thus , observed colligative property α (1 +α(n-1)) An—in osmosis, net flow of solvent across the
semipermeable membrane is form solvent to sol. the
Normal theoretical value α 1 flow can be reversed by applying pressure greater than
osmotic pressure on the sol. this is called reverse
i = 1+ (n-1) α / 1 osmosis.
30. What is an antifreeze?
α =i-1/n-1 An—a substance which is added to water to lower its
freezing point is called an antifreeze. ex—ethylene
but i = Mc/ Mo glycol.
31. Give an example of a compound in
so α = Mc -Mo / Mo(n-1)
which H- bonding resultant in the
B. degree of association—it is defined as formation of dimer?
the fraction of the total substance which exists in An—benzoic acid in benzene.
the form of association molecules.
Degree of association (α) = no. of moles
associated / total no. of moles taken.
Suppose
n= simple mole of the solute A
A n = associated mole
Equilibrium nA <----→An
α =degree of association
1-α = no. of moles A
α/n =no. of moles of An
therefore, total no of moles =1- α +α/n
i = (1-α +α/n) / 1

α = (1-i)n / (n-1)
also i= Mc /Mo
then α = (1-Mc/Mo) n / (n-1)
α =(Mo-Mc /Mo) n/ (n-1).
25. What is hypotonic sol. and hypertonic
sol. ?
An---hypotonic sol. – a pure NaCl sol. with conc. Less
than 0.9% is called hypertonic sol.
Hypertonic sol – a pure NaCl sol. with con. More
than 0.9% is called hypertonic sol.
26. What is the effect of temp. on molarity?
An—molarity decrease, because vol. of the sol.
increase with increase in temp. but no. of moles
remains the same.
27. What is de- icing agent? how it works?
An – common salt is called de-icing agent. because it
lowers the freezing point of the water to such an