AS & A Level Psychology 2ed TR Workbook Answers

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY: TEACHER’S RESOURCE
Workbook answers
Chapter 1 Research methods
Exercise 1 Experiments
1 a Personality: shy or outgoing.
b Cognitive processing ability.
c i Total score; time taken to complete the test;
ii Total score: it would give a comparison of ability between people that was not affected by
how fast they could think, only by how well. Time taken: if all participants scored very high,
it could still provide a way to measure ability.
d Independent measures because people can only be shy or outgoing, so they have to be in
different groups.
2 a Possible answers: two simple rating scales: 0 = do not like (playing) sport at all in the winter to
5 = like (playing) sport a lot in the winter and 0 = do not like (playing) sport at all in the summer
to 5 = like (playing) sport a lot in the summer or one rating scale used twice (summer and winter):
0 = don’t like sport at all to 5 = like sport a lot.
b i e.g. The type of sport the participant plays (as some sports only happen in some seasons),
the weather in the area (as this may prevent some sports being possible), the participants’
level of fitness;
ii (any one) First two variables could be controlled by counting only indoor sports. Third
variable could be controlled by asking about fitness level and eliminating very fit/unfit people.
c Repeated measures, so the same people are tested about summer and winter sport.
Exercise 2 Self-reports
1 a i Semi-structured or unstructured;
ii Possible open question: Describe which technique helps you most in your revision; possible
closed question: Which of the following revision techniques do you find the most effective?
[choose one option] silently reading through your notes/reading your notes out loud/
summarising your notes/doing past papers.
b By maintaining confidentiality: removing teachers’ names and school subjects from descriptions
of preferred techniques.
c i Mean, because the data is a continuous measure;
ii Possible table:
Preferred revision technique
Watching videos Discussions Playing games
Mean exam results
Range of exam results
2 a i e.g. (any one) Play: pretending to do an everyday life behaviour or an imaginary one, or having
fun. Helping: giving another person assistance with something;
ii e.g. (any one) Play: it includes different kinds of play as not all children play in the same way.
Helping: it could include different kinds of help, such as practical or encouragement.
1 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

b i Average praise score;

ii 9.0
Average praise score 8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.8
Mother Father
Parent
Exercise 3 Case studies

1 a
e.g. Possible information: whether anything other than vehicles frightened him (such as other
moving things), what other people thought about his phobia, the history of his phobia, any
attempts to overcome the phobia.
b e.g. Possible reason: because it could provide an in-depth understanding of the boy’s feelings –
a description of what it was about the vehicles that frightened him.
c i Mode
ii Bar chart
2 a e.g. The families of the employees, the suppliers and customers of the company.
b e.g. Questionnaires, as all the employees can do them at the same time, reducing situational factors
such as how busy the company is; semi-structured interviews, as some questions are consistent
so can be used to compare the manager and employees and new questions can be included, for
example if the employees give different answers about stress.
c i e.g. Privacy, for example the employees may not want to reveal that they are stressed;
protection from harm, for example the employees may be afraid that the manager might
confront them if they say something critical about them;
ii e.g. Privacy: tell the participants what questions may come up and remind them that they do
not have to answer them. Protection from harm: anonymise the data from the employees and
remove the raw data before showing the results to the manager.
Exercise 4 Observations
1 a i Covert
ii e.g. It is naturalistic because she is not setting up the play situation; it is a non-participant
observation because she is not involved with the adults/children;
iii e.g. Either: Naturalistic is good because she can study the normal behaviour of the adults/
children without risking demand characteristics (her presence affecting their expectations) or
social desirability (prompting them to behave in acceptable ways), or: Non-participant is good
as she will not become biased in her observations as a result of becoming involved in the social
situation of play.
b e.g. To enable the adults to give consent to be observed/to exercise their right to withdraw,
and to allow them to make this decision on behalf of the children.

2 a e.g. Deception because he is misleading the students into believing he is one of them/he is not
an observer when he is an observer.
b e.g. Ethical: it could cause distress, so break the guideline of protection from harm. Practical:
they may spend longer/less time in the library if they were responding to understanding the
aims of the study.
c Mean.
d Possible table:
Gender
Male Female
Number of individuals entering the library
Average/mean time spent in the library by each individual
Exercise 5 Correlations
1 a i In a positive correlation, the values of the two co-variables/measured variables go up together;
ii In a negative correlation, as the values of one co-variable/measured variable go up, the values
of the other variable go down.
b Possible graph for strong/weak:
Possible graph for positive/negative:
c If two variables change together, this shows that they are related but it does not show whether
the change in one is causing the change in the other or if the changes are caused by another,
different, variable.

2 a Pulse rate, the ‘pace’ of the music.

b e.g. (any one) Pulse rate, for example using an electrocardiogram (ECG) (a test to check the
rhythm of heart and its electrical activity), by holding a finger against an artery (in the wrist or
neck) and counting the number of (heart) beats per minute (taking a pulse). The ‘pace’ of the
music, for example by counting the number of (musical) beats per unit time.
c That the participants’ pulse rates went up as the ‘pace’ of the music went down (or vice versa).
d e.g. Because the correlation can only show that pulse rate and the ‘pace’ of the music are related.
It does not show whether the music is the cause of the change in pulse rate (it might be another
variable), so the cause could be that people who choose faster/slower music generally have faster/
slower pulse rates anyway, that is the ‘other variable’ could be an individual difference. To find
this out, Kimi would need to do an experiment, where participants with all different choices of
preferred music were exposed to fast-paced and slow-paced music to see if there was a difference
in their pulse rates.
Exercise 6 Longitudinal studies

1 a Learning methods: self-testing and online aids.
b e.g. The same teacher throughout, the same subjects throughout, the same difficulty of subject
material, the same amount of other help, same time spent teaching and learning.
c e.g. At the end of the first year/beginning of the second year, before the intervention and at the
end of the second year, after the intervention.
d e.g. With a test that is neither a self-test nor an online test, for example an essay marked by
a teacher or a pen-and-paper test.
2a Quantitative.
b i Validity;
ii It might no longer be possible to compare it to previous years, a problem of reliability.
c
10
Prejudice score
20 40 60 80
Age (years)
Chapter 2 Biological approach

Exercise 1 Assumptions of the biological approach
1 e.g. Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and
the effect of hormones, and in terms of genetic and evolutionary differences, such as those between
humans and animals. Mimi has experienced the outside world whereas Ben has more experience
indoors. This will have affected their brains differently, so they may have different cognitions
during sleep.

2 e.g. Klara is thinking about rapid eye movement (REM) in her cats. This is a behaviour that can be
explained in terms of the working of the brain. The brain controls the ultradian and circadian rhythms
of sleep and the changes in brain activity associated with different stages, as well as the changes in the
body associated with these stages. These include the REM that Klara is watching and the fact that her
cats are lying still enough for her to see them because they are in REM sleep so are paralysed, allowing
the eye movements to be seen. Mimi and Ben’s eye movements differ because they have had different
experiences so may be dreaming about different things. Mimi could be dreaming of movement
outdoors (e.g. birds) and Ben could be dreaming of movement indoors (e.g. Klara).
2.1 Core study 1: Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)

Exercise 2 The psychology being investigated
1 a e.g. Bunim had a regular circadian rhythm, sleeping once for 9 hours’ sleep each day and being
awake for 15 hours each day.
b e.g. The baby does not yet have a settled circadian rhythm. The frequency of the sleep phases
is more than once a day.
c e.g. Bunim will see the baby’s eyes moving because she is dreaming. The frequency of the eye
movements is rapid because the baby is dreaming during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.
The REM sleep phases will become regular and controlled by an ultradian rhythm.
Exercise 3 Procedure
1 a Correlation.
b Laboratory experiment.
2 a The participants were tested in a dark, quiet, laboratory ‘bedroom’ containing a bed and a door
through to where the researcher(s) sat.
b e.g. A laboratory was chosen as equipment was needed, which would have been large and heavy
so hard to move, and also it enables easy communication with the participant, for example being
able to see through into the room and to be able to enter when necessary.
3 a Quantitative data collected in this study included duration of time in REM/nREM sleep, time
in REM sleep, frequency of REMs, EEG activity in terms of frequency and amplitude of waves,
time estimates (5 or 15 minutes).
b The main qualitative data collected in this study were the dream narratives from the participants.
4 a e.g. The participants’ sleep patterns were recorded using an EEG.
b e.g. EEG was chosen because it detects changes in frequency of brain activity so can be used to
detect different stages of sleep, including REM sleep.
Exercise 4 Conclusions
1 A
2 B, D
3 C, D
2.2 Core study 2: Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)

Exercise 5 Main assumptions
1 Young males have more testosterone than females and young females have more oestrogen than males,
although this difference is smaller.
2 a e.g. There are brain differences between males and females in terms of the areas for language.
In males, language functions seem to be limited more to the left hemisphere but in females,
language function is spread over the brain more widely.

b e.g. As hormonal differences between the sexes begin to appear before birth, they must be
controlled by genes. This must be the case because there is very little influence from the
environment when a foetus is in the uterus, although they can be affected by chemicals from
the mother, such as through hormones in the bloodstream.
3 e.g. Play could be the product of evolution if it was important in helping early humans to survive,
for example by helping young animals to grow stronger or to learn skills. If males learned skills that
they needed because they were the stronger sex, or females learned skills that helped them to nurture
infants that they were feeding, this would help them to survive and reproduce.
1 a i frequency (alternative answer: duration);
ii duration (alternative answer: frequency);
b i plush;
ii wheeled.
c i boys’ toys;
ii girls’ toys.
d i hold;
ii drag.
e i operational definitions;
ii coders working together.
f i left;
ii right.
Exercise 7 Evaluation
1 Possible answers:
a Strength: This was used to exclude a possible confounding variable, as social rank may also be
linked to hormone levels and, additionally, could affect behaviour with toys. However, the analysis
showed that this social factor had little effect on sex differences in toy preference.
b Strength: Operationalisation helped to increase reliability as it ensured that each observer was
consistent every time they saw the same behaviour (high intra-rater reliability) and that each of
the observers recorded the same behaviours when they were observed (high inter-rater reliability).
c Weakness: It is possible that some of the monkeys found the novel toys placed into their
enclosures distressing, as one toy was destroyed.
2 Possible answer for part c: Strength (ethical considerations of the study): the monkeys were housed
in large pens so they could move around to stay healthy.
2.3 Core study 3: Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)

Exercise 8 Mindfulness concepts
1 a iii
b i
c v
d ii
e iv

Exercise 9 Stress reduction programmes

1 a Emily needs to use two different groups because if she had one group of employees who
experienced one programme followed by the other, there would be a practice effect. Any
improvement after the second programme might be due to the second programme or might
be due to a long-term effect of the first programme.
b e.g. Emily could decide which employees to use by finding out which ones are stressed. She could do
this by seeing which ones go to the company’s welfare department for help or by giving all the workers
a questionnaire to measure how stressed they are and choosing only those who get high scores.
2 a e.g. One way that Hölzel et al. measured the effectiveness of the MBSR that Emily could adapt was
to see how mindful the participants had become. To do this, the participants filled in the FFMQ
(Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire), a 39-item test that measures: Observing, Describing,
Acting with awareness, Non-judging and Non-reactivity to inner experience using 5-point Likert
scales. Non-judging would be the most useful to Emily so she could just use this part.
b e.g. One way to measure stress in the workplace at the bottled drinks company would be to give
employees a questionnaire at the end of the working day. This could be compared to
a stress questionnaire at the beginning of the day. If there was little difference between the scores,
the employee is not very stressed. Another way would be to observe them working and look for
behaviour categories such as sighing or frowning that suggest they may be stressed. These could
be noted down and added up for each employee.
Exercise 10 Findings
1 C
2 A, C
Research methods
1 a i C
ii B
iii A
b i D
ii E
iii F
c i I
ii G
iii H
d i K
ii L
iii J
2 Dement & Kleitman: The consumption of alcohol and caffeine were controlled prior to each night’s
sleep.
Hassett et al.: The monkey’s space, food and social companions were all controlled.
Holzel et al.: All were physically and psychologically healthy, not taking medication, had limited
experience of meditation classes, had no metal in their bodies and were not claustrophobic.
Issues and debates
1 a i Individual and situational explanations;
ii e.g. If people’s dreams are linked to noises they hear when sleeping, then events in their
surroundings must be an important influence. This shows that the environment is responsible
for the content of our dreams, which is a situational explanation.

b i Nature–nurture debate;
ii e.g. If children’s and adults’ dreams are similar, this suggests they are controlled by biological
processes in the brain, that is nature, rather than being the product of learning or experience
during the lifetime, that is nurture, as this would make adults’ dreams different.
c i Use of animals in research;
ii e.g. Animals are good models for human brains and behaviour because they are similar in
structure and function. In addition, animals can be controlled in ways that humans cannot,
such as through sleep deprivation, and surgery can be performed on their brains.
d i Applying psychology to everyday life;
ii e.g. An EEG can be used to detect sleep stages. This means that for patients with sleep
problems, it is possible to detect what stage of sleep is being affected, which could help in the
control or treatment of their symptoms.
2 a e.g. People have different dreams according to their circumstances. For example, if you are stressed
you might have more frightening dreams than if you were relaxed. This suggests that there is an
individual element to dreaming as well as a situational one.
b e.g. In reality, the dreams that people have often include recent events or people they know.
This suggests that even if the process of dreaming is a product of nature, the content of dreams
is at least partly affected by nurture.
c e.g. Animals may be useful for studying sleep and dreams in some ways but in others they are very
different, for example we cannot know what they are dreaming about, as we can with a person,
and some people would argue that it is unethical to induce pain in an animal (for example,
in surgery) in order to understand humans better.
d e.g. Dement and Kleitman’s study was conducted in a very artificial situation, so the findings might
not apply so much to the real world. For example, even for a patient with a sleep disorder, being
attached to an EEG and knowing they are being monitored may make them sleep or dream
in a different way.
3 e.g. The findings of the study are generalisable to the extent that the cyclical patterns demonstrated
seem to be a fundamental process in human sleep, although there appeared to be quite wide individual
variability in the length of the ultradian rhythm, so this may not generalise well.
The actual experiences of dreams described were very limited and dream content would be specific
to the individual dreamer, however, the link between patterns of eye movement and dream content
should generalise widely.
Chapter 3 Cognitive approach

Exercise 1 Assumptions of the cognitive approach
1 e.g. The computer analogy: information processing in humans is like a computer,
with an INPUT, then PROCESSING and finally an OUTPUT.
2 e.g. The computer analogy: the aunt describes the flow of information in terms of INPUTs (when the
children pay attention to the way the world moves past as the bike goes forwards and how the pedals
feel as they push), then PROCESSING (the children understanding what effect their pedalling and
steering has on the bike) and finally the OUTPUT (children falling off or staying on the bikes).
3.1 Core study 1: Andrade (doodling)

1 a To ensure the participants were already bored.
b Laboratory experiment, because it was in an artificial environment – not where people normally
listen to boring phone calls.
2 a Doodling or not.

b In one condition (‘doodling’), the probability of doodling was increased by suggesting the
participants might want to shade shapes to relieve boredom. Paper with shapes on was provided. In
the other condition (‘no doodling’), paper was only provided for writing responses to the questions.
3 a The data collected was a memory score for names and a memory score for places.
Each score was the number of correct names/places minus the number of false alarms.
b This was measuring memory as an indicator of the attention the participants had given
to the contents of the telephone call.
4 a e.g. Both groups were given paper, the message was recorded.
b e.g. Both groups given paper: so both could have used paper if they wanted. The message was
recorded: to ensure that both conditions heard the information at the same speed, with the
same intonation.
Exercise 3 Results and conclusion

1 e.g. Doodling may help Girvan to concentrate in class, possibly because doodling raises his level
of arousal.
2 e.g. Girvan may discover that he remembers better when he is doodling than when he is not.
3 e.g. Girvan’s results may be biased because he is investigating himself, so he cannot be objective.

1 a i attend
ii dual task situation
iii primary
iv concurrent
v daydreaming
vi debrief
vii time-wasting task
b e.g. Because this would confound the results as they would have been pen chewing and doodling.
3.2 Core study 2: Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes test)

Exercise 5 Background
1 a e.g.:
a Feature in the bF
eature in the c Why the feature was problematic in the
original version revised version original version and how the improved version
of the Eyes test of the Eyes test overcame this problem
i
Questions were i
Questions had i
It was too easy and was made more difficult so
forced choice, four options they could not just be guessed at a 50% chance
two options that were not of being correct
opposites
ii 25 sets of eyes ii
36 sets of ii
It was too easy to score high marks, a ceiling
eyes (reduced effect, many more pairs made the test harder
from 40) producing a greater spread of marks
iii Nothing to help iii A glossary iii Participants might not have understood the
participants words, which would have meant that the
task was not valid as it would be measuring
understanding of the words not the
understanding of the emotion in the eyes but
with a glossary, the participants could check
they understood

Exercise 6 Results and conclusion

1 a Quantitative.
b Closed question.
2 a The mean.
b Yes, the median, because it can be used with ordinal, interval or ratio data.
c Standard deviation.
d Yes, the range, because it can be used with any continuous data.
e Bar charts to compare the mean scores for each of the four groups.
3 a e.g. It can be concluded that people with ASD cannot identify emotions in other individuals
as well as people without ASD; that in general, males may show traits similar to ASD as males
have a lower Eyes test score than females; the revised Eyes test is a better tool for discriminating
individual differences than the original test.
b e.g. The study is fairly generalisable as the comparison groups were large so conclusions about
differences between males and females were based on more varied samples, although not all the results
were significant. However, the ASD group was small, only 15, and they were all males. This group may
not have been typical of all people with ASD and the results could not represent females with ASD.
Exercise 7 Ethical issues

1 a i e.g. ASD participants might feel uncomfortable or scared by the eyes;
ii e.g. Protection from harm;
iii e.g. Broken because if the participants were scared, this means they were not protected from harm.
b i e.g. Any participants might have been unprepared for unpleasant words in the test or glossary;
ii e.g. Informed consent;
iii e.g. Broken because the participants could not have known in advance what all the words were
without being exposed to them.
c i e.g. The participants may have been embarrassed by the researchers knowing their IQ scores;
ii e.g. Right to withdraw/Protection from harm;
iii e.g. Broken as they may have been embarrassed during the IQ test so withdrawing would have
been too late to avoid this.
d i e.g. Participants may not want to be tested on IQ, the Eyes test or the AQ;
ii e.g. Informed consent;
iii e.g. Followed as participants who knew they did not want to be tested could choose not
to volunteer/participate.
2 a e.g. The aim was to measure the effectiveness of the Eyes test with people with ASD, so could
not have been tested otherwise;
b e.g. A wide range of different emotions was needed so that there were enough foils that were
not opposites to the target words;
c e.g. Matching of participants on IQ was important as if the ASD group had a lower IQ,
this could have caused the difference in Eyes test scores.
3.3 Core study 3: Pozzulo et al. (line ups)

Exercise 8 Aims
1 a iv
b iii
c i
d ii

2 a i absent;
ii present;
b i social;
ii cognitive.
1 a III
b II
c IV
d I
2 C, D, B, E, A
1 a i e.g. Weakness;
ii e.g. As only two cartoon characters were used, they may have been unusual faces, so the
difference in children’s responses may have been for a reason other than their familiarity.
b i e.g. Strength;
ii e.g. The use of cartoons ensured a baseline comparison for the children’s memory.
c i e.g. Weakness;
ii e.g. There were many more boys than girls in the child sample (38 to 21) so the findings might
not be representative of girls.
d i e.g. Strength;
ii e.g. The children were monitored so they did not become distressed.
Research methods
1 a The non-doodling group.
b The comparison of human and cartoon faces.
c Asked questions about the array directly to the children.
d Used the AQ test.
e The children were tested with line-ups of cartoon faces and human faces.
f The ASD group and each of the control groups contained different participants.
g Half the participants did the monitoring then the recall task and these were reversed for the
other half.
2 Interview – ‘using verbal questions’; Questionnaire – ‘use written questions’; Independent measures
– ‘different group of participants for each level of the independent variable’; Independent variable –
views about being tested (and the levels would be ‘continuous asssessment or exams’)
Issues and debates

1 a i e.g. Children might be worried about doodling in front of adults as they think it is naughty,
so might never doodle. It would therefore not be practical to try to use children;
ii e.g. Doodling is something that children do, so it would be a possible research area.
b i e.g. Children with ASD could be very distressed by the faces as even adults with ASD find
eye contact difficult. This could cause psychological harm;
ii e.g. ASD starts in childhood, so it would be useful to know how early children begin to
respond to the eyes like adults.

c i e.g. Children should not be used because it could be distressing for them if they think that
by not choosing a face in a line-up means that they are disobeying an adult. This could cause
psychological harm;
ii e.g. Children were used and this was important because they may be the only witnesses to a
crime and it is important that they provide the most accurate eyewitness testimony possible.
Chapter 4 Learning approach

Exercise 1 Assumptions of the approach
1 a i blank slate;
ii experiences.
b i social;
ii classical;
iii response.
2 a In Bandura et al.’s study, the stimulus was the behaviour of the model and the response was how
the children behaved (for example, imitative or non-imitative behaviour and speech).
b In Fagen et al.’s study, the stimulus was the sound marker or chopped banana and the response
was the elephant’s behaviour in relation to completing the task.
c In Saavedra and Silverman’s study, the stimulus was the exposure to feared items/experiences
(for example, different sized buttons) and the response was the boy’s response as fear and disgust
on the Feelings Thermometer.
4.1 Core study 1: Bandura et al. (aggression)

1 Damon can show children how to play calmly and the children can observe and copy his behaviour.
They may be more likely to learn to play calmly through acting like their father who is their role model.
Social learning may be more effective than giving chocolate at the end of the week, as the positive
reinforcement is less immediate and shaping behaviour may take longer.
2 Social learning, operant conditioning.
Exercise 3 Results
1 Girls played more with dolls, tea sets and colouring, and boys engaged in more exploratory play
and gun play.
2 Children exposed to aggressive models imitated their exact behaviours and were significantly more
physically aggressive than those children in the non-aggressive model or control groups.
3 Boys were more likely to imitate a same-sex model as were girls, but to a lesser extent.

1 a i The children could have injured themselves copying the aggression, during or after the study;
ii Protection from harm.
b i The children might have felt that they could not leave the room, as an adult was there with
them to stop them from exiting the room;
ii Withdrawal.
c i The researchers may not have obtained the parents’ permission for their children to be
exposed to aggression;
ii Informed consent.

d i The children were deliberately caused distress by being denied the toys;
2 a Protection from harm: this guideline was broken in order to achieve the aim of the study, which
was to see if children would learn obedience through observing and copying a model. If this
had been investigated using a questionnaire and not observing/encouraging real aggression,
for example, the findings might lack validity.
b Withdrawal: the experimenter was needed to ensure the children did not leave the room.
This helped ensure the reliability of the study, as children are more likely than adults to
verbalise boredom, or to leave as they did not understand why they needed to stay.
c Informed consent: it is unclear whether this was obtained in the study or not. However, gaining
informed consent might have decreased participation and reduced the sample size. If children
had been told of the aim of the study, this might have influenced their behaviour, lowering the
validity of the results.
4.2 Core study 2: Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Exercise 5 Aim
1 a Unlimited, close contact with mahouts involving punishment as a method of modifying behaviour.
b A procedure for obtaining a sample from an elephant. The elephant must put its trunk in saline
solution or water, lift the trunk, then place their trunk in a bucket and exhale.
c A form of operant conditioning which involves rewarding desirable behaviour to encourage
it to be repeated.
1 Juvenile, free-contact, traditionally trained elephants can be trained to participate in a trunk wash
using only SPR training techniques.
2 The four juvenile elephants successfully learned the trunk wash in 35 sessions or fewer, however,
the adult elephant did not. This result supports the conclusion that juveniles can be trained in the
trunk wash, but the findings did not suggest adults can be trained in this way.
3 Successful truck wash technique is important for monitoring the health of captive elephants.
The study shows the technique can be learned quickly by young animals. The SPR training for
trunk wash technique also encourages the use of safety barriers in protected contact. This could
lead to changing traditional techniques that use punishment and risk animal welfare.
1 a iStrength;
ii Controlled observations such as this can be easily replicated, using the same
observation schedule.
b i Strength;
ii Controlled observations can be replicated to compare whether the number of sessions required
would be the same as in Fagen et al.’s findings;
OR
i Weakness;
ii The training sessions were flexible, however, so the experience
c i Strength;
ii The mahouts were asked not to speak to or give signals to the elephants. The verbal cues given
had no meaning in Nepali or English. Both of these controls limited the influence of demand
characteristics on the elephants’ responses to the tests.

d i Weakness;
ii The sample was small, only five elephants. This means the findings might not be the same for
other elephants. Individual differences between elephants may also affect the generalisability.
For example, one elephant did not successfully pass the trunk wash test.
e i Strength;
ii The elephants did not experience physical harm during the study. They were kept in their
normal conditions, with an appropriate diet, exercise and time to socialise.
4.3 Core study 3: Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)

1 Before the illness, apples were a neutral stimulus that produced no particular response. Eating a
contaminated apple is the unconditioned stimulus that produced the illness (unconditioned response).
After this learning event, the apple is now a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response
of feeling ill.
2 Simone could create a hierarchy of disgust. The least feared images could be used to start with,
gradually moving towards the most feared. Simone can use self-control strategies to manage fear
and disgust around each image. Positive reinforcement could be used to reward Simone as fear
and disgust reduces to each stimuli on the hierarchy.
1 a Case study.
b A laboratory experiment involving participants diagnosed with phobias could be used.
The experimental condition could receive the imagery exposure and the results compared
to a control group who received no therapy.
2 a 6 and 12 months after the treatment had ended.
b To check whether the positive effects of the imagery exposure treatment had lasted over time,
confirming the boy no longer had the phobia.
3 a The boy’s ratings of disgust to different stimuli on the Feelings Thermometer.
b The imagery of ‘hundreds of buttons falling all over his body’ was scored as 8 on the Feelings
Thermometer before imagery exposure therapy that reduced to 3 after the exposure was complete.
4 a The success of the treatment was measured through the decreased scores for disgust and fear on
the Feelings Thermometer. It was also measured through the boy’s behaviour change in being able
to handle and wear buttons.
b The research method was a case study. It looks at one individual (the boy) in great depth, in this
study that meant learning about the history of the boy’s experiences with the phobic stimuli.
Exercise 10 Issues and debates

1 a i Nature vs nurture debate;
ii The phobia was acquired due to the experience of a bowl of buttons falling on the child
rather than innate factors.
b i Use of children in psychological research;
ii The boy and his mother both gave consent to taking part in the research.
c i Possible answer: Application of psychology to everyday life;
ii Finding effective psychological treatments for disorders like phobias is useful.
2 Possible answer: One disadvantage of using a case study is the sample may not be representative.
In this study, the treatment used for the boy’s phobia might not be as effective with people with
different characteristics, for example adults, females.

3 Possible answer: Case studies like Saavedra and Silverman’s usually have high internal validity. The
researchers used a range of methods to acquire in-depth data about the boy. However, they may not be
generalisable to others (lacking ecological validity) and there is a risk of experimenter bias or demand
characteristics due to the relationship that develops between the researcher and participant.
Research methods
1 a Numerical results about the amount or quantity of a psychological measure, such as pulse rate
or a score on an intelligence test.
b Descriptive, in-depth results indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic, such as
responses to open questions in self-reports or case studies and detailed observations.
2 a Possible answers:
i Data may not be able to explain complex issues; qualitative advantage;
ii Data can explain participants behaviour or thinking.
b Possible answers:
i Observer recorded 240 behaviour units per child in the study by Bandura et al.;
ii In Bandura et al. records were kept of the children’s remarks about the situation.
3 Quantitative data is considered more objective. For example, in Bandura et al. the behavioural
responses were agreed in advance, recorded numerically and a second observer also scored the
children’s behaviour. Qualitative data is usually considered more subjective because it relies on
interpretation by an experimenter. For example, in the study by Bandura et al. the observer could
have recorded or interpreted children’s remarks incorrectly, or in a biased way.
Issues and debates

1 a i Boys were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour than girls, possibly because boys have
more of the hormone testosterone which is a nature factor;
ii The influence of the different models on children’s aggressive behaviours are examples of
nurture. Boys may have been more likely to imitate aggression because they have already
acquired stereotypes about what is acceptable behaviour for males or have been rewarded
for masculine-type behaviours.
b i The findings of the adult elephant showed that positive reinforcement did not successfully
shape her behaviour. This could have been due to nature, for example a natural decline
in the ability to learn as she aged, or inherited personality trait.
ii Human training shaped the elephants’ trunk washing behaviour through rewards.
This is a type of operant conditioning based in the nurture side of the debate;
c i Phobias in this study were not considered innate or genetically inherited.
ii Classical conditioning is the nurture explanation for how the boy acquired his phobia
(negative experience of buttons falling on him) and how it was treated (positive experiences
with the fearful stimuli);
Chapter 5 Social approach

Exercise 1 Assumptions of the approach
1 Our behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be influenced by the actual, implied or imagined
presence of others.
2 Tanya felt nervous when reading her speech because she is imagining the presence of her
classmates when practising her presentation.

5.1 Core study 1: Milgram (obedience)

1 a When someone follows a direct order from a person or people in authority.
b Possible examples (any one): a child follows the instructions of a parent to look for traffic when
crossing a road so they do not get in an accident; a basketball player follows the instructions of
their coach to pass the ball more to allow other team players to have a chance to play; a trainee
follows the instructions of their supervisor to wear protective equipment at work to prevent
illness or injury.
2 Milgram wanted to understand the reasons why ordinary German citizens obeyed orders from the
Nazis as part of the Holocaust, in which millions of people from minority groups were systematically
murdered.
3 It was believed that individual explanations caused destructive obedience, for example that being
obedient was a personality characteristic that could override morality. Milgram wanted to test this
idea to see whether certain aspects of a situation could cause anyone to be destructively obedient.
1 a Controlled observation.
b This study does not have an independent variable that was manipulated. Instead, the participants
were given instructions, then prompted by the researcher and the level of voltage and verbal
statements were recorded.
2 a Yale University, in a modern laboratory.
b The location was chosen to make the study seem legitimate.
3 a The qualitative data included what the participants said and their physical movements.
b An example of a behaviour recorded as qualitative was hysterical laughter.
4 a Quantitatively, through the amount of shock voltage delivered by participants.
b This was a controlled observation as it took place in a laboratory, but there was no
independent variable.

1 a i Participants were experiencing psychological distress;
b i Participants were told the aims after the study and reassured they had not harmed the learner;
ii Debriefing.
c i Participants may have felt they had no choice but to continue;
ii Right to withdraw.
d i Participants were not told that the real aim of the study was to investigate destructive
obedience;
ii Deception/informed consent.
2 a Protection from harm: because destructive obedience was being investigated, it was necessary
to make participants obey with orders that they were unlikely to carry out on their own;
c Right to withdraw: Participants could withdraw and keep their payment, however, the prods
of the experimenter were needed to establish the authority figure;
d Deception/informed consent: Participants had to believe the experiment was real and be unaware
of the aim, as this may have changed their behaviour (for example, made them less obedient).

5.2 Core study 2: Perry et al. (personal space)

Exercise 5 Aims
1 a oxytocin
b interpersonal
c empathetic
2 a Experiment 2.
b Experiment 1.
Exercise 6 Results
1 Michael is not correct. Experiment 1 showed that only high empathisers in the OT condition preferred
smaller interpersonal distance but this depends on the relationship between the participant and the
person they imagine approaching. OT does not change the zones of preferred distance (intimate,
personal, social and public).
2 Samu is correct that the OT has a differential effect. The results of Experiment 2 showed that OT
administration for high empathisers leads to lowered interpersonal distance preferences in the intimacy
test. Low empathisers administered with OT had increased interpersonal distance preferences. The
mean distance between chairs was higher for this group when exposed to OT than when exposed
to the saline placebo.
1 OT administration was found to heighten the importance of social cues.
2 OT had a differential effect on interpersonal distance preferences; it resulted in opposite effects
for low and high empathisers.
5.3 Core study 3: Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)

1 Passers-by may have believed that others around them should help and because so many people
walked past the man, they might have felt bystander apathy. This is the diffusion of responsibility
hypothesis – perhaps if fewer passers-by were present they would have helped the man, as their
responsibility for helping felt stronger.
2 Possible reasons: People might not want to help a stranger because of the risk to their safety or
belongings (for example, if the person seemed dangerous or was behaving strangely); they might
not want to embarrass the person or be embarrassed themselves.
1 Both types of experiment have a manipulated variable (independent variable) and a measured variable
(dependent variable), so are testing cause and effect. The difference is that a laboratory experiment
takes place in an artificial, controlled environment whereas a field experiment is in the participants’
normal surroundings (like the New York City subway used in Piliavin et al.).
2 Piliavin et al. used an independent measures design as different conditions (for example, drunk/ill
victim) took place at different times, with different participants present.
3 a i Total number of passengers who helped;
ii Race of helper (black/white);
iii Sex of helper (male/female);
iv Location of helper in carriage (critical/adjacent);
v Verbal remarks made by passengers.

b i Race of the victim;

ii Behaviour of a ‘model’;
iii Size of the group of bystanders;
iv Black or white;
v Early or late;
vi The number of passengers present in the subway carriage.
1 a i Strength;
ii Possible explanation: The procedure was highly standardised as the timing intervals were
the same for each trial.
b i Strength;
ii Possible explanation: The procedure was highly replicable and when repeated should
achieve consistent results.
c i Strength;
ii Possible explanation: The study took place in the participants’ normal surroundings,
meaning the findings can be applied to real life.
d i Weakness;
ii Possible explanation: The study took place in one city, meaning the findings cannot be
generalised to those living in smaller villages or to people from other cultures.
e i Weakness;
ii Possible explanation (any one): Participants were unaware they were taking part in a study;
participants may have experienced distress from being part of the situation.
Research methods
1 a ii
b v
c i
d iii
e vi
f iv
2 Possible examples:
a Perry et al. – counterbalancing the order of OT and saline placebo administration conditions.
b Milgram – used participants from a range of occupations, designed to represent different
demographics such as occupation.
c Piliavin et al. – the verbal comments made by the participants.
d Perry et al. – the preferred distance recorded in centimetres in Experiment 1.
e Piliavin et al. – 4450 subway passengers took part in the study.
f Milgram – recruited his volunteer sample by placing an advertisement in a newspaper.
Issues and debates

1 a i Not all participants inflicted the full voltage on the learner as directed. This suggests that
there is a role for individual factors;
ii Milgram’s research showed that the majority of people will be destructively obedient if
they feel that the authority figure is legitimate or the cause is worthy (that is, the situational
factors are right).

b i Individual traits such as empathetic ability can explain why personal space needs differ even
when treated with the same hormone;
ii The study shows that situational factors matter in our preferences for personal space,
for example need for space generally depends on the type of relationship people have with
those they are interacting with.
c i Not every participant stepped forward to help the victim. There must be an individual
dimension to cost-benefit analysis and personal reasons for helping behaviour;
ii One aspect of this study that can be explained as situational is the finding that males were
helpers in 90% of trials. A male victim was more likely to encourage male helping behaviour,
which suggests that gender may be a situational factor in helping.
Chapter 6 Clinical psychology

Exercise 1 Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia
1 Possible positive symptoms (any two): ‘difficult to understand’ – incoherent language/thought disorder;
‘government broadcasting his thoughts’ – delusion (paranoid); ‘can’t protect his family’ – delusion
(grandeur); ‘voices in his head’ – auditory hallucinations.
2 Possible negative symptoms: ‘missing lectures’ – avolition; ‘he barely responds’ – flattened affect.
Exercise 2 Explanations of schizophrenia

1 Alice might be right. Just because a person and their mum both have schizophrenia, it does not mean
this is simply because of genetics. There are other factors that could explain this, for example social
or environmental factors. Being raised by a mother with schizophrenia may act as a stressor
or a trigger for developing it. He may have ‘learned’ the behaviour from watching his mother.
Genetics cannot fully explain the onset of schizophrenia.
2 The nature versus nurture debate may be applied to the explanations of schizophrenia because there
are biological (nature) and psychological (nurture) explanations, all of which have some evidence
supporting them. However, none of the explanations can offer a sole explanation for the onset of
schizophrenia so it might be better to consider that nature and nurture are both important influences
that interact and lead to the development of schizophrenia.
3 Adoption studies allow us to separate out the influence of biological versus environmental factors
because we can see how likely someone is to develop schizophrenia if they have a biological mother
with it, even if they are raised away from her. This removes any possibilities of the psychological
impact of being raised by someone with schizophrenia and can truly test to what extent the cause
is genetic (biological) rather than environmental.
Exercise 3 Treatment and management of schizophrenia

1 a i 1950s;
ii 1990s.
b i Positive symptoms;
ii Positive and negative symptoms.
c i Blocking dopamine receptors;
ii Blocking dopamine receptors but rapidly dissociating.
d i Many severe side effects, for example extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) and
tardive dyskenesia (TD);
ii Weight gain, drowsiness, difficulties in concentration.

Exercise 4 Diagnostic criteria for mood (affective) disorders

1 a iii
b i
c iv
d ii
2 Manic, mixed and depressive episodes.
3 a 2
b 0
c 3
d 1
Exercise 5 Explanations of mood (affective) disorders: depressive

disorder (unipolar)
1 The aim of the research was to investigate whether the genes encoding for the 5-HT2c receptor and
5-HTT (involved in serotonin activity) could be involved in susceptibility to bipolar disorder.
2 Forty-two unrelated patients with bipolar disorder type 1 from two Croatian hospitals were recruited.
There were 25 females and 17 males, with an age range of 31–70 years. There was a control group
of 40 participants, age-matched and sex-matched, with no personal or family psychiatric history.
3 The study by Oruč et al. (1997) is limited in terms of its sample size, meaning it is difficult to generalise
from the results. Typically, genetic studies require fairly large samples for accurate and valid analysis to
take place. Establishing the importance of the serotonin-related genes in increasing risk of depressive
illness in females would require a larger sample. Furthermore, the researchers pointed out that some
participants in the control group were still young enough that they could be susceptible to bipolar
disorder but it has not developed yet. This means the findings might have changed if the researchers
had used an older population and so age is an extraneous variable. A strength of the study is that
it collected DNA samples, which were analysed in a laboratory setting with automated equipment,
which increases the validity of the measurement and removes researcher bias.
Exercise 6 Treatment and management of mood (affective) disorders

1 a i Possible strengths (any one): Work quickly and are easy for the patient to take; relatively cheap
as they do not require lots of time with a psychologist or doctor;
ii Possible strengths (any one): Helps look at the cause of the problem and teaches the patient
ways of coping that can be used again; the patient is actively involved so is responsible for
their treatment which can give them a sense of control and power.
b i Possible weaknesses (any one): They have side-effects which may lead patients to stop taking
them; they only correct the biochemical levels in the brain – they do not deal with the actual
cause of the problem;
ii Possible weaknesses (any one): It can take quite a long time to work and is very costly; it can
be hard work and relies on the patient being committed to the therapy and working through it,
including homework.
2 It can be the best approach to treat someone with antidepressants and psychological therapy because
antidepressants tend to work quite quickly so this means the patient will start to feel improvements
relatively quickly, which will be a positive as they are working through the psychological therapy which
may take a while. Furthermore, although drug therapy works quickly, symptoms may return when
drug therapy is stopped. Hopefully, by that time, psychological therapy has become effective, which
has longer lasting effects. Last, it could be beneficial to use antidepressants and psychological therapy
as they both address a different source and depression has been shown to have both biological and
psychological causes, so it makes sense to address both of those when treating it.
3 A, Activating event; B, Beliefs about the event; C, Consequences: emotional and behavioural.

Exercise 7 Diagnostic criteria for impulse control disorders

1 a None.
b Gambling disorder.
c Pyromania.
d Kleptomania.
e None.
f None.
2 Maggie (a) would not be diagnosed because, although she had been stealing, it is clearly due to her
difficult circumstances, not due to an impulse or urge. To be diagnosed with kleptomania, the person
must not be stealing for monetary gain or for it to be better explained in another way.
April (e) would not be diagnosed because she enjoyed gambling and the buzz of winning, but it is not
persistent or recurring behaviour and is clearly not an addiction. It has not had a negative impact on
her life and is simply something she enjoys doing.
Jing (f) would not be diagnosed with pyromania even though he set fire to his manager’s car. He has
made a bad decision and is likely to be prosecuted for setting fire to the car, but the motivation was
revenge and not the desire to simply set the fire for a sense of excitement or to fulfil an urge.
3 B
Exercise 8 Explanations of impulse control disorders

1 a B
b C
c A
2 a B
b C
c C
3 a A
b B
c A
Exercise 9 Psychological treatments of impulse control disorders

1 a Nausea and vomiting.
b Muscle relaxation.
c Vomiting as you light the fire.
d Imagining the sickness going away when deciding not to light the fire.
e The unpleasantness of vomiting with the undesirable behaviour of setting fires.
Exercise 10 Diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders

and fear-related disorders
1 a i anxiety;
ii several months;
iii heath, family finances or work;
iv family, social or occupational;
v substance or medication.

b i fear;
ii anxiety;
iii public transport;
iv home;
v panic attacks;
vi actively avoided.
c i blood, injection or injury;
ii disproportionate;
iii fear or anxiety;
iv severe.
Exercise 11 Explanations of anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders

1 a Falling and breaking her arm.
b Fear.
c Bird (NS) + falling and breaking her arm (UCS).
d Fear.
e Birds.
f Fear.
2 A phobia being generalised means that the fear can spread to other stimuli that are like the phobic
stimulus. In the case of Suchitra, she has a fear of birds so this may be generalised to other things
that are like birds, for example bats, butterflies, insects.
3 Suchitra’s phobia has continued into adulthood through negative reinforcement. Suchitra may have
avoided situations where she may have to be close to birds, such as the beach, parks or picnic areas.
This avoidance means she does not have to deal with the fear that she would experience if a bird came
too close to her. This is negative reinforcement, which means that a behaviour is likely to reoccur
because something bad or unpleasant is removed as a consequence. So, by avoiding places where
there will be lots of birds, Suchitra is avoiding the fear she would feel, and this is rewarding to her.
However, this does not then give her the chance to learn that there is no need to be afraid of birds,
so the phobia continues.
Exercise 12 Treatment and management of anxiety disorders

and fear-related disorders
1 a iii
b i
c ii
d iv
2 Possible stages: 1 Look at a cartoon picture of a dog. 2 Look at a realistic drawing of a dog.
3 Look at a photo of a fluffy dog. 4 Look at a photo of a big dog. 5 Watch a video clip of a dog.
6 Look at a dog out of the window. 7 Watch someone else playing with and stroking the dog.
8 Watch a dog from a distance away. 9 Stand next to a dog. 10 Stroke the dog.
3 a Systematic desensitisation could be an effective treatment for blood-injection-injury phobia
because the same basic principles can be applied to any phobia. The hierarchy would simply need
to be made to fit this phobia, perhaps starting by looking at a photo of a needle or some blood,
ending with having a sample of blood being taken.
b Applied tension is specifically used to treat blood-injection-injury phobia because this phobia is
particularly likely to lead to the person fainting. Therefore, it makes sense to use applied tension as a
treatment like this increases the blood pressure, which in turn makes it less likely for someone to faint.

Exercise 13 Diagnostic criteria for obsessive–compulsive disorder

1 a False.
b True.
c True.
d False.
e True.
2 a True.
b False.
c False.
d True.
3 a Luisa’s obsessive–compulsive disorder would have a negative impact on her family because she
initially kept things from her partner and family, so her relationship with her family has become
strained. She also worries so much about her children’s safety that it stops her from wanting to go
outside with them or to visit friends and family. Luisa and her partner are also in disagreement
about her job which may make things tense between them.
b The social side of Luisa’s life will be affected by her obsessive–compulsive disorder because she has
become distanced from her friends and stopped her hobbies due to the difficulties she found hiding
her compulsions. If she left her job, she would also lose the social side of work such as chatting to
work colleagues.
c The occupational side of Luisa’s life is under threat because she is finding it very difficult to go
to work as working in the office makes it more difficult to manage her compulsions. Her partner
thinks she should leave her job, so if she agrees to this it would have a huge impact on her both
occupationally and financially.
Exercise 14 Explanations of obsessive–compulsive disorder

1 a ii
b iii
c i
2 a Cognitive–behavioural.
b Genetic.
c Psychodynamic.
d Psychodynamic.
e Cognitive–behavioural.
f Genetic.
Exercise 15 Treatment and management of obsessive–compulsive

disorder
1 a i Biochemical;
ii SSRIs work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin, allowing higher serotonin levels.
If this works as a treatment, it makes sense that the cause is low levels of serotonin
and therefore the biochemical explanation is appropriate.
b i Cognitive–behavioural;
ii ERP works by showing the individual that their obsessions can be alleviated without the
compulsions. This is based on the cognitive–behavioural explanation that obsessions come
from faulty reasoning and that compulsions come from the desire to alleviate the obsessions
and because of this, compulsions are rewarding.

c i Cognitive–behavioural;
ii CBT works on the basis that obsessions arise from faulty reasoning and therefore to treat
obsessions, you need to challenge them. Compulsions are rewarding as they alleviate some
of the anxiety; CBT works by showing that compulsions offer short-term rewards only
and long-term they do more harm than good.
2 a antidepressants
b SSRIs
c serotonin
d reabsorbed
e neuron
f higher
g severity
h anxiety
i dosage
3 Possible answers:
a ERP stands for exposure and response prevention.
b ERP is a form of cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT).
c Individuals are exposed to stimuli that provoke their obsessions.
d At the same time, they are helped to prevent their compulsive behaviours.
e The individual learns to tolerate the anxiety.
f It is essential to prevent the compulsive behaviour as a response to the obsessive thought so
the individual can learn that the uncomfortable feelings will eventually go away even without
performing a compulsive behaviour.
Research methods
1 a A study where the participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment condition
or a control condition.
b An experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each level of the
independent variable (condition). This means that each condition of the experiment includes
a different group of participants.
c A group of participants who do not receive the treatment. They act as a comparison to the
treatment group.
d The extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.
e The extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example, that it would
produce the same results with the same people on each occasion.
2 Possible answers may include:
• Aim and hypothesis: The aim is to compare the effectiveness of CBT and SSRIs in the treatment
of OCD. It was hypothesised that outcomes would be similar for both methods used.
• IV – treatment type: CBT or SSRIs.
• DV – change in scores of Y-BOCS and BDI.
• Randomised control trial.
• Sample of 50 male patients all diagnosed with OCD.
• Sampling technique – volunteer sampling where patients at clinics could choose to respond
to an advert for the trial.
• Experimental design – independent measures: participants randomly assigned to either CBT
or SSRIs or placebo.
• Controls – a control group given a placebo was used to allow comparisons between those with
CBT, those with SSRIs and those with no treatment.
• Research technique for data collection – BDI and Y-BOCS were used before and after treatment.

3 a Possible answer: One strength of the study could be the use of randomised control trial as this
increases the validity. One weakness of the study could be that the sample is relatively small
and only focuses on men so cannot be generalised to women.
b Possible answer: This study could be improved by increasing the sample to include women,
then the results could be applied to both men and women.
Issues and debates

1 a Nomothetic approach.
b Nomothetic approach.
c Idiographic approach.
d Nomothetic approach.
e Idiographic approach.
f Nomothetic approach.
g Idiographic approach.
h Idiographic approach.
2 Possible answers (any one): Nomothetic approach – ICD-11, all assessment tools, for example BDI,
Y-BOCS, MOCI, K-SAS. Idiographic approach – any case study, for example Chapman and
DeLapp (2014), Rapoport (1989).
3 Considering both approaches together could be beneficial because they can complement each other.
The idiographic approach allows us to consider each individual in detail. This is limited by itself as it
does not allow us to understand people universally, as the nomothetic approach does. However, the
nomothetic approach has been criticised for not considering people as individuals. So, by combining
the two approaches, we could aim for a set of general principles that apply to most people but with
a deeper insight offered by the idiographic approach.
Chapter 7 Consumer psychology

Exercise 1 Retail store design
1 a Grid layout

BUTCHERY MILK & DAIRY JUICE & COLD DRINKS
CANNED FOOD
BREADS & FRESHLY BAKED GOODS
BAKING AIDS
TOILETRIES
BISCUITS
SWEETS
CEREAL
PASTA
MEAT
CLEANING & TOILETRIES

CLEANING & TOILETRIES
FRUITS & VEGETABLES
COFFEE & TEA

BAKING AIDS
HOMEWARE
LONGLIFE
CHICKEN
SAUCES
SPICES
CHIPS
SWEETS & MAGAZINES
OFFICE

b Freeform layout

KITCHEN APPLIANCES TOWELS
WINDOW DISPLAY
PROMOTION
OFFICE AND STORAGE
BATH
CROCKERY
CHECKOUT
GIFTS
FRAMES
BLANKETS
CANDLES
WINDOW DISPLAY
BEDDING
LAMPS CANDLES
ACCESSORIES
R
CO
DE
BEDDING THROW PILLOWS
c Racetrack layout

TRAINING HIKING SHOES LOAFERS
SNEAKERS
SNEAKERS
RUNNING
BOOTS
CHILDREN'S CHILDREN'S SCHOOL

SNEAKERS SHOES SHOES
SALES
PROMOTION PROMOTION SOCKS

LATEST STOCK
STORAGE
/ OFFICE
CHECKOUT
PROMOTION
2 a Supermarket or convenience store.

b Gift shop or upmarket boutique.
c Department store or furniture store such as IKEA.

3 a i Possible strengths (any one): easy and familiar to customers; predictable traffic flow so it is
easy to know where to put promotions; allows similar items to be grouped together;
ii Possible weaknesses (any one): can be confusing if customers do not understand grouping
of items; can be frustrating for customers who want to get directly to where they need to go;
not very creative or interesting.
b i Possible strengths (any one): customers wander freely so are more likely to make impulse
purchases; can be a very positive experience for the customer;
ii Possible weaknesses (any one): uses a lot of space; difficult to do well so may appear cluttered
or confusing.
c i Possible strength: maximum exposure of merchandise to customers to encourage more
purchases;
ii Possible weaknesses (any one): customers are not able to browse as they wish; time consuming
and can be frustrating for customers especially if they intend to buy a specific item.
Exercise 2 Sound and consumer behaviour

1 C
2 B
3 A
Exercise 3 Retail atmospherics

1 Maja experienced human crowding, where her demand for space was exceeded by the number of
people present. Liam experienced spatial crowding where his demand for space was exceeded
by objects.
2 Both Harpreet and Maja experienced high volumes of people but their emotions mediated the effect
it had on them. Harpreet felt pleasure and positive sense of arousal (‘exciting and stimulating’)
so she was satisfied with her trip. Maja did not experience pleasure and felt a negative sense of
arousal (‘stressed’).
3 The friends could advise Cara to expect it to be busy and prepare herself as expectation can affect
the impact of perceived crowding. The friends may advise Cara to think about how she feels about
crowding – if she knows it will make her stressed or anxious, she should avoid it. However, if Cara
would find it fun or exciting that can mediate the effect of perceived crowding. To avoid spatial
crowding, she could avoid the end of the day when shops might be more likely to move stock around.
Exercise 4 Environmental influences on consumers

1 a Round trip.
b Wave trip.
c Short trip.
d Central trip.
2 a iv
b ii
c v
d iii
e i
3 a The raider.
b The explorer.
c The native.

Exercise 5 Menu design psychology

1 Aaron made his choice based on framing – where his attention was drawn to the item by the use of
a box or border. Razi made his choice based on menu item position – the primacy effect means an
individual is more likely to recall and therefore choose an item at the start of a section. Gabriela made
her choice based on the influence of the name of the meal – the use of descriptive words made the
meal sound more appetising.
2 Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) conducted two studies where the order of items on menus were moved
around to measure the effect of menu position on sales. One study was a lab experiment where
participants were asked to make a hypothetical choice of pizza. Results showed that the participants
were significantly more likely to select an item from the beginning or end of the list. The advantage
of being at the beginning or end was 56%. Study two was a similar procedure but was carried out in a
café. Initially, the original menu was used, and sales were recorded. Then the menu order was changed
around, and sales were recorded. These results confirmed those of the first study and showed an
advantage of an item being at the beginning or end of the list as 55%.
3 Possible strengths: high levels of control of variables increases the validity. Use of standardised procedure
increases replicability and reliability. Possible weaknesses: lacks ecological validity as it is carried out in
an artificial environment so the results cannot easily be applied to real-life. Increased chance of demand
characteristics where participants may work out what the research is about and may change their
behaviour as a consequence, decreasing the validity.
Exercise 6 Consumer behaviour and personal space

1 a iv, A
b i, C
c ii, B
d iii, D
2 Possible responses (any two): Overload: when someone gets too close, there is too much information
to have to process, related to their features, smell, etc., as well as a lack of control. Arousal: when
personal space is invaded, the individual may feel an increased sense of arousal, which may be positive
or negative. Behaviour constraint: if personal space is invaded, the individual’s freedom to choose how
to behave is taken away.
Exercise 7 Consumer decision-making

1 a True.
b False.
c True.
2 a ii
b i
c iii
Exercise 8 Choice heuristics

1 a Representative.
b Availability.
c Take-the-best.
d Recognition.
e Anchoring.
2 It could be useful for consumers to understand about heuristics as it may make them stop to think
more carefully when making an important or expensive purchase, rather than automatically relying
on their heuristics.

3 It could be useful for sellers to understand about heuristics so that they can do their best to adapt
their selling technique to account for the heuristics that consumers may use.
Exercise 9 Mistakes in decision-making

1 a v
b iv
c ii
d i
e iii
2 Possible questionnaire:
For each of the following statements, please answer on a scale of 1–7 (1 being very unlikley,
7 being very likely) how likely you are to consider these factors in a decision-making process:
1 When making a decision, I tend to leave it until the last minute.
2 When making a decision, I talk to friends and family to get their advice.
3 When making a decision, I make the decision quickly.
4 When making a decision, I tend to go with my ‘gut’.
5 When making a decision, I think about a range of important factors and compare several options.
3 One possible strength of using Likert-type scales is that they allow for quantitative data, which can
be easily compared and analysed to allow conclusions to be drawn. One possible weakness is that
the Likert-type scales do not allow for detailed answers that would provide qualitative data, so there
is a lack of insight.
Exercise 10 Packaging and positioning of a product

1 H1 – an angular, rather than rounded, package will lead consumers to experience the product taste
as more intense; H2 – a highly saturated, rather than lowly saturated, coloured packaging will lead
to consumers experiencing the product taste as more intense; H3 – shape-colour congruency (angular
shape and highly saturated colour or rounded shape and lowly saturated colour) will lead to a more
positive overall product attitude than shape-colour incongruency (angular and lowly saturated colour
or rounded and highly saturated colour); H4 – all predicted effects will be greater for those with
a sensitivity to design compared to those indifferent to product design.
2 Results showed an angular shape being perceived as more potent. However, there were no significant
overall effects of colour on packaging potency, except for those with high design sensitivity (where
highly saturated colour packaging was perceived as more potent). Results showed that neither
packaging shape nor colour had a significant overall effect on intensity of taste experience, except for
those with a high sensitivity to design, where an angular shape did have a significant effect on intensity
of taste experience. Product colour did not have a significant effect on overall attitude to the product,
but an angular shape did lead to a significantly more positive attitude than the rounded shape. Finally,
in terms of price expectation, an angular packaging led to a significantly higher price estimate than a
rounded shape, and the lowly saturated colour led to a marginally higher price estimate than the highly
saturated colour. Further analysis showed that the angular shape led to a higher price estimate because
it was perceived as more potent.
The results showed that packing colour and shape may influence product potency perceptions
and that this may in turn lead to higher price expectations.
3 Possible strengths (any one):
• A field experiment was used, so there is high ecological validity, meaning the results of the study
can be applied beyond the research setting.
• The participants did not know the true aim of the experiment, which means there was less chance
of demand characteristics and the risk of participants changing their behaviour accordingly,
thus increasing the validity of the results.

• The study used a good-sized sample with a balance of gender and wide range of ages, which
means the results can be generalised to the wider population.
• The study used a standardised procedure, where all participants experienced the same instructions,
the same video clips, were given the same sample to taste and were given the same set of
questionnaires to answer, thus increasing the reliability of the study.
• Quantitative data was gathered using the 7-point Likert-type scales, meaning the results can
be compared and analysed.
Possible limitations (any one):
• All participants were from the same area in Germany so results may not be applicable to other
cultures.
• A lack of open questions means that there was no qualitative data, so there are no details about
the participants’ thoughts and feelings or the reasons for the answers they gave.
Exercise 11 Selling the product

1 B
2 C
3 B
Exercise 12 Buying the product

1 Possible factors:
• The type of belief: the more personal the belief is, the more likely there is for dissonance to
occur. In Yasmin’s case, the gift of the car has huge sentimental importance because it is a special
birthday for her daughter.
• The value of the beliefs: the more important the belief is, the greater the chance of cognitive
dissonance. In Yasmin’s case, she knows how important environmental issues are for her daughter
and she has bought her a car that is not environmentally friendly.
• The size of the disparity: the greater the distance between the two opposing beliefs or behaviours,
the greater the chance of cognitive dissonance. In Yasmin’s case, she knows she should be keeping
to her small budget, but she ended up spending more than she should have.
2 Cognitive dissonance can be reduced in three ways: by increasing the rating of the chosen item,
by decreasing the rating of the rejected item and by giving a reason for the choice.
Exercise 13 Types of advertising and advertising techniques

1 a True.
b False.
c True.
d False.
e True.
2 a False.
b True.
c False.
d True.
e True.

Exercise 14 Advertising–consumer interaction

1 The aim of study 3 was to find out whether differences between high and low self-monitoring
individuals extended beyond results found in previous studies and would actually influence the
likelihood of consuming a product.
2 Study 3 used a similar pool of 40 participants as the previous two studies. In this study, an
experimenter (blind to the self-monitoring score of the participant) phoned each participant and
claimed to be a market researcher asking whether they would be interested in trying a new shampoo.
He then delivered one of two messages about the shampoo: an image message or a quality message.
The image message reported that lab tests showed that, compared to other brands, the shampoo was
rated as average for how it cleans your hair, but above average on how it makes your hair look. The
quality message reported that laboratory tests showed that, compared to other brands, the shampoo
was rated as average for how good it makes your hair look, but above average for how clean it gets
your hair. Participants were then all asked which response best described how willing they were to
use the shampoo: definitely not, probably not, unsure, probably yes, or definitely yes, and to give a
percentage indicating how willing they were to use the shampoo (0% being not at all and 100% being
definitely willing).
3 Results of study 3 showed that high self-monitoring individuals were more likely than low self-
monitoring individuals to try the shampoo if they believed it would leave their hair looking good.
Low self-monitoring individuals were more willing than high self-monitoring individuals to try the
shampoo if they believed it would leave their hair very clean.
Exercise 15 Brand awareness and recognition

1 Possible answer: I might agree with Mia because she is saying how important the slogan is, and
research shows the importance of an effective slogan. She also says it should be a jingle and should be
simple. Although these are not essential, they are important considerations. In contrast, Karl questions
the importance of a slogan.
2 Possible answer (any one from Karl and Mia): Karl says the slogan is not important if the product has a
good brand name and logo, but this is incorrect because the name is only one or two words and the logo
is simply a picture, whereas the slogan can say a lot more about the brand and can be changed if needed.
Karl also says the slogan could be added later but research suggests a slogan should be present from the
start as this is when most of the brand awareness develops. Mia says the slogan must be simple, but this
is not necessarily the case: some evidence suggests that a more complex slogan needs deeper processing
so may be remembered more as a result. She also says the slogan must be a jingle but there is some
evidence that the music can interfere with memory so maybe a non-jingle is a better option.
Research methods
1 a A computer-generated simulation where a person uses special goggles and a screen or gloves
to interact with a three-dimensional environment.
b A research method in which there is an IV, a DV and strict controls. It looks for a causal
relationship and is conducted in a setting that is not in the usual environment for the participants
with regard to the behaviour they are performing.
c A question format in questionnaires, interviews or test items that produces quantitative data.
They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers.
2 a Possible answer: Invite a sample of students to come to the lab and ask them to take part in a
virtual reality experience of the shopping mall. This could be either independent measures where
each participant is given one virtual version of the shopping mall, or repeated measures, where
the participants are each given different virtual versions of the shopping mall. Participants could
be asked to find certain shops or complete certain tasks in the virtual reality. After they have
completed the task, use a questionnaire with Likert-type scales to ask questions about different
aspects of the mall, such as how easy it was to find their way around, were the signs helpful,
were the ‘You Are Here’ maps easy to find and use, and so on.

b Possible strengths (any two):

• Study is carried out in a lab experiment, so it has high levels of control which increases validity.
• Virtual reality means it is standardised so would be the same for all participants, which
increases reliability.
• Likert-type scales give quantitative data which is easy to compare and analyse.
Possible weaknesses (any two):
• Study is a lab experiment and virtual environment so lacks ecological validity.
• Results would not be generalisable to the rest of the population as the sample is students.
• Likert-type scales mean there is no qualitative data so there is a lack of detailed results.
Issues and debates

1 a True.
b False.
c False.
2 a Possible answer: The study showed that findings from Vienna and Madrid were significantly
different in terms of use of heuristics and decision-making styles. This suggests that further
research should be carried out across different cultures.
b Possible answer: The study into store choice was carried out in India because there was a
significant lack of research into this area in India. Sinha et al. wanted to find out more about
store choice in their culture.
3 a Possible answer: The USA is a Western, developed culture so the results of research carried out
there will not necessarily be applicable to other cultures. Other cultures may use the findings,
but they may not be valid around the world.
b Possible answer (any one): Research carried out across a range of cultures would give more accurate
results that could be applied to more cultures. It would provide a broader picture in terms of how
many similarities and differences there are across cultures in terms of consumer psychology.
Chapter 8 Health psychology

Exercise 1 Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills
1 a Any interactions that take place other than talking, for example, body language and clothing.
b Doctors’ surgeries as a first point of contact to make appointments for non-urgent medical needs.
c The way in which spoken information is presented.
d Women who attended antenatal care (while pregnant) as expected.
e Women who did not attend antenatal care regularly (appointments during pregnancy).
Exercise 2 Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style

1 a i Type 1 error;
ii No;
iii Yes.
b i Type 2 error;
ii Yes;
iii No.
2 a Possible answer: The patient may undergo invasive tests or take medication that is not necessary.
b Possible answer: The patient will not get treatment so they will remain unwell and their condition
may worsen.

Exercise 3 Misusing health services

1 a i
b ii
c iii
2 a Possible factors (any one): Sensory or perceptual experience of the symptom, for example pain
or bleeding; self-appraisal processes, for example observing the symptom for signs of change;
coping response to symptoms, for example home remedies.
b Possible factors (any one): Emotional reactions to the health threat, for example fear and distress;
the imagined consequences of the symptoms, for example imagining that surgery is required.
c Possible factors (any one): Sociodemographic factors; situational barriers such as cost of services.
Exercise 4 Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients

don’t adhere
1 a ii
b iii
c i
2 a Medical services
b Medical services
c Individual
d Individual
e Individual
f Both
g Medical services
Exercise 5 Measuring non-adherence

1 a B
b B
c C
2 Possible strengths (any one): It does not rely on self-report from the patient so is more accurate;
it is not subject to error; it is relatively quick and easy to use.
Possible weaknesses (any one): It only tracks how often the medicine container is opened and closed,
not how much medication was taken; it may involve deception; if a patient decides not to take the
medication, it is easy for them to say they have done so.
3 a Possible answer: A blood sample directly measures how much of the drug is in the patient’s system,
so it shows how much medication has been taken, not simply the number of times the medicine
container has been opened.
b Possible answer (any one): MEMS is not invasive for the patient; a blood test requires the patient
to set aside time to get the test; some people may find the blood test distressing.
Exercise 6 Improving adherence

1 Possible points:
• Results by Yokley and Glenwick showed that where people were offered a monetary incentive, this
had the biggest impact on immunising their children, followed (in descending order) by those who
had increased access to a clinic, those given a specific personalised prompt, those given a general
prompt. These findings remained significant at both the two-month and three-month follow ups.

• The specific prompt and monetary incentive method produced a 29% increase in the number
of immunisations given.
• As well as measuring the effectiveness of each method, the researchers also wanted to find out
which was the most cost-effective method. Results showed that the condition using the specific
prompt alone was the most cost-effective intervention, whereas the condition that used both the
specific prompt and monetary incentive was the least cost-effective in the long run. The increased
access was considered to be the least cost-effective initially but as the impact continued at both the
follow ups, it became slightly more cost-effective in the long run than the monetary incentive.
• However, when considering the extent of the impact of each intervention immediately, and at
both follow-ups, the specific prompt and monetary incentive was found to be the most significant
cost-effective intervention in the long run.
2 Possible strengths (any two):
• Yokley and Glenwick carried out a large-scale study on a huge target population of immune-
deficient children, providing large amounts of data. This data was representative of the entire
target population, so the data has high population validity.
• The research was also longitudinal in that there was the immediate two-week measure, as well as
a follow-up measure two and three months later. This increases the validity of the research as it
shows the long-term impact of each intervention, rather than simply the immediate benefits.
• The use of checks to make sure the accuracy of the specific prompts, the mailing addresses and
the provision of correct immunisations are all important controls. This ensures the validity and
reliability of the study as we can be confident in the accuracy and consistency of the findings.
Exercise 7 Types and theories of pain

1 a Acute
b Chronic
c Acute
d Chronic
e Chronic
f Acute
g Chronic
h Chronic
i Acute
2 a i sensory
ii hearing
iii receptors
iv pain
v nerve impulses
vi automatically
b i ‘gate’
ii expectations
iii dorsal horn
iv pain fibres
v large
vi small
vii pain signals
viii touch
ix reduced

Exercise 8 Measuring pain

1 Possible answer:
a i Qualitative data, so lots of detailed insight
ii Relies on self-report from patient so may not be accurate
b i Can be used to assess pain changes over time
ii Only gathers quantitative data so lacks detailed insight
c i Extremely quick and easy to administer/complete
ii Because it is very simple, it does not cover a range of items
d i Gathers information about outward signs of pain from an outsider
ii Outward signs of pain are not necessarily representative of how someone is feeling
2 a True
b False
c False
d True
Exercise 9 Managing and controlling pain

1 a Opioids
b Acupuncture
c Cognitive redefinition
d NSAID
e Non-pain imagery
f TENS
g Attention diversion
Exercise 10 Sources of stress

1 Possible answer: According to Friedman and Rosenman, it is someone with type A personality who is
subject to suffering from stress, so according to this theory, Ahmed could be right. However, there are
other sources of stress such as life events (Holmes and Rahe) and workplace stress that could also lead
to Ahmed being stressed.
2 Possible answer: Suki is sensible to consider other sources of stress as well as personality. Holmes and
Rahe propose that a person is subject to stress if they experience certain life events over a period of time.
Chandola et al. found that workplace was a significant source of stress and long-term health effects.
Exercise 11 Measures of stress

1 Possible answer: It allows for comparisons to be made and for analysis to be carried out.
2 Possible answer: It reduces complex life events to simple numbers so it does not allow for detailed
description to be taken into account.
3 LCUs may not be equally applicable to everyone. For example, getting married may be a life event that
leads to huge change for some people. If the person had lived at home with parents before marriage,
it would be a major adjustment to suddenly live with a partner, which would be worth a high number
of LCUs. However, if a person had lived with their partner for several years before deciding to marry,
little would change in their life as a result of the marriage, so this would be worth far fewer LCUs.

Exercise 12 Managing stress

1 a i sources of stress;
ii reframe;
iii stressor.
b i rehearsal;
ii coping;
iii real world;
iv relaxation.
c i apply;
ii real world;
iii visualising.
2 a SIT can be a very effective way of dealing with stress because it is tailored to meet the specific
needs of the individual, and several coping strategies are taught.
b SIT puts the individual in a position where they are able to deal with a range of different stressors
in a way that best suits them, and these skills can be used for a lifetime.
c A disadvantage of SIT is that it requires a significant time commitment as it takes a while
for the coping skills to be learned and practised.
d SIT does not work for everyone, as it relies on the individual being willing or able to change
the way they think about and deal with things.
Exercise 13 Strategies for promoting health

1 Possible answer: Anya is right to an extent that some level of fear may encourage people to make healthy
behavior choices but there is a limit to the extent of the fear that should be used. Janis and Feshbach
(1953) investigated the effect of fear appeals on dental hygiene in high school students. The results
showed that those who were given strong fear arousal were more concerned about their dental health
than those with moderate or minimal fear arousal so Anya is supported to an extent. However, in terms
of actual changes to behaviour, those who were exposed to minimal fear had made more positive changes
to their dental hygiene routines than those in the moderate or strong fear groups. There was no evidence
that using more fear made an impact on behaviour compared to moderate or minimal fear. In terms of
fear leading to actual changes in behaviour Anya’s approach may not be a good idea.
2 Possible answer: Willow is right to say that informing people so that they can make healthy choices is
the right approach. Research by Lewin et al. (1992) support Willow’s approach. Lewin et al. compared
the recovery in MI patients who were informed on how to carry out a self-help programme to help
them recover, to those in a control group who were given standard care advice. Results showed that
those informed on how to help themselves showed lower levels of anxiety, depression, general poor
psychological health, as well as fewer visits to the doctor and hospital admissions than the control
group, up to one year later. Willow has made a sensible suggestion, as shown by supporting evidence.
Exercise 14 Health promotion in schools and worksites

1 Possible answer: Tapper et al. used rewards and peer modelling to encourage healthy eating in schools.
The use of rewards follows the concept of operant conditioning: if you are rewarded for a behaviour,
you are more likely to repeat that behaviour. In this case, if children ate fruit and vegetables, they were
rewarded with stickers and pens. Tapper et al. also used peer modelling, which follows the concept of
social learning theory – children observe and imitate the behaviour of models, especially ones they
admire or identify with. In this case, the children watched videos of the Food Dudes, who they looked
up to so wanted to copy.

2 Possible reasons (any two):

• The intervention encourages children to try fruit and vegetables repeatedly, which leads to
them eventually liking them for the taste and choosing to eat them even when there are no
longer rewards.
• The intervention changes the culture within the school, so the consumption of fruit and vegetables
becomes socially reinforced by their peers.
• The children come to see themselves as ‘fruit and vegetable eaters’ so they are guided by this self-
concept: they see a piece of fruit and think to themselves ‘I always eat my fruit’ and this guides
their behaviour.
Exercise 15 Individual factors in changing health beliefs

1 a The Good Life.
b The Meaningful Life.
c The Pleasant Life.
2 a 1167 students.
b Israel.
c Brief Symptom Inventory.
d Teachers attended 15 two-hour long training workshops, run by clinical psychologists, to train
them in group dynamics and positive psychology.
e Single parent families and low income families.
Research methods
1 a The factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more
conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable.
b The factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the influence
of the independent variable.
c A question format in questionnaires, interviews or test items that produces quantitative data.
They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers.
d A question format in questionnaires, interviews or test items that produces qualitative data.
Participants give full and detailed answers in their own words, that is, no categories or choices
are given.
2 Possible points:
• IV: type of pain management used, pain killers or pain killers and TENS.
• DV: change in pain score on questionnaire before and after treatment.
• Variables to control (any two):
• Make sure patients do not use any other form of pain management.
• Make sure patients have the same condition and a similar level of pain at starting point.
• Make sure patients are taking the same pain killers/same dosage.
• Sample: 100 female patients suffering from arthritis, between the ages of 65 and 75 years
attending a pain clinic.
• Self-report method:
• A questionnaire will be used with closed questions asking about the severity and frequency
and type of pain. For example: On a scale of 1–10 (1 = no pain, 10 = severe pain), what level
is your pain currently at?
3 a Possible strengths (any one): good sized sample; quantitative data; questionnaire before and
after treatment for comparison. Possible weaknesses (any one): all female and same age group
so not representative; no qualitative data.

b Possible answer: Using a case study could make the study stronger by gathering much more detail
through qualitative data to increase the validity; using a case study could make the study weaker
as the study would only be on one person so the results would not be generalisable to others.
Issues and debates

1 a Free will.
b Determinism.
c Determinism.
d Free will.
e Determinism.
2 Possible answer: Life events is one source of stress. It suggests that the events that happen to us in our
lives will influence how likely we are to suffer from stress and stress-related illness. This is deterministic
as it suggests that we are not able to control our stress levels, but that if we experience a certain set of
life events, they are cumulative and determine the likelihood of us being stressed.
3 Possible strength: It allows for predictions to be made. If someone has experienced a high number of
life events and has a large number of LCUs, it can be predicted that they may be at risk so something
may be done to help. The person could be on the lookout for signs of stress or ill health and they
could choose to start some stress management techniques to help them.
Possible weakness: It suggests that the person has no say and has no control over their life. If they
have experienced a certain set of life events, they are at risk of stress and stress-related illness.
This is a pessimistic approach and fails to take into account individual factors within the person,
such as resilience, which may allow them to overcome their difficulties.
Chapter 9 Organisational psychology

Exercise 1 Need theories
1 A projective test is a method of assessing personality. It involves presenting the person taking the test
with ambiguous stimuli (for example, images) and the researcher interprets the test-taker’s response.
2 Possible strength: Projective tests are useful because they allow researchers to investigate aspects of
personality which are hidden. McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test to measure people’s
needs, of which they may not have been aware.
3 Possible weakness: Projective testing may lack validity because the method relies on the subjective
interpretation of the researcher. The Thematic Apperception Test relies on measuring a hidden or
unconscious need; a different researcher might interpret the outcome of the test differently and there
is no way to know which is correct.
Exercise 2 Cognitive theories

1 a Possible answer: To achieve a C grade or better in my final assessment.
b Measurable.
c Being able to quantify how much needs to be done.
d Attainable.
e Possible answer: To review the gaps in my knowledge and identify a maximum of four areas
to revise in depth.
f Relevant.
g Being useful in some way.
h Being clear about how long it will take to achieve.
i Possible answer: 6 weeks to complete the revision before my final assessment.

Exercise 3 Motivators at work

1 a ii
b i
c iii
2 Self-determination theory focuses on intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic motivation.
Self-determined behaviours are intrinsically driven, that is internal and targeted at feeling
a sense of achievement, or just enjoying the behaviour/work.
Exercise 4 Leadership style

1 Permissive democratic.
2 Possible benefit: This style is a good choice for highly skilled, trusted employees. These team members
have worked for a while without management and know the area of work well.
3 Possible limitation: If there is a need for a complex decision about the project, there may be too many
‘experts’ and decision-making might be slow.
Exercise 5 Leadership style and gender

1 Autocratic.
2 The study found that democratic, feminine style was favoured in both female and male leaders.
If Li uses this style of leadership, it is unlikely to be a barrier to her getting a positive evaluation of her
work performance. The study also found that the sex of the evaluator had no influence on performance
ratings, so the sex of the leader of Li’s organisation is unlikely to result in a negative evaluation of her
use of democratic leadership.
Exercise 6 Leaders and followers

1 Critical thinking, active-passive.
2 a Yasmin will not commit to this project or the timescale. Her manager will have to supervise
her carefully to ensure Yasmin does her tasks for the project.
b Yasmin is unlikely to express her concerns about the timeline of the project. If other team
members speak about their concerns, she may agree with them. Yasmin prefers just to get on
with what she has been asked to do and let the project manager worry about completion times.
c Yasmin will voice her concerns about the timeline that is being proposed. She will not complain
about it but offer a positive solution to how the work can get completed effectively and in a
reasonable timeframe.
Exercise 7 Group development and decision-making

1 Commission, omission, imprecision.
2 The team is committing the fallacy of sunken costs. The group members remain committed to the
development because the organisation has committed time and money to the project, even though
it will no longer be profitable to continue.
Exercise 8 Individual and group performance

1 a ecological validity
b detection
c reliability
d standardised
e positioning

2 The sample included over 100 participants. However, they were all psychology students of a similar
age. Older people who are employed full-time in organisations might react differently to performance
monitoring, meaning generalisability is low. The participants in this study were incentivised by receiving
course credits which could motivate them in a way it would not motivate a different target population.
Exercise 9 Conflict at work

1 Individual or personality factors of the victim and the bully, psycho-social or situational factors.
2 Possible answer: Individual or personality factors might include Willow having low self-esteem or
social anxiety; his bully might be jealous of Willow or insecure about their own abilities at work.
Psycho-social or situational factors might include Willow’s manager not effectively dealing with the
bullying or workplace conflict. The department in which Willow and his colleague work might suffer
from low morale, perhaps due to redundancies or poor performance.
Exercise 10 Temporal conditions of work environments

1 a ii
b iii
c i
2 Rapid rotation shifts are frequent shift changes that workers have to follow, for example working
two nights then two day shifts in the same week. Slow rotation shift changes are infrequent changes,
for example a few weeks of night shifts followed by a few weeks of day shifts.
3 Slow rotation has been shown to be better as a worker’s circadian rhythm is disrupted less often
so they suffer fewer negative physical, cognitive and emotional effects.
Exercise 11 Health and safety

1 The human error approach assumes accidents are caused by mistakes made by individuals and that
some people are more likely than others to make mistakes. Errors caused by operator–machine systems
also consider the role of individuals as ‘operators’. However, humans are considered to have a much
smaller part in accidents. The complex interaction between the system or procedures are seen as the
cause of accidents.
2 Possible example: One example of an error in operator-machine systems is a near-miss partial nuclear
meltdown at Three Mile Island, USA. An employee shut down a water pipe that caused overheating.
There was nothing in the system to indicate to another operator that the pipe was switched off.
3 A human factor expert will ensure that machines are designed to consider the limitations of human
cognition, for example making sure display systems are clear and easy to interpret.
Exercise 12 Reducing accidents at work

1 Absenteeism is when workers regularly miss work. In this case, staff taking lots of days off as sick leave
might be due to legitimate illness or might be linked to their dissatisfaction at work (voluntary absenteeism).
2 Possible answer: Employees could be given a token immediately after displaying desirable behaviour
such as arriving at work on time each day. The tokens could be exchanged at the end of the month
for a privilege or reward such as being permitted to leave work an hour earlier.
3 Possible answer: Use of token economies and other forms of behaviour modification can be seen
as controlling. This may cause psychological harm to workers who have genuine reasons for
non-attendance.
Exercise 13 Theories of job satisfaction

1 Job enrichment is giving workers a wider variety of tasks to perform in order to help increase their
level of skill and responsibility.

2 The leisure centre can regularly change workers’ tasks within their normal roles. For example,
each worker can do tasks such as operating the reception desk, cleaning changing areas or
checking equipment.
3 Possible reason: Implementing job enlargement is not always possible within all organisations or
roles. Giving more responsibilities and/or higher level, more challenging tasks might be unsuitable
if a person is new to the job or lacks qualifications and experience.
Exercise 14 Measuring job satisfaction

1 a Amir could research industry pay rates to ensure employees of his organisation are receiving
appropriate pay.
b Amir could check whether employees are provided with adequate training and protective
equipment.
c Amir could assess whether employees are being offered training courses to extend their skills.
d Amir could encourage managers to consider offering zero-hours workers permanent contracts.
e Amir could encourage departments to have social spaces and activities in the workplace,
for example celebrating special occasions.
f Amir could help develop a flexible working policy to allow people to manage their work–life balance.
g Amir could review the workplace bullying or complaints policy.
h Amir could start a regular newsletter with items celebrating the achievements of the organisation.
Exercise 15 Attitudes to work

1 High-reason acceptors.
2 Both groups were the same.
3 Possible conclusion: Acceptance seems to affect justification of sabotage in many forms but
dishonesty is considered a different form of sabotage.
Research methods
1 Possible strength: Field studies tend to be high in ecological validity. Oldham and Brass used a sample
from an actual newspaper business which moved to new premises and stopped using a multi-cellular
layout at work. This meant they could gain realistic views of participants/workers who actually
experienced the change in their office.
2 Possible weakness: One weakness of field studies is that the researchers may lack control over other
factors in the environment. For example, in the study by Oldham and Brass, there might have been
other issues with the new office layout, which affected their satisfaction, for example they might not
be sitting near to familiar colleagues in the new office which made them less satisfied.
Issues and debates

1 Behaviour that results from innate, genetic factors.
2 Behaviour that results from environmental influences such as learning or other people.
3 a i Great Person Theory states that leaders are born into greatness;
ii To a lesser extent, theories of charismatic and transformational leadership accept that
leadership can be acquired.
b i Not applicable;
ii Adaptive leaders need to show flexibility and are able to learn from the organisation
and its needs.
c i Not applicable;
ii Leadership is learned rather than something a person is born with. Kouzes and Posner
suggest different ways different types of people can develop into successful leaders.

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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY: TEACHER’S RESOURCE

1 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

b i Average praise score;

Average praise score 8.8

Exercise 3 Case studies

2 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Possible graph for positive/negative:

3 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

2 a Pulse rate, the ‘pace’ of the music.

Exercise 6 Longitudinal studies

Chapter 2 Biological approach

4 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

2.1 Core study 1: Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)

2.2 Core study 2: Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)

5 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

2.3 Core study 3: Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)

6 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Exercise 9 Stress reduction programmes

7 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Chapter 3 Cognitive approach

3.1 Core study 1: Andrade (doodling)

8 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Exercise 3 Results and conclusion

Exercise 4 The psychology being investigated

3.2 Core study 2: Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes test)

9 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Exercise 6 Results and conclusion

Exercise 7 Ethical issues

3.3 Core study 3: Pozzulo et al. (line ups)

10 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Issues and debates

11 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Chapter 4 Learning approach

4.1 Core study 1: Bandura et al. (aggression)

Exercise 4 Ethical issues

12 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

4.2 Core study 2: Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

13 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

4.3 Core study 3: Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)

Exercise 10 Issues and debates

14 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Issues and debates

Chapter 5 Social approach

15 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

5.1 Core study 1: Milgram (obedience)

Exercise 4 Ethical issues

16 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

5.2 Core study 2: Perry et al. (personal space)

5.3 Core study 3: Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)

17 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

b i Race of the victim;

Issues and debates

18 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Chapter 6 Clinical psychology

Exercise 2 Explanations of schizophrenia

Exercise 3 Treatment and management of schizophrenia

19 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Exercise 4 Diagnostic criteria for mood (affective) disorders

Exercise 5 Explanations of mood (affective) disorders: depressive

Exercise 6 Treatment and management of mood (affective) disorders

20 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology © Cambridge University Press 2022

Exercise 7 Diagnostic criteria for impulse control disorders

Exercise 8 Explanations of impulse control disorders