of atomic proposities

Eff
comparispes

Introduction
to Propositional Logic Mathematical is the of how conclusions Propositional formulas the evaluate False
logic study Logic Logic
of
can be logically derived from
given premises

Why is Natural
Language not sufficient
1 The sun rises in the west and sets in the east
Premise 1 If an earthquake occurs people must leave the building 2 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west
Premise 2 Everyone is leaving the building 3 True
Conclusion
An earthquake occurred 4 False

Syntax of Propositional Logic

Connective
Meaning

doesnt hold
p Negation p
png Conjunction p AND q
pug Disjunction
p OR q
Conditional
p q p implies
9
p is is
Biconditional
p q exactly 9

Either Bill is at work and Jane is not or

Jane is at work and Bill is not
Formal
Language Syntax Semantics Inference Let B Bill is at work
symbols rules Interpretation Proofs Rule
systems J Jane is at work
I 4 This is sequent

4 can be proven from T B 7J x Jn B

T is formal system
Turnstile
meaning proves F Logical implication
p q If it rains today then the road will be wet
If I study then I will pass
Properties of formal system 1 Sufficiency 4Soundness
2 Necessity 5 Completeness
p q p q and q p
3 Consistency 6Decidability
 I

Natural Deduction Gentzen's Based on rules of inference Modus Ponens Implication Elimination

4 FIPremises then 41 42 one can conclude

y y 4 e
conclusion
42
is true then
4
conclude
4 implies we can

In natural deduction for each operation there are two kinds of rule
Elimination Introduction Ex rains rains wet wet slippery t slippery
some conclusion
by eliminating the operation Prove conclusion
by the operation
introducing

Deduction Explanation

Ex Prove
png of gno I rains Premise

png togive 9 wet

ne on premise 2 rains Promise
Apply
ni on q and r to 3 wet Promise
Apply give gnr slippery

4 wet e 1,2
Deduction Explanation 5 slippery e 3,4
1 Premise
png
Introduction
2 9 e2 I Implication Assume

Premise
3 8

4 gnr ni 2,3 42
4 y
Ex png ont t pno
Deduction Explanation Ex 1 png 9 No premises given
1 png
Premise
png t 9
2 ont Premise Deduction Explanation

3 1 png Assumption
par Assumption

4 p net I 2
9 2 I
5 8 net 3 3 png 9 i 1,2
6 ni 4,5
Conclusion
4 1 can be treated as y Ex pu png no
tp
41.42.43 Un 1 can be treated as
1 4 Un E Deduction
42 Explanation

I no Premise
pu png
Ex
p q p o t p r 2
p
Assumption

3 P copy
Deduction Explanation 4 png ar Assumption

1 Premise 5 ne
p 9 png
2
p 8 Premise 6
p nee 5
3 ne 7 p Proof
by cases 3 and 6
p
4 8 nez
5
poor i 3,4 Elimination Contradiction introduction
Negation
y 74
coffradiction

Ex p qua q s r s 1 p s
Deduction Explanation infer from a contradiction
e
1 Premise
p qua y
2 Premise
9 s
3 r s Premise Negation
Introduction Assume
Y
Y p Assumption Ti
5 i 4 I I
quo we started with is false
6
4 assumption

9 Assumption

7 s i 6,2 Proof
p q p 79 1 7p
8 8 Assumption

9 s i 8,3 Double Negation

774 771
770
10 s Proof 7 and 9 y
by
11 i 4 10
pros
 Ex p 7
gnr t 7
par p t p q
Premise
p
Deduction Explanation 2
p Assumption

1 Premise 3 7C 1,2
p
4 from false in line 3 anything follows
2 7719 8 Premise
g
3 8 7722 5
q i 2 4
9 p
4 8 nes 3
5 77
p 771 Modus ponens If both hypotheses are true then conclusion is true

6 77
pro ni 3,4 Modus tollens If hypothesis is not true an implication is true other propositio

cant be tone
OR introduction
4 4 viz
guy guy y y 74
SubProofs 74
OR Elimination
guy
I Premise
4 Y
x ve Premise
2 74
3 Assume
4
pn qur png pnr 4 µ e
5 7 2,4
t 6
Deduction
palqua png 74 Assumption was
wooy
Explanation Deduction Explanation

10 Premise 5 vii 6 Proof Premise

74 1
Contradiction
palqua png v
par By 74
9 p ne 10 4 6 Assumption 2 74 Assumption

8 ni 9,4
98 nez10 3 3 e 1,2
par
7
9 Assumption 2
png pnr viz 3 4 4 774 71 2,3
6 ni 9,7 1 ve 4 2,7 5
png png par 8 Y
Law of Excluded Middle either is true or is true How rows will be needed in truth table to validate the
yv7y y 74 many
formula
a

following

74 42478 n
pung vs n rxzv.it
y p

unique variables atomic

9 74 p 2,8 9 s x t
27 128 8005
1 Premise
y v74
2 Assume Entailment Notation
4 Semantic
wife
3 Vi truth
4474 alidity or

4 13 41 42 43144 In is True
5 74 2 4 the Y is True
6 Vi
4474
7 1,6 Satisfiability If assignment can evaluate the expression to 1
any
Conclusion
8
4474
Validity Tautology
Natural Deduction Proof of unsatisfiable formula will always be valid
of
a Logical Identity Negation

p q t p 9 Pure literal If proposition appears in either the ve from

I p q Premise

2 LEM Unit clause Appears as atomic

PV7p proposition
3 7p Assumption

4 7pvq Vi 3 pug r n
pungus
n rvs v71
5 p Assumption
pure literal 2
6 9 e 1,5 unit clause 0
7
9 47 p vi 6
8 3 4,5 7
 Normal forms
Syntactically
different can be semantically equivalent DPLL trace Backtracking Based Algorithm
for deciding

png the formula

p g satisfiability
of
2 Canonical forms are used

equivalent formulae can

to give
be
a standarized notation so that all
syntatic form
In idn B
acid
expressed using one
Conjunctive Normal Form C Can Cu C is Li VLi Y Ln Write as set clauses
of
Disjunctive Normal Form C x Civ CI C is Lin Lin hn Q D TD A B TDV A V78 TD VIA VB A

SAT problems are written as CNF its MP complete Two special cases
0 94 ally true
4 C1 always fake
Proof of Unsatisfiability
Resolution Rule Empty clause

Given Avx 7 4B derive AVB

If clause is derivable DPLL searches the space
of
truth assignments assigning one proposition

Formula is unsatisfiable a value at each step of search tree

Ex IVA n 71 c n c n A Step1 Look for the 2 special cases return Toof ace
Resolution on A Assumption
Step 2 Look for unit clause return DPLC 4101
I 71 c a 7C Steps Look for pure literal return DPLL 4101
Resolution on 1 Step 4 If nothing is found
for some variable v
C n 7C take a until receive true or false
guess you
Resolution on C
False
Assumption 7A is
false
Ex S
PVQY.IR NP P9478 p vagus n rvsv7t
puguir n
prig n rent s t
Pravin Px 70 TP R U ping n n r t f
puqvir
n 8 T
pug 7pv7q
Choose unit clauses

Pravin Px 70 TP R u P P i n
pug pung
QUR 70 IR O 70 G I T paf
P
R R U R
1 79 9
unsatisfiable
q f I q T
T T
a b c a a v76 n c n av b a d Satisfiable Satisfiable

arb n97av7b a av b n d c

s arb n97av7b a av7b d

s
a F a T
Y
Frb n d n fv7b I fx7b a 1 b
baib Tb
I 1 if b T
Satisfiable
Intro to Model Checking
Model Checking is an automic push button technique which require Behaviour of the System can be modelled
by
Execution

a a
three
things
Model System Space Verifier
4 42
Path is a specific part of an execution may not start at so
Transition State
P AP
pip
Specification
System

t.ca beings
cogc 8 y
mail.fi
A
Traces tells how
behaves with
a

thehelp AP
yÉ
system
of
MFY Trace where property doesn't hold p It's an infinite wood overAP
p.pl 3 p.pe
3
as
p pipit
States 5 a bc d is subset trace
e Property
of p p
f Initialstate a GLP Safe Eliminate all traces with bad prefix
b Behaviour e f GIP Invariant Such a property where an AP is true forffstates G
T T
d a FIP Liveness
AP is true eventually

d
Bad Prefix Dont want an AP to hold
C Nondeterministic
choice P Property is true in next state

Transition is
system a tuple

f
3,40 Act AP he
Set of states State space

40 Set of initial states

Act Set of actions

Transition relationship
ʰ
SxAct
s as s 4,5 ES atAct
AP Set of atomic prepositions

L Labelling
function enables designation of every state with a prepo

L S 2AP
Temporal Logic
Linear Temporal Logic LTL CTL G All states A All paths
Computational Tree Logic CTL
Existential
Op E
0 0 0 030 0 E red a
green
000 0300 there exists a path were state is real and nextstate
is
green

88 Universal
OP
Alf green
LTL Next Operator X aloy all path state eventually turns
green
a a will be true in next state
Global Operator G AP door closed
G b door closed
a
9
whenever a is true the next state will be b
Finally
Future Operator F F lights on
Fb 9 request Flresponded

eventually b is True
Until Operator U 25 aub
redUgreen
Weak Unti Operator W
00 0 0 0
1
b
red Wgreen 00 0 0 0
030303030
Release Operator R
rainy R sunny
0 0 0
70
03030 0 00030
2
 I 1

EGLEFp CTL GF p Proof rules predicate logic

for
Predicate is friend Paawan substitute with 011th
Logic Suraj
friend
of He
Y Suraj is
of Ajai x
2 Suraj is friend of Purab

friend
Suraj
Paawan Hx plx 1 x
plx
H E
Line Number Deduction Explanation
natural 1 1 Hx p x Prenice
naturala natural x He s
suis
pit
3 xplx 2

Yn
0 4 pit plx 791 7 y7gly
i 7
9 4 near µ 1 pH Premise

Y tyne 2 Hx plx 79 x Premise

by g e re 3
plt 7g H He 2

i 4 t e 1,3
µ 79
5 4
try I 77
Fyngly
te me
909 q
ve 7 77

LEM Y 7pm
0
 I
6 e 4,5
q x
Fx g x
of Hi 6
Introduction

plx 91 7 xp x glx 8 x q x Fe 2,3 7

Free variables bound variable

X
II
fresh
doesnt
Fx
occurs with 7

x's band
3
Play atty holy x VPly 2
x 4
plx glx He t
5 x He 2 Plx both are free
p y y

ii.in
both are
701g x y free

both
Ply 2 y 2 are free
Elimination
of is bound
Hy 791g
x
Ply 2 y
Introde Xo
X x

independent somethtime

ofto Fe
a

plx glx xplx xql

1
Hxp x glx Premise

2 xplx Premise
3 Fresh

4 p Xo Assume
5 x Hx
 0
Hoare correctness a written Post FIX
Floyd Verify of program gum
in imperative style
1 Fx Factorial x

Correctness
Does A compute what its 11 N O
supposed to F Ls N
fompletycorrectuey
Partially correct 1 Hx O x n X N 1
Does A terminate fooli o ion itt
Total correctness
TX 1 1
Pre Condition
Alx for all value index LEX 41 1
Post Condition
of

Poe 5 Pre pre

V V45 V 5 if x
Post v70 Post 5 5 4100 y
then m x
5 70 else
5 post m my
x n ms m X Vm
y y
It i A
j B if x m
y y
swap A B
i B
j
A nxs
yjnlx xxk ysyo
xnysynlyx y.gl
s a x x a x
y y g y
Precondition n Precondition x
y y
 P
2 26
78

79

Semantic Entailment

LTL
blag
NZ beats England
Ga bvc
x n d x 2
so 5 52
option i b 7 x nd x2
53 zig
Ss option 2 b
zig
7 x a'd z

so 5 s 52
E bua
So s s
I B
A
j

inner loop

i
Hj osj
1
say
a
j
7 1
it t
ian
decrease