POINTERS TO REVIEW IN
READING AND WRITING SKILLS
TEXT – This adheres to broad conventions and
rules which determine the language and structure
used and relays or communicates non-
interactively.
WRITING – It is as defined in its simple terms is
an act of transmitting knowledge in print
(Oyetunde, 2003). It is also the ability of one to
communicate or express ideas in prints.
READING – is a multifaceted process involving
word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and
motivation. Learn how readers integrate these
facets to make meaning from print.
ORGANIZING – It involves assigning tasks,
grouping tasks into departments, delegating
authority, and allocating resources across the
organization.
SUMMARIZING – It is a reading skill that involves
condensing a lengthy text into a shorter passage
which is usually 15 to 30 percent of the source
material.
 To express the most
important facts or ideas about
something or someone in a
short and clear form.
PARAPHRASING – it is a detailed restatement in
your own words of a source material. Apart from
the changes in organization, wording, and
sentence structure, the paraphrase should be
nearly identical in meaning to the original
passage.
 It means to state something
written or spoken in different
words, especially in shorter
and simpler form to make the
meaning clearer.
MAIN IDEA – This is the most important or central
thought of a paragraph or larger section of text,
which tells the reader what the text is about.
TOPIC OUTLINE – it arranges your ideas
hierarchically (showing which are main and which
are sub- point), in the sequence you wank and
shows what you will talk about.
 As the name implies, it
identifies all the little mini
topics that your paper will
comprise, and shows how
they relate.
 allows writers to organize the
topics of a paper quickly
without going into details.
 It may use noun phrases,
infinitive phrases, or gerund
phrases instead of sentences.
SENTENCE OUTLINE - are formatted exactly as
topic outlines are, but whole sentences replace
the brief headings. The sentences state the
crucial point of each stage of the paper.
Consequently, a sentence outline provides a real
test of your argument.
OUTLINING – It is a process of breaking
paragraph into different parts by giving the main
topics and subtopics, main heads, and subheads.
 It is a tool we use in the
writing process to help
organize our ideas, visualize
our paper’s potential
structure, and to further flesh
out and develop points.
 It is the process of laying out
the main ideas, key concepts,
supporting details, and
evidence to be included in the
paper.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER – This is a visual
representation of concepts or ideas that helps
one to structure information into organizational
pattern.
 Are visual thinking tools that
make picture of your
thoughts.
 It shows the relationship
between and among facts,
concepts or ideas. They help
you increase recall, arrange
information, interpret and
understand learning.
PLOT DIAGRAM – is a graphical representation
of the plot of the story.
 It is a line graph of the story’s
event, beginning with the
story’s start on the left and
continuing toward the right,
ending with the story’s
conclusion.
FISHBONE – is a visual problem-solving
technique used to identify and analyze the
potential causes that might contribute to a specific
problem.
TIMELINE – it shows a sequence of events in
chronological order.
 They come in handy when
studying history as you can
use it to display major
historical events that occurred
during a period of time along
with important details such as
dates and locations in which
they took place.

NETWORK TREE – used to represent hierarchy,
classification, and branching.
 Useful in showing
relationships of scientific
categories, family trees, and
even lineages.
BRAINSTORMING LIST – It means just what its
name suggests - a list of what you have
brainstormed. Brainstorming means to think
quickly and creatively about the text you have
read.
CONCEPT MAP – it shows relationships
associated with the concept you are studying.
STORY MAP – It may summarize the beginning,
middle, and end of the story. It may also focus on
the setting, character, plot, problem, events, and
outcome.
SEMANTIC MAP – this framework is used to
investigate and enumerate various aspects of a
central idea, which could be a concept, topic or
theme.
SERIES-OF-EVENTS – chain shows the
arrangement of events in chronological order. It
may also help you in discussing cause and effect
of something.
FLOW CHART – it displays the steps or stages in
a process.
T-CHART AND VENN DIAGRAM – it shows the
similarities and differences between two things,
people, events, or ideas.
DISCUSSION WEB – it allows you to give the
meaning of what you read. It also privileges you
to polish your own interpretation against another.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING
ACROSS DISCIPLINES
- Patterns of development are methods of
organization that writers use to organize
their ideas about a topic. The selection of
patterns of development in writing is
dependable on the writer's purpose.
Based on the style of writing, there are
eight patterns of development:
NARRATION - A narrative paragraph or essay
tells a story and explains how something
happened.
 It is a pattern of development
that is used to recall a set of
events that is arranged
chronologically.
DESCRIPTION - details what something looks
like and its characteristics.
DEFINITION - explains what something is in
comparison to other members of its class, along
with any limitations.
 used in explaining unfamiliar
terms.
 has two major purposes: to
explain or to convince
EXEMPLIFICATION – It is the most common and
effective pattern to explain an idea or point. In
developing this kind of paragraph, the writer
develops a general statement –the topic
sentence, with one or more examples to support
it.
 Here are some transitional
expressions in writing
effective exemplification
paragraphs: for instance,
namely, to be specify, to
clarify, to illustrate, for
example, in short, as an
example.
CLASSIFICATION – It is used when a writer
needs to sort out or arrange subjects to groups or
categories based on their common and shared
characteristics.
  Here are some transitional
expressions in writing
effective classification
paragraphs: classified as,
one kind, the last group,
another kind, another, final
type, the first category, are
categorized as, the next part.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
- Comparison in writing discusses elements
that are similar while contrast in writing
discusses elements or ideas that are
different. A compare-and-contrast essay,
then analyzes two subjects comparing
them, contrasting them, or both. However,
its purpose is not to simply state the
obvious but rather to illustrate subtle
differences or unexpected similarities
between two subjects.
CAUSE AND EFFECT – It is a text development
pattern which explains why something happens. It
also states what results a particular event
produces. It usually gives a statement
emphasizing the cause and another emphasizing
the effect.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION – It organizes ideas into
problems and proposed solutions
 Problem section usually
includes the what, who, when,
where, why and how of the
problem.
 Solution section presents the
major effects of the problem
and the possible solutions to
address it, as well as the
steps in implementing the
solution.
PERSUASION – It organizes ideas to show how a
set of evidence leads to a logical conclusion or
argument.
 Presents the issue, the
position, and the supporting
evidence that supports the
position.
 This paragraph expresses an
opinion and tries to convince
the reader that this opinion is
correct.
 text can be in the form of an
argument, discussion,
exposition, review or even an
advertisement.
PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
A. ORGANIZATION
Ø It provides the readers a structural
framework that will guide them on
what to have in text.
Ø It helps the reader to follow the
complete and logical development
of thoughts in a written text.
THREE MAJOR PARTS IN ORGANIZING A
PARAGRAPH:
1. Introduction – it captures the attention of
the readers and establishes the
importance of the topic the readers are
about to read. It gives the necessary
background information and provides
bridge from the opening sentences to the
topic sentence which may be positioned in
the middle, or at the end of the paragraph.
2. Body – it is the longest part of the
composition as it consists of the
supporting details of the main topic. These
sentences (supporting details) give
specific details, factual information,
 concrete examples or illustration to
support, prove or explain the main idea of
the paragraph. It may also contain
interpretation to explain the supporting
details, and to show how these details
relate to the point of the paragraph.
THE BODY OF THE PARAGRAPH MAY
BE ORGANIZED THROUGH ANY OF
THE ORDERS BELOW:
1. Chronological Order - the details are
arranged as they actually occurred in
time. It is also used in process analysis
paragraph as you describe or explain,
according to occurrence, how something
works or happens. It is commonly used in
narration.
2. Spatial Order - this paragraph
development describes a person, thing or
place. Details are arranged through
movement of space systematically from a
starting point to other features, or the
simple physical position or relationships. It
is commonly used in description, but can
also be applied in examples,
comparisons, and classifications.
3. Deductive Order - this paragraph
development arranges details from
general to specific. It begins with an
overall discussion of the subject then fills
in the details, facts, examples, and other
supporting details.
4. Induction Order - this paragraph
development arranges details from
specific to general. It provides the support
first, and then draws a conclusion from it.
5. Climactic Order - This paragraph
development arranges details according
to importance that is from least to most
important, or from most important to least
important.
3. Conclusion – it closes the issue being
discussed, ends the paragraph, and aims
to convince the reader that all most
important arguments about the topic have
been tackled. It summarizes the
connections between details or
information covered in the body part of the
paragraph and the topic sentence.
B. COHERENCE
Ø It pertains to the sentences that solely
support the main idea of the paragraph.
It relates to the paper’s structure, as to
what holds the sentences together to
keep them from falling apart, and
establishes a relationship between the
ideas presented in a paragraph.
Ø This is achieved in a composition when
ideas are connected at the conceptual
or idea level.
C. COHESION
Ø It expresses continuity that exists
between one part of the text and
another. It occurs where the
interpretation of some element in the
discourse is dependent on that of
another.
TO ACHIEVE COHERENCE, THE FOLLOWING
COHESIVE DEVICES ARE APPLIED IN
WRITING:
1. Repetition - the use of it is to focus on the
main idea by repeating a key word or phrase.
This is to keep you as a writer as well as your
readers on track on the idea being
discussed.
2. Synonyms - it is to use words with the same
meaning in the sentence. This can keep you
as a writer and also your readers mindful of
the connections between sentences.
3. Pronouns - the use of pronouns is to replace
the nouns with words like he, she, it, they,
we, us, him, or them.
4. Transition - it is to use a transition word or
phrase that links the sentences of a
paragraph together. This guides the readers
with the movement of an idea from one
sentence to the next sentence or the
relationships among ideas. Example:
therefore, again, also, besides, accordingly,
afterward, as long as, indeed, for example,
for this reason, in addition, etc.
D. LANGUAGE USE
Ø In writing, you should consider your
tone, style and clarity of your writing to
communicate effectively. As you write,
think “What words would I say?” and
“How would I say it?”
THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS OF THE
EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE SHOULD BE USED IN
WRITING:
1. Concise language
Ø It is the use of fewest numbers of
words possible. To achieve this, you
must use short, simple sentences and
active verbs. Get to the point to
communicate effectively without
sacrificing clarity and completeness.
Include only what the reader needs to
know and omit excessive adjective
and adverbs. Eliminate redundant or
lengthy words or phrases.
2. Concrete language
Ø It is to use concrete words rather than
abstract words which are ambiguous.
You must choose the right words that
 most express your meaning or
specific words to clarify ideas and
images. Use concrete words which
descriptions can lead the readers
visualize through details or bring to
the readers specific visual images. To
be concrete is to be clear, firm and
unchanging based on our senses:
sight, touch, sound, smell and taste.
Abstract words are concepts, ideas,
qualities, emotions and process which
can draw many and different
interpretations, while concrete or
specific words are easily imagined
and are less open to multiple and
various interpretations. The first
sentence of each set uses the
abstract or vague terms, while the
second sentence has the concrete
and specific words.
3. Common Language
Ø It is to use common words in writing
which are easily understood and
recognized by the readers. They are
common because they are used most
of the time. They usually work well as
they bring in the right meaning that
you wish to convey with your day-to
day vocabulary which is the same as
your reader's vocabulary.
4. Precise and Clear Language
Ø It is to give your readers clear and
precise word imagery to make your
writing easier to understand and to
follow. Precise and clear language like
a vocabulary of precise nouns and
vivid verbs help you create strong
mental pictures for your readers and
this will eliminate confusion and
wordiness. Words can be interpreted
in different ways and it is for this
reason that you must have a precise
and clear language and their potential
interpretations
Ø Example:
We are endeavoring to construct a more
inclusive society.
We're going to make a country in which no
one is left out. (Revised)
E. MECHANICS
1. Capitalizing Proper Nouns Proper Nouns
are particular names of person, animal,
place, object, or idea.
2. Using Minor Punctuation Marks
Punctuation marks are important in every
structure. Each punctuation mark has its
function like a period for a statement, a
question mark for an interrogative
sentence, and an exclamation point for an
exclamatory sentence.
 The comma is used to separate all elements
in a series.
Example: My cousin loves pizza, fried chicken,
cakes and ice-cream
 The apostrophe which is used in two
situations: to form a contraction, and to form
the possessive form of a noun or an indefinite
pronoun.
 Example:
 I'm happy to see my old friends in the
mall. (forming contraction)
 Karl's laptop is new. (forming
possessive)
 The semicolon is used to join two complete
sentences only.
 Example:
 Many students are in the library; they
study for the final examination.
 The colon is used to introduce a quotation, an
explanation, a clarification, or an example, and
to introduce a list.
 Examples:
 The leader reminded the team:
"Honesty is the best policy."(to
introduce a quotation)
 He has only one reason in mind in
joining the contest: to gain
confidence.(to introduce an
explanation)
 They are the best players in the
team: Dominic, Matthew and
Benedict (to introduce a list)
 The dash is used to emphasize information by
setting it off from the rest of the sentence.
 Example:
 He is John Santos- the class
President.
 The parentheses are used to present material
that is not essential part of the sentence.
 Example:
 Atty. Jane A. Cruz (the
mother) defended her
daughter in an interview.
3. Punctuating Direct Quotations
Ø A direct quotation is the direct speech or
exact words of the speaker or writer Direct
quotations are always placed within
quotation marks.
• Example:
• Dennis asked his
classmate, "Have you been
to Tokyo Disney Land?”
4. Setting Off Titles of Books, Stories, and
Other Works
Ø Titles aside from having the first letters of
all important words are capitalized, can be
typed in italics or enclosed in quotation
marks.
• Example:
• Books: How to Train Your
Dragon
• Newspaper: Philippine
Daily Inquirer
• Short stories: "The Tell-Tale
Heart"
• Songs: “Thinking Out Loud”