CHAPTER 3

SOLAR, WIND, ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM AND

IT’S APPLICATION
3.1 Solar Energy

Black body radiation from the Sun is believed to travel across the solar system at the speed of
light (3.0 x 108m/s2). Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion, which occurs when hydrogen
gas is heated to temperatures between 106 and 156 0C [13]. The 4.3 x 1020 J of solar energy
that reaches Earth's atmosphere per hour is enough to power the planet for a whole year.
Solar power is considered renewable since it is a naturally occurring resource. As the solar
system revolves, half of Earth is always in the dark for a few months out of the year. The
sun's energy is sent into space through electromagnetic waves. These waves may be broken
down into a few distinct groups based on their frequency range. A spectrum's energy grows
in direct proportion to its width; a narrower spectrum contains more power than a wider one.
At the surface of the Earth, humans can only detect radiation with a wavelength between 0.29
and 2.3 micrometres (Van Niekerk and Hall, 2013). Most of the sunlight that reaches Earth's
atmosphere is deflected back into space, but some is absorbed by green plants for
photosynthesis, and the sun's rays help to evaporate water from oceans and lakes, which in
turn helps to produce rain. Harnessing the sun's untapped energy might provide for the
world's growing energy need. Energy efficiency and the usage of smart energy collection
systems are two of the most important tools to this objective. The term "global radiation" is
used to describe solar radiation that enters Earth's atmosphere.
3.2 Solar collectors

Solar energy collectors are devices that absorb sunlight and convert it into more useable
forms of energy, such as electricity. In order to store sunlight for later use, solar collectors
have been developed. For instance, the majority of modern-day Cypriot homes continue to
use the same (slightly upgraded) solar water heating method that has been in use for hundreds
of years. The various photovoltaic power systems may be thought of as solar collectors.

Figure 3.1: Global horizontal radiation of Rwanda (Nzeyimana, 2003 )

3.3 Types of PV Cells

There are three primary varieties of solar PV cells. PV cells are primarily constructed from
silicon, which may be extracted from sand. Solar photovoltaic (PV) cells made from silicon
may be divided into three groups.
3.4.1 Monocrystalline silicon panel

The highest efficiency among commercial solar PV cells, at 15%, makes them the most
popular option. It packs a lot of power generation into a small footprint. When compared to a
thin film cell with the same cell area, its power production is four times higher under
identical conditions. It's more expensive initially, but it's long-lasting—25-30 years,
according to some estimates (Goodrich et al., 2012).

Figure3.3: Monocrystalline silicon panel [13]

3.4.2 Polycrystalline silicon Panel

Polycrystalline silicon cells are also known by a few other names. It has a lower efficiency
than monocrystalline (13%) but is cheaper to manufacture. To produce the same quantity of
power, more space is required. Polycrystalline silicon cells produce 130W of electricity when
exposed to 1000W/m2 of solar irradiation over an area of 1m2. It has a short life expectancy
of around 20-25 years.

Figure 3.4: Polycrystalline silicon Panel

3.5 Types of PV System

The two basic criteria used to classify photovoltaic systems are the construction technique
and the intended usage. There are three main types of photovoltaic systems: standalone, grid-
connected, and hybrid. Direct PV systems don't need an inverter and may generate AC
electricity without one.

3.5.1 Standalone PV System

Freestanding photovoltaic systems may be broken down into three distinct categories: DC
standalone, AC standalone, and DC/AC hybrid. To put it another way, decentralised systems
are not reliant on any other system at all. A standalone system requires modules, charge
controllers, a battery, and an inverter. Most photovoltaic (PV) systems are installed as
freestanding units, often in homes or smaller businesses and institutions. In nations with
stringent PV laws, most standalone systems are being converted into grid-connect
installations. When a home's photovoltaic system generates more electricity than the family
requires, the owner may sell the excess to the utility company. When the household's
electricity demands exceed the PV system's output, the utility company steps in to meet the
shortfall.

Figure 3.7: standalone PV systems

3.5.2 Grid-connected PV system

Grid-connected systems include large or medium-sized solar installations (also known as PV

power plants). These plants produce electricity in the megawatt range and may take up
several acres of land. As an example, power condition units are often installed in PV power
plants to ensure that the generated energy meets grid standards for frequency and quality [15]
3.6.1 Concentrated Solar Power

Archimedes, about 200 BC, used a curved mirror to concentrate the sun's beams, marking the
beginning of concentrated solar energy. These ideas were used to start fires. The Greek
mathematician Diocels defined the optical property of the parabolic trough in the second
century BC. In 1746, Comte de Buffon provided the first thorough account of the heliostat's
development. The steam engine mechanism used by Augustin Mouchot's dish, which he
introduced to the 1878 Universal Exposition in Paris, was a major attraction. Concentrated
solar power (CSP) technology took a giant leap forward in 1913 when Frank Schuman built a
parabolic trough powered pumping system in Egypt. However, 354 MW of concentrated
solar power (CSP) plants were built in the 1980s in California, USA [16]. Concentrated solar
power is based on the idea of concentrating the sun's rays in a specific area to produce
enough heat to operate a steam turbine, which in turn produces electricity.

3.6.2 Parabolic trough

The parabolic trough method relies on mirrors or lenses with parabolic curves. A tube of the
same length as the parabolic mirror serves as its focus. Heat from the sun is transferred to the
steam turbine or energy storage facility through the fluid contained inside the tube. The
primary components of parabolic trough technology are a thermal receiver, solar collector
(lenses, mirror, or highly reflective surface), storage unit, and producing system. Figure 10
depicts the thermal receivers, which are housed in parabolic reflectors and tubes. A solar
tracking system is combined with a parabolic trough system to provide maximum output at
all times, since the sun's position throughout the day varies owing to Earth's rotation. Heat
sinks may be anything from synthetic oil to molten salt to water or steam [19].

Figure 3.9: Parabolic Trough

3.6.3 Linear fresnel

While similar in concept to parabolic technology, linear Fresnel differs in two crucial
respects: the mirrors used are either flat or just slightly curved (primarily at the edges), and
the tube holding the thermal receiver is elevated and inverted. Figure 3.9 depicts a typical use
of linear Fresnel optics. Both money and space are saved compared to parabolic trough
technology [20].

Figure3.10: Linear Fresnel reflector

3.7 Wind energy conversion system and modeling of wind mill

3.7.1 Introduction

If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding

stones, the machine is usually called a Windmill.A wind turbine is a machine for converting
the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted
to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator. As wind turbines increase in size and
rise to greater heights to take advantage of higher energy winds, their towers require more
materials and comprise a larger percentage of the project’s cost. Efficient construction
methods can optimize material quantities and reduce costs.

3.7.2 Types of wind turbines

Wind turbines are classified into two general types: horizontal axis and vertical axis.
A horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. A vertical
axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground. There are a
number of available designs for both and each type has certain advantages and disadvantages.
However, compared with the horizontal axis type, very few vertical axis machines are
available commercially.
3.7.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style that
most of us think of when we think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar design to a
windmill, it has blades that look like a propeller that spin on the horizontal axis.

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a
tower, and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind
vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor. Most large wind turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow
rotation of the rotor into a faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower.

3.7.2.2 HAWT advantages

 The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some
wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and the
power output by 34%.
 High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most
proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating
actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle.
Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.

3.7.2.3 HAWT disadvantages

 Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
 Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake
assembly) being lifted into position.
3.7.2.4 Vertical axis wind turbine

Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically. The main advantage of this arrangement is that the wind turbine does not
need to be pointed into the wind. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is
highly variable or has turbulent winds. Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for
centuries, they are not as common as their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is
that they do not take advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the
ground as well as horizontal axis turbines.

With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be placed near
the ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes maintenance easier. The
main drawback of a VAWT generally creates drag when rotating into the wind.

3.7.2.5VAWT advantages

 No yaw mechanism is needed.

 A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
 VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.

3.7.2.6VAWT disadvantages

 Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind.
Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into
the collector area.
 Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due and do not
take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
3.8 THE POWER IN THE WIND

The wind systems that exist over the earth’s surface are a result of variations in air
pressure. These are in turn due to the variations in solar heating. Warm air rises and cooler air
rushes in to take its place. Wind is merely the movement of air from one place to another.
There are global wind patterns related to large scale solar heating of different regions of the
earth’s surface and seasonal variations in solar incidence. There are also localised wind
patterns due the effects of temperature differences between land and seas, or mountains and
valleys. Wind speed generally increases with height above ground. This is because the
roughness of ground features such as vegetation and houses cause the wind to be
slowed.Windspeed data can be obtained from wind maps or from the meteorology office.

The power in the wind is proportional to:

 The area of windmill being swept by the wind

 The cube of the wind speed
 The air density - which varies with altitude

3.9 working of wind turbine

Wind turbines use large blades to catch the wind. When the wind blows, the blades are forced
round, driving a turbine which generates electricity. The stronger the wind, the more
electricity produced.

There are two types of domestic-sized wind turbine:

 Pole mounted: these are free standing and are erected in a suitably exposed position,
often around 5kW to 6kW
 Building mounted: these are smaller than mast mounted systems and can be installed
on the roof of a home where there is a suitable wind resource. Often these are around
1kW to 2kW in size.

3.10 Introduction of BLDC generator

Recently, the demands for electricity have increased very rapidly. Even though state and
federal governments build new power plants, the supply is still insufficient and such plants
take a long time to design and build. Thus, nowadays, stand-alone generators are essential,
not only in remote areas but also in urban areas, and especially for the transportation system.
The major issue regarding the stand-alone generator is, undoubtedly, power density
maximization for a given power rating. In other words, minimal sizing and lighter weight in
the same rated machine are the most important factors. Among several kinds of generators,
the brushless DC (BLDC) generator is the best candidate for improving power density. As
compared with other generators, the BLDC generator has lots of benefits; it is lightweight, it
has a compact design, and low maintenance because it has a magnetic source inside itself.
With the inherent advantages of the BLDC generator, additional increases in power density
can be expected by the advanced control techniques, resulting in considerable reduction of
weight and volume. This technique is highly desirable for many applications, such as small
power plants, remote area off-grid power supply systems, and especially transportation
system such as conventional cars, EVs (Electric Vehicle), or HEVs (Hybrid Electric Vehicle)
that need to be downsized and lightweight. In the conventional drive system, generated
electrical power is transferred to the DC-side battery through the uncontrolled diode rectifier
and loses a great deal of energy as a reactive power. Therefore, many researches have been
done to reduce this reactive power in the power generation system.

3.11Time of Operation, Power Consumption, and Energy Efficiency

The power industry's earliest usage of energy storage technology dates back more than 150
years. There have been several breakthroughs in storage technologies, and their potential use
in grid-scale power systems is the subject of ongoing research [23]. The different energy
storage technologies and their potential short- and long-term applications are shown in Figure
3.13.

Fig. 3.13 The potential-functional timeline of energy-storage technologies

In Fig. 3.13, we see a comparison of several battery storage techniques based on their MW
power and MWh energy capacity. Yet mechanical storage systems remain at the forefront of
the race to increase power output and energy density. Recent advancements in battery
technology have cleared the path for these types of storage devices to become more
commonplace.

3.12 BESS Technology and Batteries

It's been well over a century since battery technology was first developed. However, only
rechargeable secondary batteries like those are employed in power grids. Battery technology
is growing in popularity for use in power systems because of its adaptability, speed,
responsiveness, and decreasing price/kWh [24]. Batteries are widely used in power systems
of all voltages [25]. Their use has the potential to provide operational flexibility and
environmentally beneficial outcomes

3.12.1 BESS Connection Diagrams

A BESS's basic layout is determined to a considerable part by the input voltage. A BESS may
consist of a DC/AC power conversion system and one or more battery banks (often parallel
stacks of batteries). In order to connect the BESS to the local power grid, a transformer may
be needed to reduce the BESS's output voltage. A bidirectional Voltage Source Converter
(VSC) [26, 27], current-source converter [28] is often used by BESS to both receive power
from and transmit power back to the grid; the kind of converter used depends largely on the
BESS's intended purpose. Some common BESS-PV configurations are shown in Figure 3.14.
All systems have their advantages and disadvantages. The DC/AC converter shown in Fig.
3.14(a) adds some expense to the overall system. Because BESS is connected in series with
the PCC, a separate and costly circuit protector is required. However, BESS shines brightest
as a storage device for grid service since it can be managed autonomously. By increasing the
battery voltage to the high DC-link voltage, as shown in Fig. 3.14(b), the intermediate DC-
DC inverter with BESS may be connected with a diverse array of DC-link voltages. When
using a block architecture like the one in Fig. 3.14(c), the DC-DC converter is superfluous.
To implement this scheme, the battery voltage and DC-link voltage must be same. Keeping
the battery and the grid in sync requires the DC-link voltage to vary as the battery's state-of-
charge (SOC) does.
Fig. 3.14 Common BESS configurations in photovoltaic-battery energy systems include: (a)
PV/BESS Connection through a stand-alone converter (b) DC Side DC/DC Converter Used
for BESS Connection (c) DC-side BESS connection with direct BESS connection

Similar components of a solar PV system, such as a battery bank, power conversion system,
and transformer (if needed), are used in a conventional BESS design for a wind farm. A
BESS at a wind farm is used to store the extra energy produced by the turbines for usage
during periods of low or no wind. In general, wind-BESS configurations are shown in Fig.
3.15 as schematics. The battery is connected in Figure 3.15(a) and (b) so that BESS may be
managed as a standalone storage system, and in Figure 3.15(c), the battery is attached so that
it can be utilised in combination with the DC-link.
Fig. 3.15 Typical BESS connections in a wind-based energy system are as follows: (a) BESS
with DC/AC converter (b) BPS with DC/DC and DC/AC converter (c) BESS connected to
wind turbine DC/DC converter on DC side

In a hybrid energy system, the batteries may be connected by either DC or AC buses,

depending on system requirements. The battery banks may be integrated either directly [27,
29] or indirectly [31–33] through a DC–DC power conversion system connected to a DC bus.
In addition, the AC bus may be connected to a battery bank that has a DC/AC power
conversion system as part of the BESS. A transformer may be installed either before or after
the local AC bus at the BESS output [34–37] or [38, 39] to facilitate connection to the grid. In
Figure 3.16, we see a few different PV-wind-BESS configurations.

Fig. 3.16 Connection of a BESS in a PV-wind-BESS energy system: (a) Linked to a shared
DC bus (b) Linked to a shared AC bus

3.12.2 Systems and Technologies for Transforming Electrical Energy

A power conversion system (PCS), an interface built on power electronics, is needed to
connect a storage system to regular home electricity. Since the DC terminal of PV may be
linked to the DC interface of battery storage systems, the two can be combined into a single
DC bus. However, with a wind farm terminal, it is not an option. Connecting a BESS to the
AC grid necessitates the use of PCS. PCS's high efficiency, fast reaction, and control design
instantly regulate active and reactive power, making it indispensable for today's grid
applications. The PCS [40] has two tiers of management: primary and secondary. The main
control generates gate drive signals for the power converter depending on the reference
charging mode and the present condition of the system. The secondary control takes in active
and reactive power instructions and determines the optimal mode of operation based on the
available resources and the current energy market.
 Most trivial primary control approach is:
 Proportional-Integral (PI) control.
 Secondary control determines the operation mode of the power converters.
Three frequent practices are:
 Charge mode
 Discharge mode
 Standby mode.

As shown in Fig. 3.17, the BESS is either charging (negative) or discharging (positive)
depending on the direction of the power flow. In a perfect world, the BESS wouldn't produce
any output at all. Due to battery self-discharge and converter losses, however, a genuine
power flow will occur in a BESS.

Fig. 3.17 various operation modes of BESS

The three most typical topologies for designing power conversion systems are-
1) Single stage converter (DC/AC)
2) Dual stage converter (DC/DC & DC/AC)
3) Single/dual stage multi-port converter (multiple DC/DC or DC/AC converters in
parallel).
The direct current (DC) from a battery is converted to alternating current (AC) in three
phases using a single-stage converter (DC/AC) [41]. Multiple batteries are connected in
parallel and/or series for high voltage/high power applications. Medium frequency
transformer isolation of the AC/AC converter with a BESS eliminates the need for DC-link
capacitors and allows for smaller grid filters [42]. Unfortunately, this increases the total
harmonic distortion of the output voltage since switching is not optimised. Since the battery
voltage changes depending on the battery's charge level, the DC-link voltage has a wide
operational range. In order to accommodate such broad voltage operating ranges,
semiconductors will need to undergo significant development. To maintain a constant DC bus
voltage regardless of the battery's charge level, a DC/DC converter is connected in series with
the battery and the DC/AC converter [43]. When compared to a non-isolated DC/DC
converter [44], an isolated bidirectional DC/DC converter [43] increases converter efficiency,
provides more efficient control of power flow, and reduces costs. The modular converter may
be cascaded to eliminate the requirement for a step-up transformer when connecting BESS to
the medium voltage grid. In a single-stage cascading H-bridge converter type connection
[45], each full bridge converter may govern the power flow to the battery modules. A reduced
number of battery modules with scattered battery strings may be used in each series-
connected cell. In a modular multilevel converter, lengthy strings of batteries may be
connected to a centralised DC-link through converter arms made up of submodules (SMs)
organised in series. However, the advantage of a cascaded design is reduced if batteries must
be linked at a centralised location [46]. Each SM of a dual-stage multi-port converter [47]
consists of a DC converter with battery and a DC/AC converter.
3.12.3 Quantities for Battery SOC Calculation
SOC is the measure of a battery's capacity to withstand repeated charging and discharging.
The following numerical quantities are used for battery SOC estimation:
 Cell/electrolyte Temperature
 Ambient temperature
 Ampere-hour counting
 Battery age
 Cell voltage
 Concentration of the electrolyte.
Due to the dependence on initial inaccuracy and cumulative noise in the voltage and current
measurements, the reliability of model-free methodologies for calculating a battery's SOC,
such as the Coulomb Counting Method [48] and the Open Circuit Voltage [49] methods, is
debatable. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) may be used to estimate SOC [50] using inputs
like battery voltage/current and ambient temperature. However, as RNN depends on training
to get its best results, it may not do so well on unknown data sets, and since it ignores the
battery's fundamental features, the inaccuracy could persist when calculating SOC. Instead,
model-based systems use a closed-loop system in which SOC error is continually adjusted for
by applying estimation techniques to the observed voltage, current, and temperature.

3.12.4 Battery Types

In general, there are two distinct battery technologies:
 Primary (non-rechargeable); and
 Secondary (rechargeable).
Since rechargeable batteries are the most refined method of storing energy as chemical
energy [57, 58], they are often favoured by power systems. To achieve the necessary voltage
and capacity, a battery consists of numerous electrochemical cells that are linked in series
and/or parallel [60]. There is a positive and negative electrode on each side of the electrolyte
in every cell [61, 62]. Rechargeable batteries are useful only if they undergo minimal
physical changes throughout the transfer from electrical to chemical energy (charge) and back
again (discharge) [63]. BESS is a popular option for enhancing the steady-state and dynamic
stability of power systems since secondary batteries may respond in milliseconds (s) [64].
The following are some important features and capabilities of batteries [61, 65] made for use
in electrical power systems.
 Power and energy capacity;
 Battery efficiency level;
 Battery life span;
 Battery temperature;
 State of charge (SOC);
 Depth of discharge (DOD);
 Battery self-discharge;
 Battery sizing;
 Operation and maintenance requirements.
Energy may be stored for anywhere between a few hours and a few months [62]. In the
sections that follow, we'll take a quick look at some of the many battery technologies [63, 66,
67] that are integrated into renewable energy systems.
3.12.4.1 Lead Acid
Lead-acid batteries have been the most sophisticated and commonly recognised rechargeable
battery technology since its practical application started in 1860. The positive electrode in a
lead-acid cell is formed of lead oxide, while the negative electrode is constructed of sponge
lead; the two are separated by a micro-porous substance, as shown in Fig. 3.18 [21]. Its poor
efficiency (70-90 percent) and short life cycle (5-15 years) [62, 68] prevent its widespread
usage as a storage medium. Two common types of lead-acid batteries are the flooded battery
and the valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) [69] battery.

Fig. 3.18 Components of a lead-acid battery [21], Licensed under CC BY 4.0

3.12.4.2 Lithium-Ion (Li-ion)

After 50 years of development, Li-ion batteries are commonplace in hybrid electric cars, also
known as Plug-in hybrid vehicles, and power grids [70]. Lithium-ion batteries have an anode
made of lithiated graphite or Lititanate and a cathode made of Li metal oxide or Li metal
phosphate, which are separated by an electrolyte made of lithium salts, as illustrated in Fig.
3.17 [21, 71]. The near-perfect efficiency [62, 68] of this technology makes it appealing for
use in the flourishing 3Cs (computer, communication, consumer) market. The high cost of
replacement batteries is a significant disadvantage of Li-ion. Orthorhombic olivine is the
result of slightly distorted O2 atoms in lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) [72]. Less energy is
produced, but less heat is also produced [73]. LiFePO4 is quite useful for electric vehicles
[74]. Lithium-ion polymer batteries employ microporous poly-olefin for electrode isolation
[75]. These batteries are becoming more common in the renewable energy and EV industries
thanks to their higher power and energy densities and lower memory effect [75].

Fig. 3.17 Components of a Li-ion battery [21], Licensed under CC BY 4.0

3.13 Integration of Battery Energy Storage Systems
BESS have been used in the electrical grid for decades. As intermittent RES become more
commonplace in the electricity grid, battery energy storage systems (BESS) are rising in
importance. BESS may improve the reliability and provide operational flexibility of a
wind/PV farm. Due to their synergistic nature, hybrid systems that include solar photovoltaics
(PV) and wind energy have seen rapid growth in popularity in recent years. Despite the
numerous benefits of a networked system, a hybrid islanded system need a reliable source of
backup power in order to function properly. In this section, we examine and synthesise the
results of prior research on the integration of photovoltaic (PV), wind, and hybrid (PV-wind)
BESS configurations into centralised power generation systems.
3.13.1 Output Power Smoothing with BESS

The primary factors that affect PV output are the amount of available sunlight, the
surrounding temperature, the temperature of the panels themselves, the presence or absence
of clouds, and the other operating parameters. Consistently feeding PV-generated power into
the grid is an important long-term aim that can be achieved [38]. However, rapid charging
and discharging might reduce the battery life. Using batteries as part of an energy
management strategy allows for power to be purchased and traded between individual
households and the grid [39]. This, however, does nothing to reduce the peak-to-mean ratio
(PMR), hence in [59], an optimal energy management approach is presented to bring the
PMR down to a level that is compatible with the varied sizes of the integrated batteries.
 Fig. 3.26 PV output smoothing with BESS

Batteries provide the most reliable means of power levelling in the face of variable wind
speeds. Whether or whether the battery can maintain a constant power output for the
necessary time period is directly related to its state of charge (SOC). Overcharging and
discharging are avoided along with providing a smoothing service for fluctuations using the
SOC feedback technique described in [42]. To keep everything functioning smoothly, a
battery storage system coupled with a wind power system may be necessary [38]. By keeping
economic expense proportionate to performance, BESS is a cost-effective solution for wind
farm operators, as shown in [58], which provides an optimally scaled and fuzzy controlled
charging/discharging strategy for BESS. Controlled charging and draining of several battery
packs has been shown to increase battery life by 93, but this method has to be field-tested
before it can be widely used. By integrating a discrete Kalman filter to remove bias errors and
estimate the true power of PV and wind, we are able to reduce the amount of BESS power
required to offer a smoothing service [44]. By taking into account the battery's SOH,
coordinated regulation of power output has the potential to smooth out output and promote
battery health [45].

3.14 Voltage Balancing

It is common practise to connect many super-capacitors in series and parallel to make a
module that can handle greater operating voltages. The maximum power output of the bank is
determined by the DC voltage, energy capacity, and total ESR value of this component.
However, depending on their capacitance, the voltage of individual cells will vary. Cells
having a lower capacitance will be subjected to greater voltages, while those with a larger
capacitance will be subjected to lower voltages. This is due to the fact that the capacitance
and charging current of each cell are directly proportional to the resulting voltage. As a result
of these irregular and unequal capacitances, the following may occur:
 Tolerances of 5 - 10%.
 Temperature gradient in the system.
 Cell ageing

This may produce overvoltage, which can reduce the life of some super-capacitors. Since the
other super-capacitors can't reach as high of a voltage as the one can, they can't store as much
energy. However, capacitors with a smaller capacitance need less time to reach their
maximum voltage. To prevent the smaller capacitor from being damaged, voltage
equalisation circuits are used.
3.14.1 Voltage Balancing Type
Cell balancing in super-capacitor modules may be accomplished in two basic ways: passively
and actively.
1. There are two broad categories to which passive balancing methods belong:
a) To simply equalise the stacks, resistance may be connected in series with
each super-capacitor by using a bypass resistor. As the cell voltage
decreases, more current is sent to the resistor since the current drawn by
the resistors is inversely proportional to the cell voltage. Since the parallel
resistors will drain the higher voltage cells even more, the voltage swings
between the cells inside the stack will be reduced. The power is lost as
additional resistive losses, and the approach cannot regulate the current
used by the resistors. As a result, cell voltages are poorly regulated, and
the overall efficiency of the system suffers [8].
b) One kind of balancing circuit uses switched resistors to prevent excessive
power loss due to equalisation resistors. The switch becomes active when
the cell voltage increases over the predetermined threshold and becomes
inactive when the voltage decreases below the predetermined level.
Compared to the previously outlined strategy, this alternative is much
more efficient [47].
 c) To keep the voltage from becoming too high after the super-capacitor is
completely charged, we may connect a Zener diode across it in parallel.
When the voltage is just right, diodes open and redirect the charging
current. Shunt circuitry, as opposed to the conventional way, kicks in only
when the cell voltage beyond the pre-set breakdown threshold, drastically
cutting down on wasted energy. However, Zener diodes are sensitive to
temperature, therefore this approach is faulty [48].
Passive balancing is most effective for low power applications or low current charge /
discharge rates since it reduces energy loss and maximises cell performance.
2. Active balancing is summarised in Figure 3.22. That uses voltage regulation based
on the buck-boost topology. If transistor T1 detects that voltage Uc1 is much
greater than voltage Uc2, it will flip at a fixed frequency to provide a positive
equalising current, 2Ieq. If Uc2 is greater than Uc1, T2 will 80-switch to provide a
negative equalising current. It is necessary to perform this process many times
until the voltage is steady.

Fig. 3.22: Active Balancing [14]

3.15 Perturb & Observe Algorithm

The Perturb & Observe technique states that we are progressing towards the Maximum
Power Point (MPP) if a little change in operating voltage of the PV panel results in a positive
change in power (P). If P is negative, then we are travelling anticlockwise with respect to
MPP, and the provided perturbation must also be anticlockwise.
 Figure 3.23 : Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B [16]

Figure 3.23 depicts the relationship between the module's output power and the module
voltage for a solar panel under constant irradiation. A photovoltaic panel's Maximum Power
Point (MPP) is its theoretical maximum output. Let's say you want to go between points A
and B. According to Figure 31, point A may be found on the left side of the MPP. Therefore,
it's possible to go closer to the MPP if we apply a positive voltage perturbation. Instead, you
should go to the MPP's right to reach Point B. Since P becomes negative under a positive
perturbation, altering the direction of the perturbation to achieve MPP is required. The P&O
procedure is shown in Figure 3.24, which is a flowchart.
 Figure 3.24 : Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm
3.15.1 Limitations of Perturb & Observe algorithm

Figure 3.25 : P&O algorithm's incorrect MPP tracking under rapidly changing irradiance, as
seen by the curve [16].
When there is a rapid change in irradiance, the MPP moves to the right of the curve. The
algorithm recognises this as a result of perturbation, as seen in the figure, and adjusts the
direction of the perturbation in the next iteration, gradually increasing its distance from the
MPP. Since we only require one sensor—the voltage sensor—to measure the power
generated by the PV array, the implementation cost is minimised and the approach is
straightforward. Although it is quite close to the minimum perturbable point (MPP), this
method still perturbs in both directions, despite its low time complexity. Using a wait
function or setting a suitable error limit would both raise the algorithm's time complexity now
that it's so close to the MPP.