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Possible Risk Reduction Measures – cont’d Selection of design flood

Flood Control Prio r to select ion of flood control measures, it’s necessary to know the maximum flood likely to
• Decreasing the amount of runoff with the help of reforestation, protection of veget ation, occur and to select a suitable design flood for a flood control project.
clearing of debris from streams and other water holding areas, conservation of ponds and The design flood may be:
lakes etc.
 Maximum probable flood (MPF)
• Flood Diversion include levees, embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can It is the flood that may be expected from the most severe combinations of
store water and can release water at a manageable rate. Flood Proofing reduces the risk of meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible in that region. This is
damage. done with the use of hydrographs for small and medium size catchment while frequency analysis
Flood Management of past floods for the large catchment
• Systematic planning for flood management e.g. launching of National Programme of Flood  Standard project flood (SPF)
Management. It’s the flood that may be expected from the most severe combinations of
• Structural measures include, storage reservoirs flood embankments, drainage channels, anti- meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably characteristics of the region. It’s
erosion works, channel improvement works, detention basins etc. and estimated from unit hydrograph. It is usually about 50-60% of MPF
• non-structural measures include flood forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing,  A flood corresponding to a desired frequency of its occurrence. This is often depend on the
disaster preparedness etc. economic factors and other practical applications
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Dr SHOLA Abdulkadir

Methods for Estimation of Design Flood Procedures for Design of Flood Control Projects
The available methods for the estimation of design flood are as  Estimate the project design flood and determine flood characteristics of the area
follows:  Identify the areas to be protected by the project
 Conduct a field survey to determine the potential flood damage
 Maximum observed flood method  Identify suitable methods of flood control
 Empirical flood formulae  Select suitable sites for different works and determine the physical characteristics of the
 Enveloping curves sites
 Design the flood control works for different alternatives of flood control measures so
 Unit hydrograph
that the cost estimate may be made
 Frequency analysis  Select the flood control measures or combination of the methods
 Perform the economic analysis of the benefits and cost
 Write the project report giving the details of the possibilities explored and
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recommended measures
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Assignment 1
 With the aid of pictures/sketches, discuss the following methods
of channel improvement:
- Increasing the channel section
CHAPTER 3
- Realignment of the river
- Increasing velocity in the river Deterministic Methods
Deterministic methods [7ch]
 Submission TBD by class members: Rainf all runof f relationships
Hy drographs
Unit hy drograph
Rational method
29 Dr SHOLA Abdulkadir 30 Dr SHOLA Abdulkadir Time area method

DETERMINISTIC Vs STOCHASTIC PEAK FLOW ESTIMATION

A model is deterministic if its behavior is entirely predictable. Deterministic models
have a known set of inputs which will produce an unique set of outputs
Stochastic generally implies that uncertainty about outcomes is quanti fied in terms
of probabilities. A model is stochastic if it has random vari ables as inputs, and
consequently also its outputs are random.
Since outputs are random, they can be consider ed only as estimat es of the true
characteristics of a model.
The methods for estimating runoff can be grouped into two broad categories:
Direct and Indirect methods.
Direct methods consist of measurem ents whil e indirect m ethods consist of us e o f
equations to derive runoff. This section will focus on indirect methods for estim ation
of peak runoff (sometimes referred to as flood flow).
The hydrograph of extrem e runoff corres ponding to peak flo w provide valuable dat a
for purpos es of hydrologi c design. Methods for estimating the magnitud e of peak
flow include:

Stochastic models are the opposite of deterministic; the model pres ents data and 1. Rational formula
predicts outcomes that account for certain levels of unpredictability or randomness 2. Empirical methods
3. SCS curve number method
4. Unit hydrograph technique, etc.
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Rational Method Intensity of rainfall

The intensity of rain fall e mployed in the rational method is equal to the design intensity or
Rational Method is probably the oldest runoff estimation method and remains very critical intensity of rain fall, i c , corr esponding to the time o f concentration, t c , for the catch ment
popular in urban drainage design. It is given as: for a given recurrence interval, T.

The design intensity of rainfall, i c , can be found fro m the intensity-duration frequency curves,
for the catchment corresponding to t c and T.

If the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves, a re not available for the catch ment the critical
rainfall intensity can be determined from total precipitation, P, and its duration, t R .

Consider a rainfall P falling lasting for a period, t R . The rainfall intensity is calculated as:

The components of Rational Method i.e., rainfall intensity (i), and runoff coefficient (C) are
discussed as follows:
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2.1.2 Time of concentration

where, The design rainfall that is used in the rational method is the one with duration equal to the
C is a constant. The v alue of C is equal to 1 except f or extreme cases. watershed’s time o f concentration, t c . The time o f concentration is the time required for water to
Thus:
travel fro m the hydrologically most re mote point of the basin to the outlet or point of interest. It is
therefore the a mount of ti me fro m the beginning if a r ainfall event until the entire catch ment ar ea
is contributing to flow at the outlet.
Substituting for the value of I yields:
The time of concentration is sum of overland flow and channel flow times. Thus:

Thus, if IDF curve is not available, then the critical rainfall intensity, The Kirpich equation is popularly used empirical formula relating the time of concentration to the
i c , can be computed for a time t = t c . Hence: length of travel and slope of the catchment as:

When the time of concentration, t c , is not known, i c , can be approximated as:

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2.1.3 Runoff coefficient
It is the fraction o f total rain fall conv ert ed into runoff in a watershed. In oth er terms it
is the ratio of Runoff depth and total rainfall dept h. Its value is dimensionless vari es
from 0 to maximum of 1, in which 0 is for soils having very high rate o f infiltration,
i.e. there is no excess rainwater available for generating runoff from the surface.
The value of runoff coeffi cient for sandy soil may be approaching 1.0 at the beginning
of rainfall occurrence when total rain water is likely to get infiltrated into the soil.
The runoff coeffi cient value of about 1.0, may be for concrete or any hard form ation
in which the infiltration of rainwater is about to zero.
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Table 2.1.3.1 gives the runoff coefficients for rational method.
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2.1.3 Runoff coefficient
The runo ff coeffi cient, C, is a function of g round cov er. Some t ables of C provide for
vari ation due to slope, soil, and the return period of the design discharge. If a watershed
contain varying amounts of different landcovers, a weight ed runoff coeffici ent for the
entire basin can be determined as:
=
where, Ci is the runoff coefficient for cover type i that covers area A i and A is the total area.
Table 2.1.3.1 gives the runoff coefficients for rational method.
Substituting the weighted C into the rational formula yields:
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The rational method has the following limitations or assumptions:
1. Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.
2. The method assumes that the rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire watershed.
3. Applicable when TOC of watershed is at least equal to or greater than the duration
of peak rainfall intensity.
4. The calculated runoff is directly proportional to the rainfall intensity.
5. The frequency of occurrence for the peak discharge is the same as the frequency of
the rainfall producing that event.
6. The minimum duration to be used for computation of rainfall intensity is 10 minutes.
7. The rational method does not count for storage in the drainage area. Available
storage is assumed to be filled.
8. When basins become complex, and where sub-basins combine, the rational formula
tend to overestimate the peak flow.
These assumptions are true only for small watersheds and time periods, thus limiting the
use of the
Dr SHOLA formula to small watersheds.
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Example 2.1 Example 2.2

The catchment area of a riv er is 1,200 hectares. The hy drological len gth of the
catchment is 24 km. The f all in lev el f rom the critical point to the outlet is 16 8 m. A An urban catchment of area 300 hectares consists Solution
sev erest storm y ielded 20 cm of rain in 5 hou rs. If the av erage runoff coeff icient f or the of different surface cover as shown in the table Overall runoff coefficient is calculated as:
catchment is 0.4 and Kirpich equation a pplies, use the rational metho d to estimate peak below:
runof f of the catchment.
Solution
Peak runoff, Qp , can be estimated as:

The intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h for rain with

duration equal to the time of concentration.
Determine the peak runoff.
Therefore, the peak runoff is computed as:
The time of concentration (min) can be estimated using
Kirpich equation as:
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Example 2.3 CLASS WORK

An urban catchment has an area of 85ha. The
slope of the catchment is 0.006 and the
maximum length of travel of water is 950m. The
maximum depth of rainf all with a 25-year return
period is as shown in the table below:
The rainf all intensity is derived from the
rainf all depth at the time of concentration.
Problem (5)- For a watershed of varying land use systems, soils and topography,
The time of concentration is estimated
using Kirpich formula: determine the (i) weighted runoff coefficient, (ii) TOC, (iii) peak runoff rate.
The requisite details are outlined as follows:

(i) Length of longest water course =1500m

If a culvert for drainage at the outlet of this area is to (ii) Average longitudinal slope of water course=2.5% .
be designed for a return period of 25 years, use the
rational method to estimate the required peak-flow
(iii) Rainfall depth =5.0cm
rate, assuming a runoff coefficient of 0.3.
Use Kirpch equation where necessary
Solution
The rational method is stated as:

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The curve number depends on the hydrologi c soil
group and a land use. SCS developed a soil
classi fi cation system that consists o f four gr ou ps,
which are identified by the letters A, B, C, and D.
Soil characteristics that are asso ciated with each group
are as follows:
Group A: they have low runoff potenti al and high
infiltration rate whe n wetted. They include deep sand,
deep loess; aggregated silts
Group B: shallow loess; sandy loam
Group C: clay loams; shallow s andy loam; soils low
in organic content; soils usually high in clay
Group D: they have high runoff potential. They
include soils that swell s ignificantly whe n wet; heavy
plastic clays; certain saline soils.
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2.2 SCS Peak Discharge Method
2.2.1 Runoff Depth Estimation
In dev eloping the SCS rainf all-runoff relationship, the total rainf all is separated into three
components: direct runof f (Q), actual retention (F), and the initial abstraction (I a).
The retention F is assume d to be a f unction of the depths of rainf all, runoff and the initial
abstraction. The dev elopment of the equation y ields:
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CN Values for Urban Land-Uses is based on a specific percentage of imperviousness.
For example, the CN values for commercial and business land use are based on an
imperv iousness of 85 percent.
Curve numbers for other percentages of imperviousness can be computed using a CN of 98
used for the impervious areas and the CN for open space (good condition) used for the pervious
portion of the area. Thus, CN values of 39, 61, 74, and 80 are used f or hydrologic soil groups A,
B, C, and D, respectively. These are the same CN values for pasture in good condition.
Thus, the following equation can be used to compute a CN for a specific percentage of
imperv iousness:
CNu = CNp (1 - f ) + f (98)
where, CNu = curv e number for urban landuse
CNp = curv e number for pervious portion of the area and
f = f raction of imperviousness.
For instance, the CN values for commercial and business areas with 85 percent imperviousness can be
calculated as:
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SCS curv e number for urban areas
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The pond fac tor accounts for pond and swamp storage
within the watershed. T he factor is selected from Table
2.2.2.1 based on percentage of ponds and swamps.
The unit peak discharge is obtained from the time of
concentration (tc ) in hours and the initial
abstraction/rainfall (Ia/P) ratio as:
where,
Co, C1, and C2 are regression coefficients
α = unit conversion constant = 0.000431 in SI units
and t = time of concentration (hrs)
c
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2.2.2 Peak Discharge Estimation
Once the runoff depth has been determined, the peak discharge may be estimated using the rational
or the SCS method. If the rational method is employed, the rainfall intensity is calculated from the
excess rainfall depth, Qsurf , and time of concentration, tc . Thus:
where,
Q p = peak runoff rate (m 3/s)
Q surf = surface runoff depth (mm)
A = catchment area (km2) and
Rational method
t c = time of concentration (hr).
The peak discharge can be computed with the SCS method as:
where,
Q p = peak discharge (m 3/s)
q u = unit peak discharge (m 3/s/km 2/mm)
A = drainage area (km 2) SCS method
Q surf = depth of runoff (mm)
F p = pond factor.
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The regression c oefficients Co, C1, and C2 are
determined from Table 2.2. 2.2 for various
rainfall types and Ia /P ratios.
This is done by first determining the SCS
type that best describes the maximum
precipitation event in the desired basin. To
represent various regions of the United
States, NRCS developed four synthetic 24-
hour rainfall distributions (I, IA, II, and III).
Type IA is the least intens e and type II the
most intense short duration rainfall. Types I
and IA represent the Pacific maritime climate
with wet winters and dry summers. Type III
represents Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic
coastal areas where tropical storms bring
large 24-hour rainfall amounts. Type II
represents the rest of the US. For regions
outside the US, the rainfall ty pe that best
suits the region is selected.
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Example 1 Example 2.2.1

Determine the runoff depth in response to a giv en rainfall of 15cm from the w atershed of
500ha area. Take lev el of initial abstraction as 1.5cm.
An urban wate rshed with a draina ge area of 5.18 km 2 has a 6.0-hr time of
concentration; CN of 75 and 5 perce nt of the area is ponded. The 25-y ear, 24- hr rai n
is 152.4 mm. Find the 25-y ear peak discharge. Assume ty pe II rainf all distribution.
Solution
Excess rainfall depth is calculated as:

The retention parameter, S, is estimated as:

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From Table 2.2.2, the factors for unit peak discharge are found by interpolation. Thus:

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