Introduction To Mechanical Micro Machining Nptel

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL MICRO MACHINING
Introduction
Ajay M. Sidpara
Mechanical Engineering Department
IIT KHARAGPUR
MoldMaking Technology Kern Precision Inc. microlution-inc
1
Content
 Introduction
 Scaling laws
 Difference between macro and micro machining
Process mechanics, machine components, structure, operating, ………
 Micro tools fabrication

 Micro machines
 Diamond turning (process, mechanism, applications,……)
Ajay Sidpara
Mechanical Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR 2
References
 Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications by Cheng & Huo, Wiley.
 Precision manufacturing by Dornfeld and Lee, Springer.
 Introduction to Micromachining by Jain, Narosa Publication.
 Websites: https://www.mmsonline.com/ https://www.ctemag.com/
https://www.productionmachining.com/
 Journal papers, product brochure,…………
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Why Miniaturization???
1 2 3 4 5 6
Less materials Low Lightness Increase of Cost / Faster
consumption energy for and accuracy and performance devices
during device portability sensitivity advantages
manufacturing excitation
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Trend of Miniaturization
Make systems and How?? • Drastically increase sensory data
devices more intelligent • Sensors can be accommodated in
and autonomous small areas
condition
Cost & energy
consumption should not
exceed acceptable limits.
microbotmedical Proto X fujikura
Ghosh A (2011) Scaling Laws, in Mechanics Over Micro and Nano Scales, Springer Science
http://www.micromanufacturing.net/didactico/Desarollo/micromilling/1-6-micromilling-applications
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Basic Concepts in Machining
 A machine tool is a kinematic manipulator with various
degrees of freedom.
• It carries cutting tool and workpiece.
• Revolute joints  spindle
• Prismatic joints  linear slide
• Structural elements (links) connect joints,
actuators, and sensors.
Lasemi et al. (2016)
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2-3.htm (NSF funded)
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• From a kinematic viewpoint, only one function of a machine tool
 Accurately and repeatedly control the point of contact between the cutting
tool and the workpiece (machining interface).
• All other functions and structure of
the machine tool serve the purpose
of maintaining this interface.
Conventional lathe CNC turning center

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• All machine tools are subject to
errors due to
 Forces generated by machining
 Weight of the structural
elements themselves.
http://readingrat.net
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Applications
 Biomedical / BioMEMS: microlution
Microtools for surgery,

Tissue removal tools Dental brackets MTD Micro Molding Bone plate, Ti
molds for medical components
lab-on-chip,
dental bracket,………..
Micro parts for biomedical applications

Cowley & Woodward, Platinum Metals Rev., 2011 lab-on-chip
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Applications
 Watchmaker and jewellery
Watch base plates, molds for rings and pendants, etc.
Watch base plate Pendant mould
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Applications
 Automotive
Injection nozzles
Molds for different components,…
moldmakingtechnology
Injection nozzles for diesel
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Applications
 Aerospace
Miniature devices for rockets
KU, Leuven
micro turbine,…… Ti-6Al-4V compressor Mixing disc of a
rocket motor
Datron microlution microlution

EDM electrode Micro impeller, SS
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Applications
 Telecommunications & Information technology
Chip manufacturing
Ultra light, thin laptop, mobile,….
Image:conceptdraw
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Applications
 Others
Components for measuring devices
Molds and electrodes for toy industry
Shadow mask Setting screw for micrometer
X-ray lithography masks,…….. http://nano3.calit2.net
Micro molds for toys

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Classification
Micromanufacturing
Subtractive Additive Mass containing Joining

CVD Forming Welding
Traditional Advanced PVD Casting Soldering
LIGA Molding….. Bonding…..
Milling EDM 3D printing…..
Turning ECM
Drilling LBM
IBM…..
Jain et al. (2013) Introduction in Micromanufacturing Processes, Ed. V. K. Jain, CRC Press, USA.
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Classification
Micromanufacturing
MEMS (lithography based) Non - MEMS (non-lithography based)
LIGA Micro
Lithography Micro
Micro laser extrusion
(photo, x-ray, ion) Plating mechanical
- Cutting
cutting Micro
Chemical - Drilling
embossing Micro
etching Milling injection
Turning Drilling molding
Piljek et al., (2014) Micromachining – review of Literature from 1980 to 2010, Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems 12(1), 1-27
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Classification
Handling,
Mounting,
Metrology,
Quality control,
…………..
Brinksmeier et al. (2001), Machining of precision parts and microstructures, 10th Int. Conf. on Precision Engineering (ICPE), Japan, 2001
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MEMS vs. Mechanical micro machining
MEMS based process Mechanical micro machining
Workpiece materials Silicon and some metals Metals, alloys, composite, polymer,…
Component geometry Planer or 2.5 D Complex 3D
Image: Sandia Lab

Sawada et al. (1998) CIRP conf.
Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY
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Relative accuracy 10-1 – 10-3 10-2 – 10-5

Piljek et al. (2014)
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Production rate High Low
allegromicro
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Process control Feed forward Feedback
Initial investment High Moderate or low
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Mechanical micro machining vs. Ultra precision
machining
Mechanical micro machining Ultra precision machining
Processes Milling, Turning, drilling, … Diamond turning, fly cutting, …
Prof. Rehman,
NUS niprooptics
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machining
Tools Various tool materials (coated Natural diamond tools

& uncoated)
HSS, WC, CBN, Diamond, ….
MMC Hitachi
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machining
Component size 1 – 1000 µm 1 mm to very large
opticalsystems niprooptics
Cowley & Woodward, Platinum Metals Rev., 2011
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machining
Relative accuracy 10-2 – 10-5 10-5 – 10-6
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machining
Surface finish < 100 nm Ra < 20 nm Ra
Ding et al. (2011) ASME opticalsystems
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Mechanical micro machining
Strong interest in fabricating
micro-meso-scale components
Bridging the macro-domain and the

nano- and micro-domains (lithography)
for functional components
Complex microstructures on the

variety of materials, interfaces and
functional shapes.
Chae et al. (2006) Investigation of micro-cutting operations, IJMTM.
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Operator’s skill and sensing in micro machining
 Machining skill has a different meaning in Micromachining
domain
Skills based on human hands and human senses can’t assist the process the
way they do in “macro” realm.
moldmakingtechnology
Modern Machine Shop - Article Post: 4/6/2009 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/too-small-to-touch
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Operator’s skill and sensing in micro machining
Macro machining Micro machining
– Manual skills are very valuable. – Can’t benefit from that kind of
– Detection a problem by hearing. human element.
– It is possible to correct the setup. – Too small scale
– No change in the sound of the cut
– Any deviation in the dimensions of
the setup is probably too fine for
any human tweak.
Modern Machine Shop - Article Post: 4/6/2009 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/too-small-to-touch
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Things to remember in micro machining
Procedures for setup, tool-length setting, and other steps are different.
Formulas for machining parameters, rules of thumb and expectations that
apply in the average shop often do not apply here.
Successful results are never guaranteed.
Predicting how cutting tools will perform is often impossible.
Sometime, several sets of blocks need to be machined to yield one acceptable
component.
Article Post: 4/12/2007 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/cutting-with-a-0001-inch-end-mill
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Habits for achieving good results
Cross check:
Review every step of each procedure to be sure it has been conducted properly.
Everything is important; no detail can be neglected
Cleanliness:
Every time a tool assembly or setup is taken apart, each component gets an
alcohol wipe before being put back together.
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Machine calibration:
Calibrate the machine at least once every six months.
Adjustment or realignment reduces deviation from the desired dimensions.
Spread the work around:
Don’t leave heavy vises or clamping fixtures where the machine has an
overhang.
Jobs should be setup at different spots on the table to avoid concentrating wear
in one part of a machine’s work zone.
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Maintain logbook and documents:
Note down important observation and information of the machining operation.
Test  Inspect  Analyze  Adjust.
Learn from every critical machining operation.
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Scaling laws
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Why scaling laws??
Demand of miniature and compact products with increasing functionality is
increasing.
Individual components should

be reduced in size and packed. pantechsolutions gtechmini.wordpress
Some system cannot be scaled down favorably and some cannot at all.
Scaling laws become important to understand the behavior of structures or
systems when miniaturized.
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Different types of scale reduction of a system
Same size
more components
Small size
same components
Small size 294 × 220 × 328 mm3

more components Bang et al. (2005)
As the scale of the system reduces, different phenomena / parameters become

significant at different scale and others become less effective.
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Scaling laws
At small scale:
Less effective  Gravitational, inertial forces become less effective
More effective  Van der Waals forces, electrostatic forces, surface tension
The scaling laws are proportionality relations of any parameter associated with an
object (or system) with its length scale.
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Types of scaling law
1. related to the scaling of physical size of objects
Geometry
2. related to the scaling of a phenomenological behavior of an object/machine
Physical size and material characterization
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Scaling factor
Scaling of various parameters
Knowing the scaling of a physical phenomenon

as a power of l, guides our understanding of
how to design small mechanical systems.
…………
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Surface area to volume
Generally, smaller things are
• less effected by volume dependent phenomena such as mass and inertia, and
• more effected by surface area dependent phenomena such as contact forces or
heat transfer.
• Main driver: scaling of the surface area to volume ratio
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Example: Surface to volume ratio
Surface Area (S) = 6a2 and Volume (V) = a3
For a = 10  S = 600 and V = 1000  S / V ratio = 0.6
For a = 0.1  S = 0.06 and V = 0.001  S / V ratio = 60
S/V difference is 100 !!!
What is the significance?
The small cube has 100 times more
• Heat storage  volume
heat dissipation per unit volume.
• Heat dissipation  surface area
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Example: Weight vs. surface tension
When a glass full of
water is overturned
the water gets spilled
The force due to surface
Water confined to a Why
??
tension becomes predominant
capillary tube does not at very small scales.
come out even when the
tube is upturned.
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Example: Weight vs. surface tension
As animal becomes smaller, weight decreases ϒ = coefficient of S.T.

P = wet perimeter
more rapidly than surface tension.
At Surface tension ϒ ~ 72 mN/m (water)

A bug (10 mg) needs 1 mm of foot edge to walk on water
A human (60 kg) would need feet with 8000 m to walk on water
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Example: weight vs. surface area Drag = (1/2) Cρ AV 2 ∝ l 2
At macroscopic scale  the weight of an object is
predominant and it falls down under the influence of
gravity.
Weight = mg ∝ l 3
At microscopic scale  when the same object
becomes relatively insignificant compared to air C = drag coefficient,
ρ = air density,
friction (drag).
V = velocity,
A = frontal areal
Claiborne ray
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Example: Strength to weight
Critical bulking strength of an Euler column (ignoring end conditions):
Pcr = π 2 Eb 4 /12L2 ∝ l 2 E = Young’s modulus
I = section modulus = b4/12
Weight of the load
Strength 2 3 −1
When then dimension of the column and weight shrink linearly = l /l =l
Weight
For a 100 times linear reduction in size, the structure gets 100 times stronger.
A small insect can survive a drop onto its legs from a height many times the size
of the insect and large animals can not.
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap1/ch1-2-1.htm (NSF funded)
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Example: Scaling effect on spring constant (k)
Max. deflection occurs in a square beam at the end:
δ = ( FL3 ) / 3EI I = section modulus = b4/12
Stiffness of the beam =k F /δ ∝ l
Smaller the beam  the smaller k more flexible
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Example: Stiffness of beam under selfweight
Max. deflection occurs in a square beam at the end:
δ = ( FL3 ) / 3EI I = section modulus = b4/12
F is the weight of the beam (W)
δ (WL3 ) / 3EI ∝ l 2
k = F /δ
Smaller beams behave stiffer than the larger ones
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Example: Strength of a cantilever beam
Max. bending stress occurs in a square beam at the constraint:
σ = My / I I = section modulus = b4/12

y = b/2
σ = 12( FL)b / 2b 4
A shrinking of 10 causes a 100-fold increase in the induced stress.

if the induced stress is to remain the same  the force acting on the beam
must decrease as the square of the characteristic dimension.
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Example: Flow rate of a fluid
Rate of volumetric flow of the fluid is (Hagen-Poiseuille law)
Q (π a ∆P) / (8µ L)
= 4
10 times reduction in radius will lead to a 10000

time reduction in volumetric flow.
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Example: Pressure drop in a pipe
The pressure drop ΔP over the length L (Hagen-Poiseuille law)
∆P =(8µVavg L) / a 2
10 times reduction in conduit radius leads 100 times increase in pressure drop
per unit length.
Pressure-driven pumping becomes very difficult
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Difference between Macro and Micro machining
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Size effect in Micro cutting
Strain / inhomogeneties
Strain rate
Temperature
Strain gradient
Ploughing
Sub surface
Fracture flow
Subbiah and Melkote (2006) J. Eng. Mater. Technol 129(2), 321-331
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Merchant theory for macro machining
Cutting edge is perfectly sharp
No contact between the cutting tool and
workpiece material along the clearance face.
Material is rigid and perfectly plastic
No side spread of chip (material)
Material is predominantly removed by the mechanical shear force due to the

interaction between the sharp tool and workpiece and thereby forming a chip.
Aramcharoen and Mativenga, Size effect and tool geometry in micromilling of tool steel, Precision Engineering
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Merchant theory for micro machining ??
Radius of the cutting edge is significant compared to uncut chip thickness.
Grain size is comparable to the Undeformed chip thickness
Rounded cutting edge attempts to fracture a single grain
Undeformed chip thickness is very small
• Negative effective rake angle prevails
• Multiple material phases exist
Bissacco et al., Micromilling of hardened tool steel for mould making applications, Journal of MPT 167 (2005) 201–207
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Influence of size effect
The fundamental process mechanisms between macro- and micro cutting can be
different due to the substantial size reduction. Chip
The size effect has influence on Fc
• cutting force Ft Work
• chip thickness Small uncut chip thickness 
• chip formation low cutting temperature 
• quality of machined surface high shear yield strength of workpiece 

high friction coefficient
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Ajay M. Sidpara
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Grain size to chip thickness
Shear deformation occurs within a single grain
Stresses applied to the tool are dependent on
individual grain orientation
• High frequency fluctuations of cutting forces
• Instability and tool breakage
Bissacco et al., Journal of MPT 167 (2005) 201–207 // Bregliozzi et al., Wear 258 (2005) 503–510
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Uncut chip thickness vs. cutting edge radius
In normal scale machining uncut chip thickness is
many times larger than the cutting edge radius of the
tool.
In micro scale  proportionately just as large  the
cutting force would easily exceed the bending
strength of the tool.
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Uncut chip thickness vs. cutting edge radius
Chip thickness smaller than the edge radius 
large negative rake 
increases the amount of cutting force during chip generation
it exaggerates the need for a smaller chip 
resulting chip load is light 
low productivity.
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Material flow angle of four distinct mechanisms
1. Material adjacent to the tool edge radius is compressed, displaced
Shearing upward and removed as chip by the tool feeding motion.
Tool edge acts as a strong source of dislocations for -α

producing fine cracks near the separation point S and
initiates the primary shearing process.
Uncut chip thickness <=

Rahman et al. (2017) International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 115, 15–28 cutting edge radius
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1. Material ahead of the tool edge is pushed in the direction of tool
Shearing motion.
A shear band is developed joining the top of the tool

-α
and the surface of the work material.
A narrow zone of shear originates at the location of the
tool tip and separates the chip.
Uncut chip thickness <=

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2. Further reducing hc to R  there exists a critical threshold of hc to R.
Extrusion • Material is extruded at tool edge rather than shearing
deformation.
-α
Similar to Grinding  Plastic deformation zone is
created beneath the machined surface until a
critical stress condition is reached where chip is
produced through micro-extrusion mechanism.
Uncut chip thickness <<
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2. An abrupt change of the material deformation with the material flow
Extrusion in the opposing direction of tool feed.
A small amount of materials escapes as chip.
The remaining deformed materials is compressed -α
by the lower portion of the rounded edge at E.
These materials will be compacted back into the
bulk material to form the machined surface.
Uncut chip thickness <<
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3. Ploughing is the displacement of the work material by plastic
Ploughing upheaval on the machined surface at a high negative rake angle.
Finishing of the machined surface deteriorates with
ploughing which also plays a crucial role in energy
consumption. -α
Ploughing should
be minimized
Atkins (2016) Royal Soc.
Rahman et al. (2017) International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 115, 15–28
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3. In micro cutting, the ploughing effect cannot be neglected.
Ploughing
Regardless of the nominal rake angle ( +ve, -ve or 0),

the effective rake angle is always negative.
It causes the necessary compressive stress to enable
plastic deformation to occur in front of the cutting
edge
Rahman et al. (2017) International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 123, 57–75
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4. Material deformation transforms to the rubbing mechanism at very
Rubbing high difference between uncut chip thickness and cutting edge radius.
Cutting tool rubs along the workpiece surface.

• Significant frictional force -α
• Consumes enormous amount of energy.
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4. No chip formation would occur initially.
Rubbing
The chip thickness gets accumulated with subsequent
rotation of the workpiece 
-α
approaches to the minimum chip thickness value 
material is removed by tool.
Rubbing deteriorates the surface quality significantly.

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Influence of size effect
During machining at (hc/rn) >= 1.0, material adjacent to the tool edge is
separated into two flows:
One goes over the rake face as chip
Other is compressed under the tool flank face.
Material above the separation point D, moves
parallel to the rake face and is subjected to tensile
stress.
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Minimum chip thickness
The determination of the ratio of minimum chip thickness to the cutting edge
radius is essential in order to avoid or minimize the ploughing effect and achieve
desired material removal.
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Steps of failure of ductile material
During machining at (hc/rn) >= 1.0, material adjacent to the tool edge is
separated into two flows:
Inclusion Void Void Strain localized Necking Void coalescence

nucleation growth between voids between voids and fracture
M.C. Shaw, The size effect in metal cutting. Sadhana: Acad. Proc. Eng. Sci. 28(5), 875–896 (2003)
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Material behavior at micro scale machining
Materials contain defects (grain boundaries, missing and impurity atoms, etc.),
Plastic deformation in materials usually starts in areas where defects (e.g.
dislocations, inhomogeneities) are present.
Material resists plastic deformation much more

strongly than expected due to less defects (voids
and micro cracks) in a small volume.
Small hc  deformation at small scale  less defect  high material strength.

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Effect of blunt tool
A blunt tool causes some pushing of the material
• immediately ahead of the cutting edge into the
chip
• into the machined work surface and
• possibly to the sides.
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Grain size to chip thickness
The materials cannot be treated as isotropic and homogeneous like in
conventional macro cutting.
Size effects also affect the plastic behavior by creating geometrical constraints 
obstruct dislocations to initiate and slide.
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Grain size to feature size
When micro features and grain size are comparable in size.
Material behavior is different
Cutting mechanics changes due to size effects
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Ductile to Brittle transition with depth of cut
Orthogonal cutting of Poly(methyl methacrylate (PMMA) at higher depths of cut
Continuous Loss of chip

chip  continuity is
Force
steady associated with

cutting oscillating
forces Tool travel forces
Atkins (2016) Royal Society Publishing. DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2016.0019
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Alloys
Alloys have several phases present with different material properties.
Micro cutting  tool cutting edge now individually encounters these phases.
It causes variations in forces, energy and surface integrity.
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Anisotropic materials
Crystalline metals plastically yield by slipping on closely packed planes with
different shear stress of slipping in different planes and directions.
Anisotropic effects in micro cutting
• Preferred orientation of grains
• Number of grains is very less
compared to the volume of
deformation
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Anisotropic materials
Cutting edge encounters individual grains and crystallographic planes in the grains
• The material property changes with the crystal orientations
• It affects the forces, energy and surface finish
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Anisotropic materials: Example (Silicon)
Silicon is a face centred cubic (FCC) with One FCC structure is penetrated (¼, , ¼, ¼)
inside the other FCC.
The lattice distances between adjacent atoms
Strong attractive forces between atoms.
Contains 3 atoms situated at the center of the faces of the unit cell.
Dr. Nick Dechev, University of Victoria
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Specific cutting energy
The energy consumed in removing a unit volume of material.
Specific cutting energy in case of orthogonal cutting:
FcV Fc
=u =
bhcV bhc
Small hc  small Fc
hc
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Cutting force (Fc) does not tend to continue to decrease as the uncut chip
thickness (hc) reduces.
Fc levels off below a certain range of hc  Fc needed FcV Fc
=u =
to cut was larger than anticipated at lower hc. bhcV bhc
Fc does not decrease proportionally to hc causes the
u to increase dramatically.
Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY hc

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Cutting tools are never perfectly sharp 
the cutting edge is never an ideal straight
Sharp Blunt
line. tool tool
When hc becomes comparable to the
cutting edge radius  force and energy
u
trends change.
hc
r
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hc is 100 nm to 10
µm, dislocations
become the origin
of breakage.
hc > 10 µm, the

hc < 1 µm, Point
grain boundaries
defects spaced 1 nm
become the origin
to 100 nm become
of breakage.
the origin of
breakage.
Taniguchi (1983) CIRP Annals 32(2), 573-582. || Balasubramaniam and Suri, Diamond turn machining, in Intro. to Micromachining, Narosa, India
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Reasons for high specific cutting energy
Strengthening due to lack of defects
Strain-rate hardening
Reduced temperature softening
Strain-gradient hardening
Plastic flow around a blunt tool edge
Extension of the shear plane into the workpiece
Subbiah and Melkote (2006) J. Eng. Mater. Technol 129(2), 321-331
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Burr formation
It is a material plastic deformation produced at workpiece edges as a result of the
machining or shearing process
Decreased device
Improper part performance
mating Problems
due to burrs Accelerated
Dimensional device wear
accuracy
Increase cost
Surface finish
of production
Galip Ulsoy, 2006, Condition monitoring and control of intelligent manufacturing
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Burr formation
6 physical processes which form burrs:
• lateral flow of material which occurs whenever a solid is compressed,
• Bending of material, Chip thickness Tool
• Tearing of chip from workpiece, / DoC Factors for sharpness
• Redeposition of material, Cutting burrs Workpiece
speed formation materials
• Incomplete cut-off, and
• Flow of material into cracks.
Feed rate
Gillespie (1999) Deburring and edge finishing SME Handbook
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Burr formation: Types
Tear burr is the result of material
tearing loose from the workpiece
rather than shearing clearly.
The rollover burr is
The Poisson burr is a result of a
essentially a chip which is
material’s tendency to bulge to the
bent rather than sheared
sides when it is compressed until
resulting in a comparatively
permanent plastic deformation occurs.
larger burr. Called: Exit burr
Gillespie (1999) Deburring and edge finishing SME Handbook
da Silva et al. (2015) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2014.10.003
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Burr formation: Types
Primary burr Needle-like burr
Feathery burr Minor burr
Material: Al 6061-T6 : (N is in rpm, S in mm/min and d in μm)

Lee and Dornfeld, Trans. NAMRI, 30: 255-262, 2002. || Chern et al. (2007) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2006.04.001
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IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Schematic of burr formation before crack propagation
The plastic deformation occurs Large deformation-like Large deformation at the pivoting
at the workpiece edge as plastic catastrophic deformation occurs point expands to connect with
bending. at the workpiece edge  Cutting the deformation in the primary
forces may start decreasing shear zone.
Hashimura et al. (1999) J. Manuf. Sci. Eng 121(1), 1-7
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IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Schematic of burr formation with crack
Large critical fracture strain.
Strain in –ve shear zone is
smaller than the critical strain
of the material.
Small critical
fracture
strain.
Strain in –ve
shear zone is
larger than
the critical
strain of the
material.
Hashimura et al. (1999) J. Manuf. Sci. Eng 121(1), 1-7 Shearing mode to opening mode
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IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Burr formation: Up milling and down milling
On the side of Up-milling cutting  the cutting direction is parallel to the
feed direction.
On the side of down-milling  the cutting direction
is opposite to the feed direction.
Burr formation limits on the minimum wall size that
could be machined.
Kiswantoa et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16 (2014) 435–450
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IIT KHARAGPUR 12
Burr formation: Up milling and down milling
Up-milling has smaller burrs than down milling.
Up-milling side  Burr is a Poisson burr formed only by side
bulging action.
Down milling side  Top burr is formed by the action of the chip
material tearing away as it flows as well as side bulging
deformation.
Kiswantoa et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16 (2014) 435–450 || Saptaji et al. (2012) Precis Eng 36(3):444–450
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IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Burr formation: Material properties
Ductile materials  High elastic–plastic deformation in machining  larger and
more burrs are likely to be formed.
Hard materials  Fewer burrs.
However, Hard material  more tool wear  high cutting edge radius  -ve rake
angle  ploughing  more burr formation.
Shafer F (1975) Entgraten. Krausskopf-Verlog, Mainz

Schmidt J, Tritschler H (2004) Micro cutting of steel. Microsys Technol 10(3):167–174
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IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Burr reduction strategies
Small Depth of cut  less burr height  True??
Small Depth of cut  Rubbing and ploughing  Formation of large, strong burr.
More No. of flutes  less chip load (feed/tooth/rev)  Small uncut chip
thickness  decreased burr height.
High cutting velocities led to less burr formation in the micro-milling of steel.
Coated tools reduce the burr size when micro-milling hardened steel.
Use of cutting fluid  flood cooling, mist cooling, etc.
Saptaji, Mechanical micromachining in DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4670-4_12
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Burr control by supporting material
Extending workpiece Crack grows on the Burrs formation on

boundaries with support material the support material
supporting material
Kou et al. (2015) Procedia Manuf. 1:501–11.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Deburring
Burrs are unavoidable  Necessary to reduce the complexity of the subsequent
deburring operation
• Minimizing the burr strength
• Ensuring the burrs form at workpiece locations that are easy to access
Conventional de-burring cannot be applied on micro components  dimensional
errors, damage surface finish, and residual stresses.
Galip Ulsoy, 2006, Condition monitoring and control of intelligent manufacturing

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IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Deburring processes
Electrochemical polishing (for stainless steel)
Powder blasting using white fused alumina (for brass).
Micro-peening and ultrasonic wet peening (for brass and tool steel)
Micro EDM (for top burrs on aluminum alloys, copper and stainless steel)
Gentle finishing processes  Magnetorhelogical finishing, Magnetic abrasive
finishing, Abrasive assisted brush deburring, etc.
Saptaji, Mechanical micromachining in DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4670-4_12
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IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Surface roughness
Roughness
Comprising of irregularities that occur due to
the mechanism of the material removal
process:
• Tool geometry
• Wheel grit, or
• EDM spark
Graham Smith, Industrial Metrology, Springer
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IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Surface roughness
Waviness
Component of the surface texture upon which
roughness is superimposed, resulting from
factors such as
• Machine or part deflections,
• Vibrations and chatter,
• Material strain, etc.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 20
Surface roughness
Profile
The overall shape of the surface - ignoring
roughness and waviness variations - is caused
by errors in machine tool slide ways
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IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Surface roughness
The shape and size of irregularities on a machined surface have a major impact on
the quality and performance of that surface.
Differences in these irregularities impact the quality and function of the surface.
Friction, durability, operating noise, energy consumption and airtightness.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Instruments for surface roughness measurement
Working Lateral and
capabilities vertical range
Resolution
Probe Scanning
geometry mechanisms
Other
constraints
Jiang et al., (2007) Proc. R. Soc. A 2007 463 2071-2099; DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2007.1873 / Donald K. Cohen, Michigan Metrology, LLC
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Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
1
Surface roughness
Surface damage by Force Vibration Plastic deformation Burr
High surface roughness due to elastic recovery.
• Elastic recovery is dependent on the size of
cutting edge radius and the workpiece material.
• Larger elastic recovery expected from larger
cutting edge radius.
https://research.engineering.uiowa.edu/ding/Micro-Machining
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IIT KHARAGPUR 2
Surface roughness
Sharper the cutting edge  better the surface finish (less ploughing)
Material properties (microstructure and hardness) also significantly influence the
achievable surface roughness.
https://research.engineering.uiowa.edu/ding/Micro-Machining
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Surface roughness: effect of material properties
Small tool  Low stiffness  Tool deflection  Tool vibration  High roughness
Elastic modulus, yield strength and the hardness
Jing et l. (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14484846.2016.1211472
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IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Effect of tool wear on surface roughness and burr
15 mins 30 mins 45 mins
Workpiece
Tool
Kiswanto et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16 (2014) 435–450
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IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Key aspects in micromachining
Câmara et al., State of the Art on Micromilling of Materials, a Review, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2012, 28(8), 673–685.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 6
Summary of differences due to micro scale
Working principle same as Others
conventional machining
BUT • specific cutting energy,
• minimum chip thickness,
• surface roughness,
Material is removed • burr,
using micro tools • microstructure effect,
• tool wear,
• modeling,
Feature size can be in the range of a
• sensing and monitoring
few microns to a few hundred microns methods.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Advantages of micro mechanical machining
Do not require the very expensive set-ups and relatively quick
No need for expensive masks  Cost effective
Suitable for individual components rather than large batch sizes
Fabricating 3D free-form surfaces in one setup / operation Production of micro-
injection molds (Bio-MEMS devices)
Variety of metallic alloys, composites, polymers and ceramic materials to form
functional devices
…………………
Chae et al., 2006, Investigation of micro-cutting operations, IJMTM
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Limitations of micro mechanical machining
Size/accuracy constraints imposed by limits of tool geometry
Tool wear and breakage
Issues with surface quality, finish and Burrs
Issues involving material grains
Still less knowledge of appropriate machining techniques and values (spindle
speed, feed rate, etc.) for different tasks.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Handling of micro components
Handling, assembling and testing of small micro-machined components
is difficult.
Micro-components can be fragile and difficult to see and handle
manually  special instrumentation and packaging are needed.
In some cases, micro-components have handling features incorporated
into their structure that may need to be removed in post-processing.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 10
11
Machine tool components
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
12
Difference between machines
Conventional milling machine CNC milling machine Micro milling machine

Feedback (close loop control) Feedback (close loop control)
Machine control (programing) Accuracy of slides (guideways)
Accuracy of slides (guideways) Structural stability
Automated operation, Structural stability Size of cutting tool, Working area
Capitalizing on the Growing Demand for Micro‐Milling - A Mold Maker’s Guide || www.micromanufacturing.com || Luo et al. (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050
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IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Circle of Technology
• A machine is made up of individual components.
• If one component is not at 100 %, the machine may fail at
producing a quality part.
• Micro machining requires a tighter quality relationship
within every machine component.
• Example  If there is a slight quality issue with the spindle, chances are it will
have a negative effect on the part quality and may result in total failure.
https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/understanding-micro-milling-machine-technology
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IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Characteristics of a machine tool
• The size and quality of micro-products depends on the properties of the
machine tools used to produce them (accuracy and their dynamic
performance).
• Capabilities and quality of the machine tool  Size, accuracy, surface roughness
and dimensional repeatability.
Stiffness Thermal Damping Accuracy Throughput Ease of

stability properties use
Capitalizing on the Growing Demand for Micro‐Milling - A Mold Maker’s Guide || www.micromanufacturing.com || Luo et al. (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Major sub system of machine tool
Mechanical structure Spindle and drive system Controller and system
Luo et al. (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Measurement and inspection system
Luo et al. (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050 || Moriwaki, T., 1993, “Intelligent Machining,” Proc. Workshop on Tool Condition Monitoring, Vol. I, CIRP, Paris.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Tooling and processing technologies
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IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Mechanical structure of machine tool
Stationary Moving
bodies bodies
• The stationary bodies include
• machine base,
• column and spindle box housing, etc.
• They usually carry moving bodies, such as worktables,
slides, spindles and carriages.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 19
When considered in the context of the design of the machine as a system, some of
the major design issues are
• Stiffness and damping
• Structural configuration
• Structural connectivity
• Structure dynamic performance  thermal stability and response to external
forces.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 20
With regard to the proper functioning of moving axes and operational stability
• High structural loop stiffness
• Good damping property
• Symmetry and closed loop structural configuration
• Thermal and elastic structural loops
• Minimization of heat deformation
• Isolation of environmental effects
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IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Precision Engineering for Rapid Product Development –
June 25-29, 2018
Focus on how to design robust, high quality products that efficiently
balance precision and cost. Learn more and register at:
http://shortprograms.mit.edu/ippd
"Life is a bowl of springs” - A. Slocum
Accuracy, repeatability, and resolution
There terms are often used in precision practices. Position achieved
while attempting
Accuracy is the ability to tell the truth to position to
Repeatability is the ability to tell the same story each time target point
Resolution
Resolution is the detail to which you tell a story
Position achieved while attempting

to position to target point + finest Repeatability
increment of motion which can be Accuracy
programmed
Target point
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2-1.htm (NSF funded) || Prof. Alexander Slocum (http://kinematiccouplings.org/)
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Accuracy
Ability of a machine to move to a commanded position (not visited before).
Machine calculates the new position in terms of its feedback system parameters.
This does not mean that the machine is "shown" or "taught" the position and the
feedback parameters are stored.  Robotics applications
Accuracy brings the entire machine, hardware and controls, to bear on the task.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 24
Repeatability
Ability of the machine to re-visit a location and has other implications including
from which direction is the movement made.
Bi-directional repeatability  If the point is approached from two directions.
• More difficult to achieve than repeatability
• Hysteresis of mechanical motions
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2-1.htm (NSF funded) cncintheworkshop
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Resolution
The least increment of movement the machine is capable of making.
If the system resolution is n, then all motions are integer multiples of n.
The resolution is the least of any system component but rather the largest.
Example  A machine controller can calculate a movement of 0.1 µm but
feedback encoder only has a resolution of reliably 1 µm  Not able to reliably
move the machine with an increment of 0.1 µm.
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Accuracy will be affected by resolution
All moves are integer multiples of the minimum, or worst, machine resolution.
A linear motor with high resolution, fed by low resolution encoder feedback
High resolution moves but low resolution of known position  low accuracy.
Instrumentation is mostly digital  very easy to display with many insignificant
digits  Be very careful when interpreting such data.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 27
The machine can not interpolate between the least count of the resolution, and
therefore will stop as soon as the commanded position is met.
This can cause repeatability errors depending from which direction the
commanded point is approached.
Resolution should be comparable for
high efficiency
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IIT KHARAGPUR 28
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
1
Spindle: Hybrid ceramic bearing vs. Aerostatic
Electric motors with hybrid‐angular contact bearings
• For high torque requirements
• Max. speed ~ 60k  friction in the contact bearing  thermal expansion of the
spindle.
Air bearing spindles with air turbines
• produce very low torque.
• For higher spindle speed ~ 200k
Article Post: 8/15/1998 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/high-speed-spindle-design-and-construction
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 2
Spindle: Aerostatic spindle
The most often used spindles in precision machine tools are aerostatic spindles.
• High motion accuracy and capable of high rotational speed.
• Lower stiffness than an oil hydrostatic spindle but it has lower thermal
deformation than oil hydrostatic spindle.
• Widely used in machine tools with medium and small loading capacity
Luo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050
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IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Aerostatic spindle
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Spindle: Aerostatic spindle warpage
Spindle is motionless for prolonged periods with cold air impinging on the same
location(s)  differential contraction among locations in the spindle will take place
causing the spindle to warp.
Out‐of‐round motion due to a bending of the spindle and a localized reduction in
the size of the spindle which will alter the interior clearances and the stiffness.
Shut off the air supply if idle time is high or slowly rotating the spindle with the air
on, if the idle time is low.  Reduce temperature gradients in the spindle reducing
warping. Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2‐8.htm (NSF funded)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Tool retention system: CAT, BT, or ISO
A high speed spindle designed for use in a CNC machining
center must be able to automatically change tools.
This is done by incorporating a tooling system Common
tooling systems include CAT, BT and ISO styles.
Generally 7/24 taper.
Tapered tool holders establish their axial position in the spin
dle through the mating of two tapers.
http://www.nextgentooling.com/technical/bt‐cat‐hsk‐whats‐the‐important‐differences‐for‐my‐cnc
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 6
Tool retention system: CAT, BT, or ISO
Disadvantages:
As spindle speed increases  Spindle shaft tends to expand due to centrifugal
force and thermal effect (bell mouthing) 
Taper of the tool holder is drawn further into
the spindle 
inaccuracies in the Z‐axis motion and also cause
the toolholder to stick in the spindle.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Tool retention system: HSK
A new DIN and ISO tooling standard has been developed with particular
application for high speed, known as HSK.
Primarily used for high speed spindles used in high precision machining
centers.
HSK tool holders are retained in the spindle by a set of internal
grippers located inside the spindle.
Preferred choice for micro‐milling machines.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Tool retention system: Contact comparison
Conventional V‐taper tool system makes contact along a fixed taper by the drawbar.
Approx. a 3 mm gap between the tool holder flange and the spindle face.
Conventional V‐taper  only makes taper contact.
HSK has short taper which fits into the spindle.
It uses a simultaneous fit between the short taper
and the face of the spindle  rigid connection.
HSK  dual contact between the spindle face and
taper
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Tool retention system: Draw bar action comparison
CAT and BT holders are held into the spindle by draw bar fingers
that wrap around the outside of the retention knob (pull stud).
The HSK drawbar "fingers" reach inside the Hollow Shank.
"Merry go Round" effect on the drawbar fingers.
As the RPM is increased on the HSK tool holder the drawbar
fingers actually use become a tighter connection on the inside of
the flange and increase the pressure in the spindle connection.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Tool retention system: comparison summary
7/24 ISO Steep Taper One surface contact.
Low axial accuracy.
Relatively low stiffness.
Not suitable for high speed (outside clamping)
Large mass and stroke.
Possible runout due to taper fitment.
Two surface contact.
HSK
Higher axial and radial accuracy.
Higher stiffness (static and dynamic) than 7/24 tapers
Suitable for high speed (inside clamping)
Low mass and stroke faster quick change and higher speeds.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Tool retention system: 3 surface contact holder
Three surface contact
Superior static and dynamic stiffness
Static and rotating applications
Highest maximum speed
Kennametal Technical information, Tooling Systems 2013
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IIT KHARAGPUR 12
13
Micro tools
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
14
Micro cutting tool
Size of micro tools  limit of the size and accuracy of micro‐structure features.
Mechanical stability (vibration and forces) of micro tool is crucial for the product
accuracy (tolerance) and the longevity of tools
Tool variables  material, geometry, cutting edge radius, and coating.
The tool design influences dimensional accuracy, surface
quality, burr formation, and tool life.
It is difficult to detect damage to cutting edges and even broken
tool shafts.
https://www.makino.com/about/news/trends‐in‐micro‐machining‐technologies/315/ || Chae et al. doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.015
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IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Important areas to be explored in micro tooling
Fabrication methods for micro tool
Optimization of the geometric and coating properties of micro tooling in order to
improve tool life and the process accuracy
Tool holding and balancing as well as micro tool setting device
Micro tool characterization (machinability in particular)
Tool condition monitoring during the process
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Required properties of a tool
The tool must
• allow for good chip formation and removal,
• have a sharp cutting edge  low cutting force and small minimal
undeformed chip thickness,
• have a flank geometry which prohibits contact to the workpiece at the
side walls, and
• be manufactured by a robust and fast process in order to be
economically feasible.
Aurich et al. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2012.03.012
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IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Micro tool fabrication processes
Grinding (High precision grinding, Ultrasonic vibration, Diamond disks, ……..)
Electro discharge machining (EDM)
Wire ‐ EDM or wire electro discharge grinding
Focused ion beam (FIB) machining
Laser beam machining
Electrolytic in‐process dressing (ELID)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Micro tool by high precision grinding
3‐axis tool grinding (resolution: 0.1 μm, repeating positioning accuracy: 1 μm
and run‐out lower than 0.65 μm)
The clamping device itself is

mounted in a spindle providing
the rotation around the A‐axis.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Step 1: Pre grinding of WC by sintered diamond blade mounted on a ball
bearing spindle is used.
Step 2: Fine grinding using a thin

diamond grinding blade with a
grain size of 1 µm mounted on an
air bearing spindle.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 20
Micro tool with and without helix angle
Micro‐tools of less than 50 µm need a zero helix angle to improve their rigidity and
to mitigate the limitations of fabrication techniques.
Without a helix angle, material removal occurs at once along the entire
cutting length  high stress areas, poor surface quality, burrs, and increased
tool wear.
Therefore, whenever possible helical
tools are used.
Chae et al. doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.015
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IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Micro tool by ultrasonic vibration grinding
Low wheel loading  Low grinding forces  No any breakage of the micro tools.
Tool is easily broken when the grinding force is tensile than in case of
compression.
• Higher compressive strength than tensile strength.
Onikura et al. (2000) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007‐8506(07)62941‐2
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IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Micro tool by WEDG
Less than 100 µm tool can be made.
Copper wire 0.15 mm diameter. WC electrode material.
Rough and Fine EDM steps with different polarities.
W = 40 µm D = 110 µm
Chern et al. doi:10.1016/j.precisioneng.2006.04.001
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IIT KHARAGPUR 24
Micro tool by Focused ion beam sputtering
Precise control over feature size, permits a variety of tool geometries and
establishes sharp cutting edges.
Beam diameter < 3.5 nm  formation of
micron scale features with nanometer
precision on almost any solid material
including very hard materials, such as
SCD.
Ding et al. (2008) doi:10.1088/0960‐1317/18/7/075017
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IIT KHARAGPUR 25
The edge of the facet formed by the ion beam closest to the ion source is rounded
mainly due to the Gaussian distribution in the beam.
A sharp cutting edge is produced on the far side.
Material: Al6061
Pillar: 10 µm × 10 µm × Thickness: 10 µm,

20 µm (depth), height: 20 µm, groove
Pitch: 30 µm width: 30 µm)
Ding et al. (2008) doi:10.1088/0960‐1317/18/7/075017
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IIT KHARAGPUR 26
Sharp cutting edge of a

Brass machining four‐side, WC end mill
with 5 cutting Al6061
tool
edges tool f = 10 mm/min
Adams et al., Micromilling of metal alloys with focused ion beam–fabricated tools, Precision Engineering, 25 (2001) 107–113
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Micro tool by EDM
Micro‐EDM and micro‐grinding arrangement on the same table for PCD tool
Perveen et al. (2012) DOI 10.1007/s00170‐011‐3688‐5
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 28
Micro tool by Laser beam
IR YVO4 (yttrium orthovanadate)laser
(λ = 1.064 µm) was used
Suzuki et al. (2013) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2013.03.096
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IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Micro tool by ELID
The protrusion of the grains therefore remains constant by in process dressing
Biswas et al. (2012) DOI 10.1007/s00170‐010‐2589‐3 || Lee et al. (2002) J Korean Soc Precis Eng 19(12):171–178
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IIT KHARAGPUR 30
Issues with micro cutting tools
Cutting forces and tool pressures create a whole new realm of problems.
Any variation in axis position during the cut can be disastrous.
Spindle must be stable and minimize thermal expansion, tool change variation and
vibration.
Vibration or run‐out at the tool tip  affect surface finish and accuracy.
Problem with micro tool  The amount of force associated with removing material
at the particulate level.
https://www.makino.com/about/news/trends‐in‐micro‐machining‐technologies/315/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Issues with micro cutting tools
One of the main limiting factors  Reduced stiffness due to tiny sizes.
Tool does not gradually wear until it causes undesirable surface effects, but rather
the tool breaks quickly as it becomes worn or reaches its bending strength limit .
• Tool breakage is the more likely outcome
• Increased cutting forces with the dulling of the cutting edges  stresses to
exceed the strength of the small diameter tools  fracture of tools.
https://www.makino.com/about/news/trends‐in‐micro‐machining‐technologies/315/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 32
Tool breakage
It is impossible to determine when a tool has been broken by
unassisted eye or ear.
A tool break at the beginning of an 8‐hour cycle might not be Harvey tools
discovered until the rest of the 8‐hour period had been wasted.
One other crucial component of the spindle is a three‐axes
sensor that continually monitors the machining forces.
Article Post: 8/15/2003 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/micro‐milling‐at‐12‐million‐rpm
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Hard or tough tool??
It requires an advantageous combination of hardness as well as toughness.
Achieved by formulating a mix of extremely fine grains of cobalt and tungsten.
The hardness of the solid carbide enables it to cut well‐formed chips in difficult‐
to‐machine materials while resisting chipping of cutting edges.
The toughness of the material helps the shaft resist breakage from cutting forces
and keeps the tool from vibrating.
A balance of hardness and toughness is required.
Article Post: 2/21/2014 https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/managing‐the‐micro‐milling‐process‐with‐tiny‐cutters
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 34
Four Key Issues for breakage of micro tools
Tools are small and delicate  high tendency of breakage.
1. Runout is the biggest issue
• Spindle runout at actual rpm when measured against the spindle taper.
• Tool holder and collet runout
• Flute runout relative to the shank.
• Flutes may not be made perfectly symmetrical and concentric to the shank.
• Tool’s flutes may have 10 µm or more runout relative to the tool shank.
http://www.cnccookbook.com/CCCNCMillFeedsSpeedsMicroMachining.htm
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 35
Four Key Issues for breakage of micro tools
1. Runout is the biggest issue (continue….)
• All of those sources of runout stack up, and think of runout as being additive
to chipload.
• To keep runout from becoming the limiting factor, it needs to be kept to no
more than 10% of the cutter's diameter.
• 250 µm tool  acceptable runout: 25 µm  not difficult
• 25 µm tool  acceptable runout from all sources : 2.5 µm  Very demanding
http://www.cnccookbook.com/CCCNCMillFeedsSpeedsMicroMachining.htm
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 36
Tool retention system: Tool runout
Angular TIR
Poorly aligned central collet bore,
Worn spindle taper,
Debris between the collet and spindle bore tapers.
Radial TIR
an offset collet bore and
mounting a tool with a shank smaller than the minimum
diameter of the collet gripping range.
Images: PreciseBits
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 37
Effect of tool runout
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 38
Direct tool change type spindle
One solution developed several years ago is a direct tool‐change type spindle.
By eliminating the use of a tool holder, it is possible
to reduce total run‐out caused by tool holder
variation and is ideal for micro machining due to the
elimination stack up issues.
https://www.makino.com/about/news/trends‐in‐micro‐machining‐technologies/315/ || https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/too‐small‐to‐touch
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 39
Tool run out measurement by capacitance sensor
Prof. S G Kapoor, UIUC
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IIT KHARAGPUR 40
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
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Structural configurations of a machine tool
www.micromanufacturing.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 2
Structural configurations of a machine tool
The most popular vertical machine geometry: C‐frame construction (vertical
machining centre).
Spindle or Z‐axis is the only moving axis and table motion for all other axis
travels
• High stiffness  high accuracy
Stiffness decreases with the length of Z‐travel.
Balance between tight tolerance and the length of Z‐travel.
Capitalizing on the Growing Demand for Micro‐Milling ‐ A Mold Maker’s Guide || www.micromanufacturing.com || Luo et al. (2005) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.05.050
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Structural loop
How efficiently and accurately can you cut ??
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Structural loop in machine
It contains all the joints and structural elements that position the tool w.r.t. the
workpiece.
The structural loop
gives an indication of
machine stiffness
and accuracy.
Prof. Alexander Slocum (http://kinematiccouplings.org/)
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Open loop structure
Lack of symmetry
Long open loops have less stiffness and less
accuracy
Good for small, low‐load machines
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Closed loop structure
Easy access to work zone
Strong ridged structural loop
Good thermal stability
Used in macro‐scale ultra‐precision
machines like CMMs
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IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Parameters affecting structural loop
Unknown or un‐controllable changes in the structural loop are the primary source
of kinematic errors in machining.
Each change tends to
maximize the error
between the workpiece and
tool edge.
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2‐3.htm (NSF funded)
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Errors in machining
There is no such thing as the perfect part.
An error  Any influence which deviates machined part from the "perfect" part.
Criteria for acceptable parts:
• Tolerances are within some acceptable range
• Roughness which does not exceed some allowable limit set by the application
• A shape which satisfies the application
• A material with properties which are at least predictable within some range of
uncertainty.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Cost vs. Performance in error correction
How much time/money spent to look for the sources of errors to prevent or
minimize the errors.
Successful projects keep a close watch on budgets (time, money, performance)
Understanding errors in components
and machines is the key to staying on
the leading edge.
“Bleeding edge” designs can drain you.
Prof. Alexander Slocum (http://kinematiccouplings.org/) || Precision Manufacturing by Dornfeld and Lee, Springer, 2008
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IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Sensitive directions
We have to ask ourselves, “when is an error really important?”
Put a lot of effort into accuracy for the directions in which you need it
• The Sensitive Directions

• Always think about where you
need precision.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Machining error generating process
Error source Mechanical system Error generating process Machining accuracy
Static deformation
Structure Contour
Geometrical Spindle Dynamic deformation accuracy
error Table Thermal deformation
Surface
Machine tool Rotation accuracy roughness
Cutting Guiding accuracy
Workpiece Dimensional
Drive Dynamic movement error accuracy
Environment
Tool wear
Tool
Precision Manufacturing by Dornfeld and Lee, Springer, 2008
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IIT KHARAGPUR 12
Geometric Errors of Machines
Machine tools and measuring equipment with 3 to 5 axes are widely used in
fabrication and characterization of the component.
Accurate parts can only be achieved
by a controlled and deterministic
manufacturing process.
http://www.etalon‐ag.com/en/technology/geometric‐errors‐of‐machines/
Xiang et al. (2015) Proc IMechE Part B
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IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Geometric Errors of Machines
Geometric accuracy of the part can be
achieved either by
• a feedback loop through part
metrology or
• accurately calibrated machine tools.
http://www.etalon‐ag.com/en/technology/geometric‐errors‐of‐machines/ || Precision Manufacturing by Dornfeld and Lee, Springer, 2008
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IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Sources of geometry errors
Accuracy of machine tool is affected by many error sources.
Kinematic Thermo-
errors mechanical errors
Dynamics
Loads
forces
http://www.etalon‐ag.com/en/technology/geometric‐errors‐of‐machines/ || Hernández–Martínez et al. Ing. invest. y tecnol. vol.11 no.2 México abr./jun. 2010
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Kinematic errors
Due to imperfect geometry, alignment and dimensions of machine components.

They are stable or changing slowly over time e.g.
• due to foundation drifts,
• wear or material aging and
• also collisions.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Thermo-mechanical errors
Internal and external heat sources in the machine may lead to thermo‐mechanical
deformation of machine components  leads to kinematic errors.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Loads
In some cases, the weight and position of a workpiece have a significant influence
on the machine’s geometry.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Dynamics forces
Machining is affected by the dynamic stiffness of the machine’s structural loop.

Varying forces such as machining forces or forces caused by accelerations /
decelerations are causing deformations.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Kinematic structures of machines
It is defined by the layout of machine components and their axes.
Most machine tools have a serial structure: One axis of motion is on another.
A notation based on Schwerd for serial kinematic structure (Tool  Workpiece).
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Description of geometric errors
Errors of a machine tool are relative motions error between the tool and the
workpiece.
Each movement of a machine axis can be described by six degrees of freedom:
three translations and three rotations.
The notation of an axis movement is standardized in ISO 841:
Linear movements  X, Y, and Z
Rotational movements  A, B, and C
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IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Flatness, Straightness, and Smoothness of Motion
Kinematic entities of machine are assumed to be perfect.
• Spindle  Single axis of rotation which coincides with the geometric axis of a
rotating joint.
• Slides  They travels in a straight line with only one degree of freedom of rigid
body motion (i.e. no tilting or swaying).
This of course is not true.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Independent vs. coupled motion
A round object sliding within a bore  rotation and translation  2 DoF.
Bolt and nut  rotation and translation coupled  1 DoF
In machine tools  motions are assumed to

be 1 DoF actions.
Not true
Motions are coupled and this further leads
to machining errors.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Flatness and straightness runout of a linear stage
Runout of a Linear Stage is the linear portion of off‐axis error.
It consists of two orthogonal components.
Flatness
It is a displacement error along the z‐axis.
Straightness
It is a displacement error along the y‐axis
https://www.newport.com/n/motion‐basics‐and‐standards
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 24
Effect of flatness error on tool / workpiece location
Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap2/ch2‐4‐5.htm (NSF funded)
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Roll, pitch and yaw angular runout of a linear stage
Angular runout is the angle measured between the actual motion and the ideal
straight line motion of a linear stage.
It has three orthogonal components 
• Pitch
• Roll
• Yaw
https://www.newport.com/n/motion‐basics‐and‐standards
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IIT KHARAGPUR 26
Smoothness of motion
Smoothness is related to stick/slip behavior of stage bearings or drive mechanism.
Lack of smoothness of motion  Sudden jumps in the motion followed by a
period with no motion.
Jump  Relatively high machining forces for a brief period and can lead to cutting
tool failure.
Sudden jumps can also be a source of
vibration if the stage is heavy or is supporting
a massive workpiece or other structure.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Axis orthogonality
Kinematic links ideally situated at right angles to each other.
It is assumed the right angles are present and are maintained throughout all
operational procedures.
A motion of only the y‐axis, which carries
the x‐axis stage, will result in some
amount of x motion due to the axes not
being at right angles.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 28
Orthogonal error in Z axis
A non‐orthogonal z‐axis motion
could result in motion components
in x and y if the non‐orthogonality
is two dimensional.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 29
6 error components in a linear movement (x axis)
• 1 position error
• 2 straightness error motions
• 1 roll error motion and
• 2 tilt error motions (pitch & yaw error)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 30
6 error components in a rotational movement
• 2 radial error motions
• 1 axial error motion
• 1 angular position error
• 2 tilt error motions
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IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
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6 Error components in a linear movement (Y axes)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 2
6 Error components in a linear movement (Z axes)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Summary of geometric errors
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IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Construction material for machine tool
Material selection: one of key factors in determining machine performance.
Criteria: temporal stability, specific stiffness, homogeneity, easiness of
manufacturing, cost, etc.
Challenge: Minimizing vibrations when milling delicate and accurate parts.
• High damping will absorb more vibrations induced by cutting.
Materials: Metal, stone (Granite), ceramic, polymer concrete, porous, reinforced
composite materials or hybrid material .
https://www.makino.com/about/news/trends‐in‐micro‐machining‐technologies/315/ || Mohring et al. (2015), CIRP Annals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.005
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Properties of material for machine frame
The mechanical and thermal behavior of a machine frame depends on
Material properties  Young's modulus, shear modulus, bending and tensile
strength, material damping, density, heat conductivity and capacity, thermal
expansion coefficient)
Dimensions and cross sections of the structural components
Their joining and integration into the force flow of the machining system
Foundation of the whole frame, and the applied loads.
Mohring et al. (2015), CIRP Annals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.005
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 6
Density vs. Young's modulus
Major classes of materials with respect to density (specific weight) and Young's
modulus.
For lightweight design, density‐specific

mechanical values (Young's modulus/
density) become more important.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Strength and the specific energy consumption
Specific energy consumption: energy
required to make the material (raw
materials, their refining, and shaping of the
produced material, related to 1 kg of
material, and its density)
Trend  Higher the strength more specific
energy consumption is required.
Dobrzański (2006), IJMPT https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.04.003
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Wall constructions for a slide
Box type or ribbed structures  to reduce
the weight of the component and to
improve accessibility.
Different ribbings and their displacements
(normed by the minimum value) if a
theoretical bending load is applied.
Mohring et al. (2015), CIRP Annals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.005 || Munirathnam, Ph.D. thesis, TU Darmstadt
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Honeycomb slide structure
The machine slides are excited by driving and process forces as well.
Requirement  lightweight but high stiffness and damping.
Sandwich honeycomb structures fulfil these requirements.
Mohring et al. (2015), CIRP Annals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.005 || Denkena et al. (2004) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007‐8506(07)60710‐0
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Light metal for machine tool structure
Light metal alloys (aluminum alloys) have a significantly lower density compared to
steel and cast iron.
Masses of moving machine components can be reduced.
Reducing the mass and inertia of fast rotating tools allows for shorter run‐up times
and energy saving.
Wall thicknesses can be increased in order to reduce local strain maintaining the
component weight.
Mohring et al. (2015), CIRP Annals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.005 ||
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Criteria for material selection
Precision applications  Thermal and long term stability of structures is essential.
Lightweight construction is desired for moving components.
High damping and stability should be provided by the machine base.
Light stiff design  Correctly place material in the right shape while using as little
material as possible.
A good design leads to a uniformly distributed loading.
• Ideally, the stress level under load should be the same for all material used.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 12
Cast iron and granite are most widely used materials for the machine base and
slideways because of their
• good wear resistance
• low thermal expansions
• low stress‐caused deformation and
• high vibration damping capacity
www.zanite.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Granite
It is crystalline hard stone consisting of quartz, mica and feldspar.
High damping, low thermal conductivity (3.2 W/m K), low
thermal expansion (5–6 µm/m K), high hardness (850–900 HV),
abrasion resistance and absence of residual stresses.
Mostly a combination of granite with steel is applied.  Check thermal properties
to avoid bending and stresses in interfaces. (Steel: 11–13 µm/m K)
Drawback of granite: Absorb moister  used in dry environment.
• Sealing of granite with epoxy resin is required.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Polymer concrete
Filler material Sand, marble, quartz, pearlite, glass,
fiber, dolomite, steel, or carbon fibers
Unsaturated polyester, poly‐

Resin
methylmethacrylate, or epoxy
Catalyst or accelerant
Toughening through polymerization at room temperature
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IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Polymer concrete  The most suitable machine frame material for micro‐milling
• Up to ten times higher absorption of vibrations than cast iron.
• Substantially better thermal stability than cast iron.
• Superior dynamic and static rigidity
• Light weight
Rigidity
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Guideways
It includes load‐bearing components that support the spindle and table, as well as
guiding their movement.
Accuracy of micro machined component depends on precision of guides ways.
Axes of guide ways should have
high acceleration as well as stiff
bearing to compensate process
forces.
https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/understanding‐micro‐milling‐machine‐technology || https://www.ctemag.com/news‐videos/articles/linear‐motion‐ballscrew‐drives
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Guideways: types
Box ways and linear guides.
Box ways:
• Used on a large percentage of machines and are most commonly found on large
metal removal machining centers.
• Not good where frequent axis reversals are required
and low friction motion is needed for extreme
accuracy.
https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/understanding‐micro‐milling‐machine‐technology || https://www.ctemag.com/news‐videos/articles/linear‐motion‐ballscrew‐drives
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Guideways: types
Linear guideway  Good choice for a micro‐milling machine.
Allows linear motion using rolling element (balls or rollers)
Coefficient of friction is 1/50 of traditional slide.
Can take up loads in up‐down and left‐right
directions.
Offers low static and dynamic friction and are
well suited for a high degree of multi‐axis and
complex motion.
https://www.productionmachining.com/articles/understanding‐micro‐milling‐machine‐technology || http://www.hiwin.com/linear‐guideways.html
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Guideways: types
Hydrostatic guideway:
Utilizes a pressurized fluid film (~ 15 µm) to keep
the bearing "afloat" and not in contact with its
lower channel.
Ability to handle very heavy loads without
generating the friction (and heat) that a
contacting slide would incur.
Jun Qu and Jason Schripsema, Ways Design (MIT Lectures)
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Guideways: types
Hydrostatic guideway:
Zero static friction.
Dynamic friction depends on gap and fluid viscosity.
Very intolerant of dirt
• Fluid has to flow past a tiny gap (a capillary or an
orifice), it can clog.
• A particle lodged in a small gap can score the
bearing or the rail.
Jun Qu and Jason Schripsema, Ways Design (MIT Lectures)
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Guideways: types
Aerostatic guideway:
Highest resolution and great machine consistency due to zero wear.
A non‐contacting system where a gas film (typically air) acts as the lubricant that
separates the two surfaces in relative motion.
Avoids the traditional bearing‐
related problems of friction,
wear, and lubricant handling, and
Westwind Air Bearings www.westwind‐airbearings.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
1
Flat air bearing
Air film is achieved by a flow of air accomplished through an orifice or a porous
media that restricts or meters the flow of air  Restriction orifice (R1)
Flow of pressurized air through the restriction is sufficient to match the flow
through the gap.
Restriction gap (R2)  Maintains the pressure under
the bearing and supports the working load.
This restriction is referred as air bearing compensation
 To optimize the bearing for lift, load, and stiffness. bentlybearings
New Way Air Bearings www.newwayairbearings.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 2
Flat air bearing: Orifice and porous media
Orifice media  Air is supplied through a small number of precisely sized holes.
Precise flow rate control, Very high air pressure, High operating temperature range
Damage is not easily repaired, Not good on mating surfaces with gaps or cavities
Porous media  Air through a porous medium to ensure uniform pressure.
Large grooves on mating surface do not greatly affect performance, Accidental
rough handling / touchdown
Mechanical strength, exposure
to oil, solvent, room temp.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Friction in aerostatic bearing
Friction is always at the heart of precision positioning problems  when
attempting to initiate or stop motion precisely.
Static coefficient of friction is higher than the dynamic coefficient of friction.
• Force to initiate motion > to maintain motion.
Air bearings  No difference between static and dynamic
coefficients of friction  No stick‐slip issue.
Friction in air bearings is a function of air shear from motion.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Wear in aerostatic bearing
Wear  Speed, acceleration, and loading  no influence on the air bearing life.
The mode of wear in an air bearing is erosion, so the cleanliness of the air has the
greatest effect.
Air bearings are immune to conventional notions of wear and will perform exactly
the same even after many years of usage.
Clean room applications
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IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Stiffness of air bearing
Air bearings provide constant bearing stiffness.
Stiffness is produced by the uniform flow  Reaction forces experienced by the
shaft from an external load is constant at all points of its revolution.
This property is particularly relevant to the
production of good surface finish
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IIT KHARAGPUR 6
Tool life with air bearing
The lack of vibration and high rotational accuracy  drills, cutters, grinding wheels
and boring tools have a much longer life.
Reducing maintenance and running costs.
In PCB drilling with diameters as small as 50 µm  only air bearing spindles are
capable of running at the required speeds to ensure acceptable tool life.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 7
High speed with air bearing
Very low vibration levels
Low frictional resistance This allows the shaft to be run at very
Low loss of power high surface speed.
Low heat generation
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IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Low thermal growth of air bearing
Due to many factors (such as low friction, constant air flow and efficient power
transmission) the heating effect in a spindle shaft is small.
The selection of special materials and construction methods, together with
internal liquid cooling channels, can almost completely eliminate thermal growth,
so no warm up period is required.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Advantages of aerostatic spindle
ZERO FRICTION  infinite resolution and very high repeatability.
ZERO WEAR  virtually zero wear resulting in consistent machine performance and
low particle generation
Wide temperature range and inherently low viscosities
STRAIGHTER MOTION  Rolling element
bearings are influenced by surface finish and
irregularities on the guide.
Westwind Air Bearings www.westwind‐airbearings.com and New Way Air Bearings www.newwayairbearings.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Advantages of aerostatic spindle
SILENT AND SMOOTH OPERATION  Rollers or balls create noise and vibration
during loading, unloading and changing direction.
HIGHER DAMPING  Air bearings have a squeeze film damping effect resulting in
higher dynamic stiffness and better controllability
ELIMINATES OIL  In dusty environments (dry machining), ways are dry and
bearings are self‐cleaning because positive air pressure pushes dust away.
HIGH SPEEDS  High speeds ‐ high acceleration. No balls or rollers to slip at high
acceleration
Westwind Air Bearings www.westwind‐airbearings.com and New Way Air Bearings www.newwayairbearings.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Comparison of different bearings
Air Bearing Hydrostatic Bearing Rolling Bearing
Almost frictionless (limitless Low friction (good Stick‐slip‐effect imposes lower

motion increment) resolution in motion) limit on motion increments
Low damping High damping Low damping

(depends on preloading)
Large Large and heavy
Compact, light
Complicated mounting Must deal with fluid weight and tough
High cost Easy mounting

High cost
Low cost
www.micromanufacturing.com (Micromilling technology: Globle review)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 12
Linear drive
Coupling of the payload to the motor through mechanical
transmission elements (lead screws, timing belts, rack and pinion,
and worm gear drives).
Linear motor  Direct coupling of the payload to the motor’s moving
part.
http://www.etel.ch/linear‐motors/direct‐drive/
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IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Linear drive
It is an AC induction motor that has been cut open and unwrapped.
The "rotor" takes the form of a moving platform (secondary).
When the current is switched on, the secondary glides past the primary supported
and propelled by a magnetic field.
Force (F) is generated when the
current (I) (along vector L) and
the flux density (B) interact.
http://www.etel.ch/linear‐motors/direct‐drive/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Linear drive: types
Iron core  Coils wound around teeth of
laminations on forcer
Ironless or Aircore  Dual back iron
separated by spacer
• Coils held together with epoxy
Slotless  Coil and back iron held together
with epoxy
Barrett et al. Parker Hannifin Corporation www.parkermotion.com/whitepages/linearmotorarticle.pdf
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IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Linear drive: Iron core type
• Copper windings around forcer laminations over a single magnet rail
Advantages:
• Highest force available per unit volume  concentrated flux field
• Efficient Cooling  windings are around an iron lamination
• Lower cost
Disadvantages:
• High attractive force between iron forcer & magnet track
• Cogging: iron forcer affects thrust force as it passes
over each magnet (velocity ripple)
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IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Linear drive: Ironless or Aircore or U channel type
Forcer constructed of wound coils held together with epoxy and running between
two rails (North and South)
Advantages:
• No attractive forces in forcer
• No Cogging
• Low weight forcer ‐ No iron means higher accel/decel rates
Disadvantages:
 Low force per package size (double rail design)
 Lower Stiffness; limited load
 Poor heat dissipation
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IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Linear drive: slotless type
Mix of ironless and iron core: coils with back iron contained within aluminum
housing over a single magnet rail
Advantages over ironless:
• Lower cost (1x magnets) , Better heat dissipation
• Structurally stronger forcer
• More force per package size
Advantages over iron core:
• Lighter weight and lower inertia forcer
• Lower attractive forces, Less cogging
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IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Linear drive: Summary
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IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Linear drive: Advantages
High speeds:
The maximum speed of a linear motor is limited only by the bus voltage and the
speed of the control electronics.
Typical speeds for linear motors are 3 m/s with 1 µm resolution and over 5 m/s
with coarser resolution.
Maintenance Free Operation:
Because the linear motors of today have no contacting parts there is no wear.
Fewer mechanical parts minimize maintenance.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 20
High Precision:
The accuracy, resolution, and repeatability of a linear motor driven device is
controlled by the feed back device.
With the wide range of linear feedback devices available, resolution and accuracy
are primarily limited to budget and control system bandwidth.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Fast Response:
The response rate of a linear motor driven device can be over 100 times that of a
mechanical transmission.
Faster accelerations and settling times  more throughput.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Stiffness:
No mechanical linkage  Increasing the stiffness is simply a matter of gain and
current.
It is limited by the motors peak force, the current available and the resolution of
the feedback.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Zero Backlash:
Without mechanical transmission components, there is no backlash.
Resolution considerations  Motor must be displaced by 1 feedback count before
it will begin to correct its position.
Wide range of sizes and can be easily adapted to most applications.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 24
Linear drive: Disadvantages
Cost:
Linear Motors are expensive due to relative low volume produced and the price of
magnets.
Cost of the rare earth magnets is high, long travel motors become expensive.
Motor is coupled with linear encoder  they are expensive than rotary encoder.
Cost of linear encoder increases with the travel length.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Higher Bandwidth Drives and Controls:
Since there is no mechanical reduction between the motor and the load, servo
response, bandwidth, must be faster.
This includes higher encoder bandwidth and servo update rates.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 26
Force per package size:
Linear motors are not compact force generators compared to a rotary motor with
a transmission offering mechanical advantage.
Example:
To produce even 65 N of continuous force  a linear motor’s cross section is
approximately 50 mm x 40 mm.
Cross section of a 10 mm diameter ball screw which produces 400 N of thrust.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Heating:
In most linear motor applications, the forcer is attached to the load.
Any I2R losses are then directly coupled to the load.
If an application is sensitive to heat, thermal management techniques need to be
applied.
Air and water cooling options are popular and common.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 28
No (minimal) friction:
This may not sound like a problem, but it certainly can be.
For instance, a linear motor is traveling at 3 m/s and loses power.
Without some resistance in the system, it does not take long before the motor
reaches the end of stroke and mechanical stops.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Feedback encoders
How small of a part you can successfully machine depends greatly on
the drive and motion technologies built into your micro‐machine.
Position feed back
Rotary Linear
encoders encoders
Incremental and absolute

http://www.electronicshub.org/position‐sensors/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 30
Rotary incremental encoders
An electromechanical device which converts angular motion to analog value or
digital code.
It provides distance travelled and direction information.
Amount of rotation and pitch of the lead screw 
Counts the number of output pulses.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Rotary incremental encoders
Cannot tell about absolute position  Machine needs to be referenced or homed.
It provides output only when the shaft of the encoder is rotated.
A reference position (can be any where) is reset and pulse count from that
position to detect the amount of rotation.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 32
Rotary absolute encoders
Output is in the form of absolute measure of position, i.e. current position.
Consists of a glass or plastic disc with opaque and transparent areas.
Light source (LED) and an array photo
detectors for reading optical pattern.
Produces a unique binary code output for
each distinct angle of the shaft.
Shaft position is always known even after
power failures.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Rotary absolute encoders
heidenhain
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 34
Problem with Rotary encoders
Rotary encoders only determine the distance or speed of travel
They do not account for
backlash, wear, or thermal
changes to the ball screw.
Any such ball screw geometri
cal changes will cause errors
in the calculation of the actual
position.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 35
Linear encoders
To ensure the most precise axis position, micro‐milling applications
require glass scales (linear encoder) to be placed close to the guide ways in
order to provide additional feedback to the control.
Micro‐milling applications will most likely necessitate the use of 0.1
micron glass scales rather than the commonly used 0.5 micron version.
Capitalizing on the Growing Demand for Micro‐Milling ‐ A Mold Maker’s Guide
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 36
Linear encoders
It measures relative movements of the reader head in respect to the scale body
and converts this data into electrical signals.
Made from strips of high quality glass with
evenly etched very small marks (< 5 μm
apart).
http://www.zsinstruments.com/scales_about.aspx
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 37
Linear encoders
Two optical sensors (phototransistors or photodiodes) are placed very close to
each other.
Count how many times the
light blink and multiply it by
spacing between the
gratings to calculate
distance travelled.
http://www.zsinstruments.com/scales_about.aspx
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 38
Ajay M. Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR
1
Spindle
Micro machining  High revolution speed is required due to small tool diameter.
The major performance features include:
• Desired Spindle Power, Peak and Continuous
• Maximum Spindle Load, Axial and Radial Many of the
criteria are
• Maximum Spindle
contradictory
• Speed Allowed to one
• Tooling Style, Size and Capacity for ATC another
• Belt Driven or Integral Motor‐Spindle Design
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 2
Spindle: Design constraints
The machine tool, also, will present design constraints to the spindle.
• The amount of available space in the head
• Cost considerations
• Complexity and market demands will affect the ultimate spindle design.
• A very sophisticated and capable spindle design will not be acceptable on a
low‐cost machine tool.
• An advanced machine tool design can justify the higher cost of a more capable
and complex spindle package.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Spindle: Major Components
• Spindle Style  Belt Driven or Integral Motor‐Spindle
• Spindle Bearings  Type, Quantity, Mounting, and Lubrication Method
• Spindle Motor  Belt‐Type, Motor‐
Spindle, Capacity, Size
• Spindle Shaft including tool retention
drawbar and tooling system used
• Spindle Housing  Size, Mounting
Style, Capacity
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 4
Spindle: which one is good ??
Criteria:
• Requirements of the machine tool, including the maximum speed, power and
stiffness required.
• Cost is an important factor
• Belt driven spindle generally is cheaper than an integral motor‐spindle.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Spindle: Belt driven spindle
Spindle shaft incorporates the tooling system, including the tool taper, drawbar
mechanism and tool release system.
Requirements of the machine tool, including the
maximum speed, power and stiffness required.
Torque is transmitted to the spindle shaft by of a
cogged or V‐belt.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 6
The power, torque and speed of the spindle
depend upon the characteristics of the
driving motor, and the belt ratio used
between the motor and the spindle.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Advantages
Reasonable Cost  the spindle itself is comprised of a few basic parts.
Wide Variety of Spindle Characteristics 
• Spindle power, torque and speed are dependent upon the driving motor, to a
large degree  Final specifications can be modified for a particular application
by using a different motor or belt ratio.
• In some cases, gears are also used to provide multiple speed ranges in addition
to the fixed belt ratio.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
Advantages
High Power and Torque Possible 
• The spindle motor is mounted externally from the actual spindle shaft  it is
often possible to use a very large motor.
• A large motor of large diameter  very high torque and high power.
This is much more difficult in an integral motor‐spindle design, as available space is
always limited.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Disadvantages
Limited Maximum Speed  Mechanical transmission (belt and pulley)
• Poly V‐belt  high speed on pulleys tend to stretch and disengage the belts 
reducing their contact and ability to transmit torque.
• Cogged belts  eliminate the slipping problem  Unacceptable levels of
vibration.
• Gears  Limited in maximum speed, high vibration and heating.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 10
Disadvantages
Belts Utilize Bearing Load Capacity 
The required tensioning of belt will exert a constant radial force on the rear spindle
shaft bearing set.
• Increase of power and speed increase of the applied tension and consequent
force  Using up much of the available radial loading capacity of the bearings.
Use of larger or additional bearings will not be feasible.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Spindle: Integral motor spindle
The integral motor‐spindle does not rely upon an external motor to provide torque
and power.
Motor is an integral part of the spindle shaft and housing assembly.
It allows the spindle to rotate at higher speeds
as a complete unit, without the additional
limitations of belts or gears.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 12
Spindle: Integral motor spindle
It is comprised of the spindle shaft, including motor element, and tooling system.
The spindle shaft is held in position by a set of high precision bearings.
The bearings require a
lubrication method, such as
grease or oil.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Spindle: Housings
It may be an integral part of the machine tool, or may be
block, foot mount or a flange mount cartridge housing.
Cartridge type housing
• Simplest to service, and
• tolerances required for high speed are easier to obtain
when the housing can be produced as a cylinder.
Article Post: 8/15/1998 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/high-speed-spindle-design-and-construction || https://dynospindles.com/spindles/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 14
Spindle: Bearings
One of the most critical components of any high speed spindle design.
It must provide high
• rotational speed,
• transfer torque and
• power to the cutting tool, and
be capable of reasonable loading and life.
The bearing type used must be consistent with the above demands, or the spindle
will not perform.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Spindle: Bearings selection criteria
Requirement Best Bearing Type Design Impact
High Speed  Small Angular Contact  Small Shaft, Low Power
High Stiffness  Large Roller  Low Speed, Large Shaft
Axial Loading  High Contact Angle  Lower Speed
Radial Loading  Low Contact Angle  Higher Speed
High Accuracy  ABEC 9, High Preload  Expensive, Low Speed
Compromises must be made in order to arrive at the most efficient design possible.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 16
Spindle: Bearings tolerance standard
Commonly used standard is the ABEC (America Bearing Engineers Committee).
Defines tolerances for major bearing dimensions (bore, I.D. and width) and
characteristics (bearing geometry).
ABEC 1  a general purpose bearing
ABEC 9  high precision bearing suitable for use in a high speed spindle.
Spindle bearings  geometry accuracy of ABEC 9  minimum runout and
rotational accuracy.
Bore, O.D., and width  ABEC 7  for a more reasonable fitting and installation.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Spindle: Angular Contact Ball Bearings vs. Tapered
Roller Bearings
Angular contact bearings  most commonly used.
• They provide the precision, load carrying capacity and speed
required for metal cutting spindles.
Tapered roller bearings  higher load capacity and greater
stiffness over ball bearings.
• However, tapered roller bearings do not allow the high speeds
required by many spindles.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 18
Spindle: Angular Contact Ball Bearings
Designed to provide both axial and radial load carrying capacity, when properly
pre‐loaded.
The maximum speed a bearing will be able to achieve depend on
• type of bearing, lube method, pre‐load, loading, etc.
A bench mark is used as the dN number (bearing bore
diameter x speed in RPM)
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Spindle: Contact angle in angular contact ball
bearings
It is the nominal angle between the ball‐to‐race contact line and a plane through
the ball centers, perpendicular to the bearing axis.
The contact angle determines the ratio of axial to radial loading possible, with
radial loading being the primary benefit.
Typically, contact angles of 12°, 15°, and 25° are available.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 20
Spindle: Contact angle in angular contact ball
bearings
Lower the contact angle  greater the radial load carrying capacity.
Higher the contact angle  higher the axial loading capacity.
Contact angle of 25° for a spindle that will
be used primarily for drilling,
Contact angle of 15° for a spindle that will
primarily be used for milling.

www.dynospindles.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Spindle: Importance of bearing preloading
It is necessary to have a controlled amount of internal clearance, or looseness
between the rings and balls called “radial play” to allow for free movement.
The purpose of preload (for certain applications) is to remove excess play by
applying axial or thrust load to a bearing.
Bearing with A bearing with A bearing with
no play  standard play  low proper preload 
wears and rigidity and rolling high rigidity,
heats up elements can slide or reduced vibration
excessively. skid instead of and optimal
rotating. bearing life.
http://www.bearingtips.com/preload‐necessary‐bearing‐applications/ http://www.nationalprecision.com/library/articles/bearing‐preload.php
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 22
Spindle: Benefits of bearing preloading
• Rotational accuracy and precise shaft positioning
• Elimination or reduction of ball skidding
• Control and reduction of axial and radial deflection under applied load
• Noise reduction
Excessive preload  increased heat, stress, fatigue, and torque.

Insufficient preload  resonant vibration  fretting of the raceways.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Spindle: Critical applications of bearing preloading
Most high‐precision and high‐speed applications  high rotational and positional
accuracy is required.
Radial play  one bearing race moves radially and axially relative to the other.
• With rotation, this looseness translates into wobble or non‐repetitive runout.
• Unacceptable in applications such as machine tool spindles, electric motors,
optical encoders, flow meters, and high‐speed hand tools.
Axial preload forces the balls into contact with raceways
http://www.bearingtips.com/preload‐necessary‐bearing‐applications/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 24
Spindle: Methods of preloading
Spring preload
• coil spring or spring wave washer applies a
constant axial load to the inner or outer rings.
• Most common  Simple and less expensive
• Can accommodate slight misalignment or thermal
expansion and contraction of components.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Spindle: Methods of preloading
Solid preload
• Spacers or locking mechanisms for applying an
axial load.
• Good  System stiffness is high, and the design
is straightforward.
• Change in preloading due to expansion and
contraction with thermal variation and wear.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 26
Spindle: Bearing preloading magnitude
Angular contact ball bearings must be pre‐loaded in order to provide axial and
radial capabilities.
Light, medium and heavy.
Light pre‐loading  allow maximum speed and less stiffness.
• Light pre‐loaded bearings are often used for very high speed applications,
where cutting loads are also light, and top RPM is needed.
Heavy pre‐loading  allows less speed, but higher stiffness.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Spindle: Duplex bearing
Machine tool spindles must be capable of resisting deflection from multiple
directions while maintaining both rotational and positional accuracy.
Duplex bearing  mount several angular contact ball bearings to provide the
required load carrying capacity  load sharing and high stiffness.
Duplex bearings have high radial and axial rigidity.
Duplex bearings are matched pairs of bearings with “built‐in”
preload.
Article Post: 8/15/1998 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/high-speed-spindle-design-and-construction || http://www.bearingtips.com/preload-necessary-bearing-applications/
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 28
Spindle: Duplex bearing
The inner or outer ring faces have been ground to a precise dimension known as
the preload offset.
This offset corresponds to the rings axial movement when a specific axial preload
is applied.
When the bearings are clamped together at
assembly the offset faces abut, establishing a
permanent, rigid preload in the bearing set.
www.dynospindles.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Spindle: Duplex bearing - Bearing Mounting
Face to Face/ X Configuration
Bearings are mounted face to face.
The outer races are relieved in this configuration.
When the outer races are clamped together, the relief
clearance is eliminated, resulting in the correct pre‐load.
Bearing pair is capable of withstanding both axial and
radial loading.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 30
Back to Back / O Configuration
Inner races are relieved.
suited for most applications and provides good accuracy and
rigidity.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Tandem / DT Configuration
In many cases, two or three bearings are placed near the spindle
nose, with a pair mounted near the rear of the spindle shaft.
It can handle heavy unidirectional thrust loads.
It does not allow forces in both directions,
unless another pair of bearings are used on the
spindle shaft, facing in the opposite direction.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 32
Motor‐Spindle with Tandem Bearing Pairs and Spring Pre‐Loading
Motor‐spindles experience temperature increases due to bearing heat and motor
losses.  Thermal growth of the spindle shaft  inner race is forced into the
bearing  increase in pre‐load  rapid failure
Mount the rear spindle bearings in a floating
housing, with springs.
Article Post: 8/15/1998 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/high-speed-spindle-design-and-construction || www.dynospindles.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Motor‐Spindle with Tandem Bearing Pairs and Spring Pre‐Loading
Floating housing is mounted in a precision bore, or ball cage  is
free to move in an axial direction to the extent of clearance s.
Spindle grows  Rear bearings are free to move also.
In this way, the pre‐load seen by the bearings does not change, and
is maintained by the force exerted by the springs.
It is used for high speed milling spindles and grinding spindles.
Article Post: 8/15/1998 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/high-speed-spindle-design-and-construction || www.dynospindles.com
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 34
Spindle: Hybrid ceramic bearing
Ceramic (silicon nitride) for the production of precision balls.
The ceramic balls have 60% lighter than steel balls
High rotational speed  centrifugal force pushes the balls to the outer race, and
bocabearings
even begin to deform the shape of the ball.
This deformation leads to rapid wear and bearing deterioration.
Ceramic balls will not be affected as much at the same speed.
• Up to 30% higher speed for a given ball bearing size, without sacrificing any
bearing life.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 35
Ceramic Balls do not react with the steel raceways
One of the most prominent mechanisms of bearing failure is surface wear created
by microscopic "cold welding " of the ball material to the raceway.
The cold welds actually break as the bearing rotates, creating surface roughness
which leads to heat generation and bearing failure.
The ceramic material drastically reduces this
mechanism, resulting in longer bearing life.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 36
Ceramic ball bearings operate at lower temperatures
Nearly perfect roundness  operates at much lower temperatures than steel ball
bearings.
This results in longer life for the bearing lubricant.
Less friction generated in the bearings with increase in heat.
Low thermal expansion as compared to steel balls.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 37
Ceramic bearings operate at much lower vibration levels
Spindle utilizing hybrid ceramic bearings exhibit
• higher rigidity and
• have higher natural frequencies,
making them less sensitive to vibration.
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 38
Low thermal conductivity  reduces the amount of heat absorbed which reduces
cooling system requirements.
Low deformation  useful in the machines that work under extreme pressure.
High temperature hardness as compared to steel  retain their strength and
hardness up to 1800 F.
Low density (3.2 g/cc), high flexural strength (1.0 GPa), and high fracture
toughness (6 MPa/m2).
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 39
Spindle with bearing assembly
Ajay Sidpara
IIT KHARAGPUR 40

Introduction To Mechanical Micro Machining Nptel

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Introduction To Mechanical Micro Machining Nptel

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INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL MICRO MACHINING

MoldMaking Technology Kern Precision Inc. microlution-inc

 Micro tools fabrication

Conventional lathe CNC turning center

Microtools for surgery,

Micro parts for biomedical applications

Watch base plate Pendant mould

Datron microlution microlution

Micro molds for toys

Subtractive Additive Mass containing Joining

MEMS (lithography based) Non - MEMS (non-lithography based)

Component geometry Planer or 2.5 D Complex 3D

Image: Sandia Lab

Relative accuracy 10-1 – 10-3 10-2 – 10-5

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Production rate High Low

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Process control Feed forward Feedback

Initial investment High Moderate or low

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Processes Milling, Turning, drilling, … Diamond turning, fly cutting, …

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Tools Various tool materials (coated Natural diamond tools

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Component size 1 – 1000 µm 1 mm to very large

Relative accuracy 10-2 – 10-5 10-5 – 10-6

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Surface finish < 100 nm Ra < 20 nm Ra

Ding et al. (2011) ASME opticalsystems

Cheng, Huo (2013) Micro-Cutting: Fundamentals and Applications, WILEY

Bridging the macro-domain and the

Complex microstructures on the

Chae et al. (2006) Investigation of micro-cutting operations, IJMTM.

Modern Machine Shop - Article Post: 4/6/2009 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/too-small-to-touch

Article Post: 4/12/2007 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/cutting-with-a-0001-inch-end-mill

Article Post: 4/12/2007 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/cutting-with-a-0001-inch-end-mill

Article Post: 4/12/2007 https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/cutting-with-a-0001-inch-end-mill

Individual components should

Small size 294 × 220 × 328 mm3

As the scale of the system reduces, different phenomena / parameters become

Knowing the scaling of a physical phenomenon

As animal becomes smaller, weight decreases ϒ = coefficient of S.T.

At Surface tension ϒ ~ 72 mN/m (water)

δ = ( FL3 ) / 3EI I = section modulus = b4/12

Stiffness of the beam =k F /δ ∝ l

Smaller the beam  the smaller k more flexible

Dr. Friedrich (MTU) http://pages.mtu.edu/~microweb/chap1/ch1-2-1.htm (NSF funded)

δ = ( FL3 ) / 3EI I = section modulus = b4/12

F is the weight of the beam (W)

σ = My / I I = section modulus = b4/12

A shrinking of 10 causes a 100-fold increase in the induced stress.

10 times reduction in radius will lead to a 10000

Subbiah and Melkote (2006) J. Eng. Mater. Technol 129(2), 321-331

Material is predominantly removed by the mechanical shear force due to the

• cutting force Ft Work

• chip thickness Small uncut chip thickness 

• chip formation low cutting temperature 

• quality of machined surface high shear yield strength of workpiece 

Tool edge acts as a strong source of dislocations for -α

Uncut chip thickness <=

A shear band is developed joining the top of the tool

Uncut chip thickness <=

Regardless of the nominal rake angle ( +ve, -ve or 0),