Pe 402 Automation in Manufacturing Module-I

8/18/2021
PE 402 AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING
Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT

Mesra, Ranchi
Course Objectives:
This course enables the students to:
To learn how to apply the principles of mechatronics and automation for the development of
productive and efficient manufacturing systems
To recognize the meaning of Machine tool automation, and to develop skill in part programming
Acquire knowledge about controllers and Sensor
To acquire knowledge about Machining Lines Automation, Assembly automation
Apply concepts for the planning, design, analysis and implementation of flexible manufacturing
systems and CIM
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Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi
Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production
and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra,
Ranchi 1
8/18/2021
Course Outcomes:
After the completion of this course, students will able to:
CO1 Know the various aspects of automation in manufacturing.
CO2 Recognize the fundamentals of Machine Tool Automation and part programming
CO3 Knowledge about various control systems and Product Automation
CO4 Machining Lines Automation and Assembly automation
CO5 Implement FMS, and CIM concept in a manufacturing environment and product
development through automation.
Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi 3
SYLLABUS
Module 1: Introduction to Automation [8]
Manufacturing automation, components and types of automation,
CAD, CAM, Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems.
Mechatronics in Manufacturing Systems. Modeling of Mechanical
Systems for Mechatronics Applications, Automation Strategies in
manufacturing industries
Module 2: CNC Tools [8]
Basic Principles, classification and structure of NC systems, NC-
coordinate system, Constructional features and feedback devices for
CNC machine tools, part programming (Fanuc), DNC and adaptive
control.
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Module 3: Sensors and Actuators [8]

Sensors, Actuators, Control System in manufacturing: Mechanical & Electric
mechanical system, Pneumatics and hydraulics and servo control in CNC
machine tools, Illustrative examples and case studies
Module 4: Assembly Automation [8]

Assembly Automation: Automatic Assembly Transfer Systems, Transfer
mechanism, buffer storage and control functions for transfer devices, feeding
mechanism definition and concept, AGV, AS/RS
Module 5: Flexible Automation [8]

Flexible automation: Flexible manufacturing systems: concept, need,
structure & operation, objectives and benefits. Quantitative Analysis of
Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Cellular Manufacturing, CIM
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Text books:
1. M.P. Groover, Automation, Production System, and CIM [T1]
2. P. Radhakrishnan, CNC Machines [T2]
3. Nanua Singh, System approach to Computer Integrated Design and
Manufacturing [T3]
Reference books:
1. Y. Koren, Numerical Control of Machine Tools [R1]
2. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology II, [R2]
3. N. Viswannadham & Y Narhari, Performance Modeling of
Automated Manufacturing System [R3]
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Manufacturing
. Defined -Technological Definition
• “Application of physical and chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products”
• Manufacturing also includes the joining of multiple parts to make assembled products
• Accomplished by a combination of machinery, tools, power, and manual labor.
• Almost always carried out as a sequence of operations
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Manufacturing
. Defined - ECONOMIC Definition
• “Transformation of materials into items of greater value by means of one
or more processing and/or assembly operations”
• Manufacturing adds value to the material
Examples:
Converting iron ore to steel adds value
Transforming sand into glass adds value
Refining petroleum into plastic adds value
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Process Industries and Discrete Manufacturing Industries
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Classification of manufacturing processes
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Automation of manufacturing Processes
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Discrete Manufacturing
Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT Mesra, 12
Ranchi
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Job shop
Batch Production
Variety
Mass Production
Quantity
Automation
Specialization
Skills
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• Mass production
– Automation easily justified
– Objectives: (1) reduce operation cycle time, (2) increase system reliability
– Line is rarely changed - setup time not critical
– Inflexible: not suitable for products with many options or limited production runs
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• Job shop production
– Products produced in small volume
– Automation difficult to justify unless products are too complex to be produced
manually
– Objectives: (1) reduce setup time, (2) reduce processing time, (3) reduce WIP
– Most flexible of production strategies
• Batch production
– Products produced in batches, lots or groups
– Trade-off between job shop and mass production
– Single setup for each batch
– Increase batch size, but increase in waiting time, WIP and inventory result
– Objectives are same as job shop
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Facility layout
Four types of layouts:
Fixed Position: suitable for large products
Process: suitable for job shop
Cellular: suitable when products are similar in batch production and sometimes in job shop
Product flow: suitable for mass production
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Fixed position layout

– Product must remain stationary throughout production sequence
– Machines are brought to the product
– Higher expense due to robustness and accuracy of equipment
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Process layout
– For small, discrete-parts manufacturing
– Machines are grouped into departments according to type of operation
– Advantages: work schedule more flexible
– Disadvantages: WIP is large (cost in inventory and storage space), high material
handling cost, larger batches are made than are required (to justify setup), difficulty in
maintaining control of parts, highest skill level required from operators
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Cell layout
1. In a cell layout, the transformed resources entering the operation move into a cell in
which all the transforming resources it requires in located.
2. After being processed in the cell, the transformed resource may move to a different cell
in the operation or it may be a finished product or service.
3. Each cell may be arranged in either a process or product layout.
4. The cell type layout attempts to bring order to the complex flow seen in a process layout.
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The ground floor plan of a department store showing the sports goods shop-within-a-shop
retail ‘cell’
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Product layout
1. In a product layout, the transformed resource flow a long a line of processes that has
been prearranged.
2. Flow is clear, predictable and easy to control.
A restaurant complex with all four basic layout types
Line layout cafeteria
Cell layout buffet
Fixed-position layout service

restaurant
Des
Star
buff
buf
ert
fet
ter
et
Main course buffet Service line
Preparation
Oven
Process layout kitchen
Cool room
Freezer Vegetable prep Grill
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Volume-variety relationship
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Manufacturing Support Systems

To operate the production facilities, a company must organize itself to design the processes
and equipment's, plan and control the production orders, and satisfy the product quality
requirements. These functions are accomplished by the manufacturing support system. Most
of these support system does not directly contact the product, but they plan and control the
progress through the factory.
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Manufacturing Support Systems

– Business functions - sales and marketing, order entry, cost accounting, customer
billing
– Product design - research and development, design engineering, prototype shop
– Manufacturing planning - process planning, production planning, MRP, capacity
planning
– Manufacturing control- shop floor control, inventory control, quality control
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Automation in Production Systems
• Automation in Production Systems can be considered as the technology concerned with

application of electronic, mechanical and computer based system to operate and control
the production system.
• The automated elements of the production system can be separated into two separate
categories:
• (i) automation of manufacturing system in the factory.
• (ii) computerization of manufacturing support system.
• The two categories overlap because manufacturing support systems are connected to the
factory manufacturing systems
– Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
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Automated Manufacturing Systems

• Machines
• Transfer lines
• Assembly
• Material Handling
• Inspection (coordinate measuring machines, CMM)
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Types of Automation
• Fixed Automation (transfer lines): Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of
processing (or assembly) operations are fixed by the equipment configuration.
– Hard automation, automation for mass production
– Produces large numbers of nearly identical parts
– High initial investment for custom engineered equipment
– Product design must be stable over its life
– Advantages: equipment fine tuned to application - decreased cycle time, infrequent
setups, automated material handling - fast and efficient movement of parts, very little
WIP
– Disadvantage: inflexible
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• Programmable Automation (NC, CNC, robots): In programmable automation, the

production equipment are designed with the capability to change the sequence of operation
to accommodate different product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by
a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by
the system.
– Sequence controlled by a program
– High investment in general purpose equipment
– Lower production rates
– Flexibility to deal with variation
– Suitable for batch production, smaller volumes (than fixed) of many different parts
– More flexible than fixed automation
– Major disadvantage: setup prior to each new part
– Speed sacrificed for flexibility
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Flexible Automation: Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A
flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts or products with virtually
no time lost for changeovers from one design to the next. There is no lost production time
while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine
settings). Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or
products instead of requiring that they be made in batches. System is capable of changing over
from one job to the next with little lost time between jobs
– Extension of programmable automation
– No time lost for change over
– High investment in custom-engineered systems
– Production of product mix
– Flexibility to deal with design variations
– Low to medium quantities
– Compromise between fixed and programmable automation in speed and flexibility
– Advantage: programming and setup performed off-line
– More expensive - size and tool change capabilities
– Small batch sizes are justified - reduced WIP and lead time
– Typical parts are expensive, large and require some complex machining
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Reasons for Automating

• Increase production rate eliminate portions of process that directly increase production
time machine processing time, handling time, setup times
• Remove humans from hazardous environments
exposure to chemicals, fumes, temperature or radiation
robotic applications: furnaces, spray painting, welding
• Remove humans from processes that require extremely clean environments: e.g.,
semiconductors, drugs
• Reduce number of defective products
• Reduce direct labor one worker monitors a larger number of machines
• Reduce work-in-process parts being processed, part waiting to be processed large WIP:
longer time to fill orders, more storage space, value of unfinished goods that could be
invested elsewhere reduced WIP: better control and scheduling
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• Reduce manufacturing lead time processing time, setup time, waiting time setup time:
flexible automation, common fixtures and tooling processing time: combining or
eliminating operations, increase speed (work measurement principles)
• Increase quality repeatable operations through every cycle - tighter control limits, easier
detection when process is out of control status of manufacturing operations
• Increase productivity
• Reduce labor cost
• Address labor shortages
• Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks
• Health and Safety
• Increase the product quality
• Reduce manufacturing lead time
• May be the only option
• Stay up-to-date (avoid cost of catching up)
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Manual Labour Vs Automation

• A number of situation can be listed in which manual labour is usually preferred over
automation
– Task is too technologically difficult to automate
– Short product life cycle
– Customized product
– To cope with the ups and downs of demand
• Strengths of Humans
– Sense unexpected stimuli
– Develop new solutions to problems
– Cope with abstract problems
– Adapt to change
– Generalize from observations
– Learn from experience
– Make difficult decisions based on incomplete data
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Manual Labor in Automated Systems

• Strengths of (computer-based) machines
– Perform repetitive tasks consistently
– Store large amounts of data
– Retrieve data from memory reliably
– Perform multiple tasks simultaneously
– Apply high forces and power
– Perform computations quickly
Even if all of the manufacturing systems in the factory are automated, there will still be a need for the following
kinds of work to be performed:
Equipment maintenance. Maintain and repair, improve the reliability, of automated systems.
Programming and computer operation.
Engineering project work. Upgrades, design tooling, continuous improvement.
Plant management.
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AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

USA Principle:
1. Understand the existing process
2. Simplify the process
3. Automate the process (if needed)
USA Principle:
1. Understand the existing process
– Input/output analysis
– Value chain analysis
– Charting techniques and mathematical modeling
2. Simplify the process
– Reduce unnecessary steps and moves
3. Automate the process
– Ten strategies for automation and production systems
– Automation migration strategy
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Ten Strategies for Automation
1. Specialization of operations.
2. Combined operations.
3. Simultaneous operations.
4. Integration of operations.
5. Increased flexibility.
6. Improved material handling and storage.
7. On line inspection.
8. Process control and optimization.
9. Plant operations control.
10. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM).
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Automation Migration Strategy
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Automation Migration Strategy For Introduction of New Products

1. Phase 1 – Manual production
– Single-station manned cells working independently
– Advantages: quick to set up, low-cost tooling
2. Phase 2 – Automated production
– Single-station automated cells operating independently
– As demand grows and automation can be justified
3. Phase 3 – Automated integrated production
– Multi-station system with serial operations and automated transfer of work units
between stations
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Automation is a higher degree of mechanization in which human
participation is replaced by mechanical or electrical technologies
capable of doing physical and mental work as in NC or adaptive
control machines.
To most of the situations, automation or higher degree mechanization
must be meaningful to the basic premise of cost reduction in large
scale production technology.
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Advantages of automation include:
• Increase in productivity both qualitative and quantitative
• Decrease in unit cost
• Improved accuracy
• Better safety
• Less wastage through automatic controls
• More resource utilization
• Stimulates, intellectual activities.
The disadvantages of automation include:
•Skill displacement requiring rehabilitation of obsolete skills
•Initial cost is high for including additional features for mechanization of drives
and controls
•Higher maintenance cost
•Higher organizational cost due to higher managerial to worker ratio
•Indirect cost for research, development and programming, etc.
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Development in the History of Automation of Manufacturing Processes
Date Development
1500–1600 Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips.
1600–1700 Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator.
1700–1800 Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press.
1800–1900 Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators.
1808 Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms.
1863 Automatic piano player (Pianola).
1900–1920 Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottlemaking machine.
1920 First use of the word robot.
1920–1940 Transfer machines; mass production.
1940 First electronic computing machine.
1943 First digital electronic computer.
1945 First use of the word automation.
1948 Invention of the transistor.
1952 First prototype numerical-control machine tool.
1954 Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control.
1957 Commercially available NC machine tools.
1959 Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology.
1960s Industrial robots.
1965 Large-scale integrated circuits.
1968 Programmable logic controllers.
1970 First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots.
1970s Microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing systems; group technology.
1980s Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells,
1990s Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing
networks; fuzzy logic devices; artificial neural networks; Internet tools.
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Goals of automation
• Automation has the following primary goals:
• Integrate various aspects of manufacturing operations so as to improve the product
quality and uniformity, minimize cycle times and effort involved, and thus reduce labour
costs.
• Improve productivity by reducing the manufacturing costs through better control of
production: Raw materials and parts are loaded, fed, and unloaded on machines faster and
more efficiently; machines are used more effectively; and production is organized more
effectively.
• Improved quality by improving the repeatability of manufacturing processes.
• Reduced human involvement.
• Economize on floor space by arranging machines, materials movement and auxiliary
equipment more efficiently.
• Raise the level of safety.
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Automation and production quantity

• Production quantity is crucial in determining the type of machinery and the level of
automation required to produce parts economically.
• Piece-part production usually involves very small quantities and is suitable for job
shops. The majority of piece part production is in the lot size of 50 or less. Quantities for
small batch production typically ranges from 10 to 100, using general purpose machines
and machining centers with various computer controls.
• Batch production involves lot sizes between 100 to 5000; it utilizes machinery similar to
that used for small batch production, but with specially designed fixtures for higher
production rates.
• Mass production often involves quantities over 100000; it requires special purpose
machinery and automated equipment for transferring materials and parts. Labour skills
required and labor costs are less in this type of automation. However this type of
automation lack flexibility.
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Automation Defined
• “Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without
human assistance”
• Basic elements of an automated system:
– 1. Power - to accomplish the process and operate the automated system
– 2. Program of instructions – to direct the process
– 3. Control system – to actuate the instructions
• It is implemented using a Program of Instructions combined with a Control System that
executes the instructions.
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Program of Instructions
• “Set of commands that specify the sequence of steps in the work cycle and the
details of each step”
• Example: CNC part program
• During each step, there are one or more activities involving changes in one or
more process parameters
– Examples:
• Temperature setting of a furnace
• Axis position in a positioning system
• Motor on or off
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Decision-Making in a Programmed Work Cycle

• The following are examples of automated work cycles in which decision
making is required:
– Operator interaction
• Automated teller machine system
– Different part or product styles processed by the system
• Robot welding cycle for two-door vs. four door car models
– Variations in the starting work units
• Additional machining pass for oversized sand casting
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Control System – Two Types

• Closed-loop (feedback) control system – a system in which the output
variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between
the two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input
• Open-loop control system – operates without the feedback loop
– Simpler and less expensive
– Risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect
– E.g. Car parking sensors
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When to Use an Open-Loop Control System

• Actions performed by the control system are simple
• Actuating function is very reliable
• Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small enough as to have no
effect on the actuation
• If these conditions do not apply, then a closed-loop control system should be
used
Advanced Automation Functions
• Safety monitoring
• Maintenance and repair diagnostics
• Error detection and recovery
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Safety Monitoring
• “Use of sensors to track the system's operation and identify conditions that
are unsafe or potentially unsafe”
• Reasons for safety monitoring
– To protect workers and equipment
• Possible responses to hazards:
– Complete stoppage of the system
– Sounding an alarm
– Reducing operating speed of process
– Taking corrective action to recover from the safety violation
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Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics

• Status monitoring
– Monitors and records status of key sensors and parameters during system
operation
• Failure diagnostics
– Invoked when a malfunction occurs
– Purpose: analyze recorded values so the cause of the malfunction can be
identified
• Recommendation of repair procedure
– Provides recommended procedure for the repair crew to effect repairs
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Errors
• Random errors occur as a result of the normal stochastic nature of the
process
• Systematic errors are those that result from some assignable cause such as
a change in raw material properties
• Aberrations (disorders) result from either an equipment failure or a human
mistake
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Error Detection and Recovery

• Error detection – functions:
– Use the system’s available sensors to determine when a deviation or malfunction has occurred
– Correctly interpret the sensor signal
– Classify the error
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• Error recovery – possible strategies:

– Make adjustments at end of work cycle
– Make adjustments during current work cycle
– Stop the process to invoke corrective action
– Stop the process and call for help
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Levels of Automation
• 1. Device level – actuators, sensors, and other hardware components to form
individual control loops for the next level
• 2. Machine level – CNC machine tools and similar production equipment,
industrial robots, material handling equipment
• 3. Cell or system level – manufacturing cell or system
• 4. Plant level – factory or production systems level
• 5. Enterprise level – corporate information system
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Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)
FIGURE: A schematic illustration of a computer-integrated manufacturing system. Source: U. Rembold et al.,

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering, Addison-Wesley, 1993.
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Subsystems in CIM
Devices and equipment required:
• CNC, Computer numerical controlled machine tools
• DNC, Direct numerical control machine tools
• PLCs, Programmable logic controllers
• Robotics
• Computers
• Software
• Controllers
• Networks
• Interfacing
• Monitoring equipment
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Technologies:
• Automated production/assembly/material handling
• FMS, (flexible manufacturing system)
• ASRS, automated storage and retrieval system
• AGV, automated guided vehicle
• Automated conveyance systems
Newer Competitive Strategies: Lean manufacturing, Agile manufacturing,

JIT, Intelligent manufacturing, Industry 4.0, eManufacturing
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Computer Aided Technologies in CIM
• Computer Aided Design (CAD),

• Computer Aided Engineering (CAE),
• Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM),
• Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP),
• Computer Aided Quality Assurance (CAQ),
• Production Planning and Control (PPC), and
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).
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Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial
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Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi
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Computer-aided manufacturing
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) also known as Computer-aided Modeling or
Computer-aided Machining is the use of software to control machine tools and
related ones in the manufacturing of work pieces. This is not the only definition for
CAM, but it is the most common; CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to
assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management,
transportation and storage. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process
and components and tooling with more precise dimensions and material consistency,
which in some cases, uses only the required amount of raw material (thus minimizing
waste), while simultaneously reducing energy consumption.
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Traditionally, CAM has been considered a numerical control (NC)

programming tool, wherein two-dimensional (2-D) or three-dimensional (3-D)
models of components are generated in CAD. As with other “Computer-Aided”
technologies, CAM does not eliminate the need for skilled professionals such
as manufacturing engineers, NC programmers, or machinists. CAM leverages
both the value of the most skilled manufacturing professionals through
advanced productivity tools, while building the skills of new professionals
through visualization, simulation and optimization tools.
A CAM tool generally converts a model to a language the machine in question,

typically G-Code. The numerical control can be applied to machining tools, or
more recently to 3D printers.
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Early commercial applications of CAM were in large companies in the automotive and
aerospace industries; for example, Pierre Béziers work developing the CAD/CAM
application UNISURF in the 1960s for car body design and tooling at Renault.[11]
Alexander Hammer at DeLaval Steam Turbine Company invented a technique to
progressively drill turbine blades out of a solid metal block of metal with the drill
controlled by a punch card reader in 1950.
The integration of CAD with other components of CAD/CAM/CAE Product lifecycle
management (PLM) environment requires an effective CAD data exchange. Usually it had
been necessary to force the CAD operator to export the data in one of the common data
formats, such as IGES or STL or Parasolid formats that are supported by a wide variety of
software. The output from the CAM software is usually a simple text file of G-code/M-
codes, sometimes many thousands of commands long, that is then transferred to a machine
tool using a direct numerical control (DNC) program or in modern Controllers using a
common USB Storage Device.
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Mechatronics in Manufacturing Systems
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Different stream involve in Mechatronics
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Difference Between Conventional System and Mechatronic System
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Need of a Mechatronic System
• Changing market condition

• Variety of product ranges
• Short production run
• Good product quality and consistency
• Enhancements in process capabilities
• Demand in increased exibility
• Easier to communicate with other devices
• Adaptability
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Role of Mechatronic Design – Advantages

• High levels of integration
• Increased functionality and better design
• More use of software instead of mechanical function
• Assumes responsibility of process and with little interference of operations
• Uses AI and intelligent process control
• Multidisciplinary and program environment
• High reliability and safety
• Improved and less expensive
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Consumer products
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Key Elements in Mechatronic System
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Key Elements in Mechatronic System: Example of Electro-
Mechanical System
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Control System
• Feedback
• Open- and closed-loop system
• Elements of a closed loop system.
• Analog and digital control system
• Sequential controllers
• Programmable Logic Controller
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Open loop and closed loop system
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Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control
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Sensors?
• American National Standards Institute
– A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand
• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
• Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena into an electrical
signal
• Active element of a sensor is called a transducer
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Commonly Detectable Phenomena
•Biological
•Chemical
•Electric
•Electromagnetic
•Heat/Temperature
•Magnetic
•Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
•Optical
•Radioactivity
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Common Conversion Methods

•Physical
–thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic
–photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
–electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
–magneto-electric
•Chemical
–chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
•Biological
–biological transformation, physical transformation
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Commonly Measured Quantities
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Physical Principles: Examples

• Amperes’s Law
– A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force (e.g.
galvanometer)
• Curie-Weiss Law
– There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials exhibit
paramagnetic behavior
• Faraday’s Law of Induction
– A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing voltage/current
(e.g. transformer)
• Photoconductive Effect
– When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the material
decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
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Choosing a Sensor
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Need for Sensors

• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies,
automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants,
industrial plants and countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!
– Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring bottles
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Filters
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Passive and Active filters
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Batteries
Definition: devices that transform chemical energy into electricity.
It Has two terminals: the positive cathode (+) and the negative anode (-).
Comprises of one or more cells in series.
Functioning: Device switched on ! chemical reaction started -free
electrons produced ! electrons travel from (-) to (+) electrical work is
produced. Consist of electrochemical cells that are electrically connected.
Primary batteries are disposable because their electrochemical reaction
cannot be reversed.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable. Their electro-chemical reaction
can be reversed by applying a certain voltage in the opposite direction of
the discharge.
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Standard Modern Battery
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Standard Modern Batteries
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Standard Modern Batteries
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Battery: Capacity and Comparison
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Memory effect in batteries

Memory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery
memory, is an effect observed in nickel-cadmium and nickel–metal hydride
rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge. It describes the
situation in which nickel-cadmium batteries gradually lose their maximum
energy capacity if they are repeatedly recharged after being only partially
discharged. The battery appears to "remember" the smaller capacity.
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True memory effect

The term "memory" came from an aerospace nickel-cadmium application in
which the cells were repeatedly discharged to 25% of available capacity (plus
or minus 1%) by exacting computer control, then recharged to 100% capacity
without overcharge. This long-term, repetitive cycle regime, with no provision
for overcharge, resulted in a loss of capacity beyond the 25% discharge point.
True memory cannot exist if any one (or more) of the following conditions
holds:
• batteries achieve full overcharge.

• discharge is not exactly the same each cycle, within plus or minus 3%
• discharge is to less than 1.0 volt per cell
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True memory-effect is specific to sintered-plate nickel-cadmium cells, and is

exceedingly difficult to reproduce, especially in lower ampere-hour cells. In
one particular test program designed to induce the effect, none was found after
more than 700 precisely-controlled charge/discharge cycles. In the program,
spirally-wound one-ampere-hour cells were used. In a follow-up program, 20-
ampere-hour aerospace-type cells were used on a similar test regime; memory
effects were observed after a few hundred cycles.
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Other problems perceived as memory effect:

Phenomena which are not true memory effects may also occur in battery types other
than sintered-plate nickel-cadmium cells. In particular lithium-based cells, not
normally subject to the memory effect, may change their voltage levels so that a
virtual decrease of capacity may be perceived by the battery control system.
Temporary effects
Voltage depression due to long-term over-charging
A common process often ascribed to memory effect is voltage depression. In this
case, the output voltage of the battery drops more quickly than normal as it is used,
even though the total capacity remains almost the same. In modern electronic
equipment that monitors the voltage to indicate battery charge, the battery appears to
be draining very quickly. To the user, it appears the battery is not holding its full
charge, which seems similar to memory effect. This is a common problem with
high-load devices such as digital cameras and cell phones.
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Voltage depression is caused by repeated over-charging of a battery, which

causes the formation of small crystals of electrolyte on the plates. These can
clog the plates, increasing resistance and lowering the voltage of some
individual cells in the battery. This causes the battery as a whole to seem to
discharge rapidly as those individual cells discharge quickly and the voltage of
the battery as a whole suddenly falls. This effect is very common, as consumer
trickle chargers typically overcharge.
Repair
The effect can be overcome by subjecting each cell of the battery to one or more
deep charge/discharge cycles.[6] This must be done to the individual cells, not a
multi-cell battery; in a battery, some cells may discharge before others, resulting
in those cells being subjected to a reverse charging current by the remaining
cells, potentially leading to irreversible damage.
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High temperatures
High temperatures can also reduce the charged voltage and the charge accepted
by the cells.
Other causes
i. Operation below 32 °F (0 °C)
ii. High discharge rates (above 5C) in a battery not specifically designed for
such use
iii. Inadequate charging time
iv. Defective charger
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Permanent loss of capacity

Deep discharge
Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge.
Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell
has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply
discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will
"reverse charge" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The
resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.
Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully
discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage
as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the
weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more
damage to that cell.
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Age and use—normal end-of-life

All rechargeable batteries have a finite lifespan and will slowly lose storage
capacity as they age due to secondary chemical reactions within the battery
whether it is used or not. Some cells may fail sooner than others, but the effect
is to reduce the voltage of the battery. Lithium-based batteries have one of the
longest idle lives of any construction. Unfortunately the number of operational
cycles is still quite low at approximately 400–1200 complete charge/discharge
cycles. The lifetime of lithium batteries decreases at higher temperature and
states of charge (SoC), whether used or not; maximum life of lithium cells
when not in use(storage) is achieved by refrigerating (without freezing)
charged to 30%–50% SoC. To prevent overdischarge, battery should be
brought back to room temperature and recharged to 50% SoC once every six
months or once per year.
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Advantages of Li-Ion Batteries
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Selecting a Battery for an Application
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Challenges and Future
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Power Supplies
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Power Supplies
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Power Supplies: Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
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Voltage Regulators
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Fixed Voltage Regulator Circuit
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Variable Voltage Regulator Circuit
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AUTOMATION STRATEGIES
Semi-automated and dynamic manufacturing systems
Companies often consider, according to the interviewees, automation as “On-
Off”, i.e. work tasks are either fully automated or entirely manual. This is
often not really true if the manufacturing system and the way of working are
analyzed more thoroughly. The LoA can vary along a continuous scale
between the two extremes and could normally be considered as semi-
automatic. One problem that often emanates from choosing the wrong LoA is
that the companies’ manufacturing capabilities, do not support the automation
decisions. There are many driving forces concerning automation and one of
the major issues is to automate for financial reasons. A focus entirely on cost
issues may however lead to sub optimization
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From above table 1 we can note that finance and productivity are very
important issues when making automation decisions, as well as quality issues.
Higher demands on the companies to improve working environment is also a
highly contributing factor for automation.
Dynamic levels of automation
Decisions on automation are more delicate than many people may consider.
The decisions are not binary, i.e. either on-off, but involve the choice about to
what extent the system should be automated, i.e. LoA. The LoA is also not
static, but can be modified and adapt to changes of conditions for
manufacturing. If this adaptation is performed rapidly we could reach a state of
dynamic LoA.
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Generally a high LoA has the following characteristics: The process is

performed automatically without human involvement, but the operator may be
called upon in case of problems or for making decisions. Manual tasks are
limited to surveillance and, in some cases, decision making.
A low LoA could be described as: The task will not be carried out without
continuous presence of an operator who can control the process or carry out the
work tasks. Only a limited number of sub-processes may be performed within
one cycle without human involvement.
These scales are intended to help companies when making decisions on what
LoA could be the most advantageous for their specific conditions. A dynamic
LoA is reached when the system is able of rapidly adapting to changes in the
conditions for manufacturing.
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Mechanical System Modeling in Mechatronic Systems
Mechatronics applications are distinguished by controlled motion of mechanical systems

coupled to actuators and sensors. Modeling plays a role in understanding how the properties
and performance of mechanical components and systems affect the overall mechatronic
system design.
The modeling of mechanical systems in general has reached a fairly high level of maturity,
being based on classical methods rooted in the Newtonian laws of motion. One benefits from
the extensive and overwhelming knowledge base developed to deal with problems ranging
from basic mass-spring systems to complex multibody systems. While the underlying
physics are well understood, there exist many different means and ways to arrive at an end
result. This can be especially true when the need arises to model a multibody system, which
requires a considerable investment in methods for formulating and solving equations of
motion.
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Initial steps in modeling any physical system include defining a system

boundary, and identifying how basic components can be partitioned and then
put back together. In mechanical systems, these analyses can often be
facilitated by identifying points in a system that have a distinct velocity. For
purposes of analysis, active forces and moments are “applied” at these points,
which could represent energetic interactions at a system boundary. These
forces and moments are typically applied by actuators but might represent
other loads applied by the environment.
A mechanical component modeled as a point mass or rigid body is readily
identified by its velocity, and depending on the number of bodies and
complexity of motion there is a need to introduce a coordinate system to
formally describe the kinematics
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Physical Variables and Power Bonds

Power and Energy Basis
One way to consistently partition and connect subsystem models is by using power and
energy variables to quantify the system interaction.
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In this figure, one port is shown at which power flow is given by the product of
force and velocity, F ꞏV , and another for which power is the product of torque
and angular velocity, T ꞏ ω . These power-conjugate variables (i.e., those whose
product yields power) along with those that would be used for electrical and
hydraulic energy domains.
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Need for Motional Basis

In modeling mechanical translational or rotational systems, it is important to
identify how the configuration changes, and a coordinate system should be
defined and the effect of geometric changes identified. It is assumed that the
reader is familiar with these basic concepts . Usually a reference
configuration is defined from which coordinates can be based. This is
essential even for simple one-dimensional translation or fixed-axis rotation.
The minumum number of geometrically independent coordinates required to
describe the configuration of a system is traditionally defined as the degrees
of freedom.
Constraints should be identified and can be used to choose the most
convenient set of coordinates for description of the system. We distinguish
between degrees of freedom and the minimum number of dynamic state
variables that might be required to describe a system.
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Descriptions of Basic Mechanical Model Components

Mechanical components in mechatronic systems make their presence known
through motional response and by force and torque (or moment) reactions
notably on support structures, actuators, and sensors. Understanding and
predicting these response attributes, which arise due to combinations of
frictional, elastic, and inertial effects, can be gained by identifying their
inherent dissipative and energy storing nature. This emphasis on dissipation
and energy storage leads to a systematic definition of constitutive relations for
basic mechanical system modeling elements. These model elements form the
basis for building complex nonlinear system models and for defining
impedance relations useful in transfer function formulation. In the following, it
is assumed that the system components can be well represented by lumped-
parameter formulations.
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Defining Mechanical Input and Output Model Elements

In dynamic system modeling, initial focus requires defining a system boundary
, a concept borrowed from basic thermodynamics. In isolating mechanical
systems, a system boundary identifies ports through which power and signal
can pass. Each port is described either by a force–velocity or torque–angular
velocity power conjugate pair.
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Dissipative Effects in Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems will dissipate energy due to friction in sliding contacts,
dampers (passive or active), and through interaction with different energy
domains (e.g., fluid loading, eddy current damping). These irreversible effects
are modeled by constitutive functions between force and velocity or torque and
angular velocity. causality refers to
relationship betwe
power bond, and
systems connected
bond. Paynter iden
this concept having
involved in analog
solutions rely
relationships betwe
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Kinetic Energy Storage

All components that constitute mechanical systems have mass, but in a system analysis, where the concern is dynamic
performance, it is often sufficient to focus only on those components that may store relevant amounts of kinetic energy
through their motion. This presumes that an energetic basis is used for modeling, and that the tracking of kinetic energy
will provide insight into the system dynamics. This is the focus of this discussion, which is concerned for the moment with
one-dimensional translation and fixed-axis rotation.
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Coupling Mechanisms
Numerous types of devices serve as couplers or power transforming mechanisms, with the most common being
levers, gear trains, scotch yokes, block and tackle, and chain hoists. Ideally, these devices and their analogs in
other energy domains are power conserving, and it is useful to represent them using a 2-port model.
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Reference
1. Raul G. Longoria, Modeling of Mechanical Systems for Mechatronics Applications, 2002 CRC Press LLC
2. M.P. Groover, Automation, Production System, and CIM
3. Nanua Singh, System approach to Computer Integrated Design and Manufacturing
4. https://www.slideshare.net
5. https://www.wikipedia.org
6. Mats Winroth, Kristina Säfsten, , Veronica Lindström, Jörgen Frohm, , and Johan Stahre, Automation
strategies – refinement of manufacturing strategy content.
7. Many Online sources available
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PE 402 AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING

Dr. Binay Kumar, Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, BIT

Acquire knowledge about controllers and Sensor

To acquire knowledge about Machining Lines Automation, Assembly automation

CO1 Know the various aspects of automation in manufacturing.

CO3 Knowledge about various control systems and Product Automation

CO4 Machining Lines Automation and Assembly automation

Module 3: Sensors and Actuators [8]

Module 4: Assembly Automation [8]

Module 5: Flexible Automation [8]

Process Industries and Discrete Manufacturing Industries

Classification of manufacturing processes

Automation of manufacturing Processes

Fixed position layout

Cell layout buffet

Fixed-position layout service

Manufacturing Support Systems

Manufacturing Support Systems

Automation in Production Systems

• Automation in Production Systems can be considered as the technology concerned with

Automated Manufacturing Systems

• Programmable Automation (NC, CNC, robots): In programmable automation, the

Reasons for Automating

Manual Labour Vs Automation

Manual Labor in Automated Systems

AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

Automation Migration Strategy For Introduction of New Products

Automation of manufacturing Processes

Automation of manufacturing Processes

Automation of manufacturing Processes

Development in the History of Automation of Manufacturing Processes

Automation and production quantity

Decision-Making in a Programmed Work Cycle

Control System – Two Types

When to Use an Open-Loop Control System

Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics

Error Detection and Recovery

• Error recovery – possible strategies:

Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)

FIGURE: A schematic illustration of a computer-integrated manufacturing system. Source: U. Rembold et al.,

Newer Competitive Strategies: Lean manufacturing, Agile manufacturing,

Computer Aided Technologies in CIM

• Computer Aided Design (CAD),

Traditionally, CAM has been considered a numerical control (NC)

A CAM tool generally converts a model to a language the machine in question,

Mechatronics in Manufacturing Systems

Different stream involve in Mechatronics

Difference Between Conventional System and Mechatronic System

Need of a Mechatronic System

• Changing market condition

Role of Mechatronic Design – Advantages

Key Elements in Mechatronic System

Open loop and closed loop system

Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control

Commonly Detectable Phenomena

Common Conversion Methods

Commonly Measured Quantities

Physical Principles: Examples

Need for Sensors

• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!