Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• Bohr orbit: The electron in the orbital is moving around the nucleus in a circular orbit.

• We can predict the motion of the electron, similar to the motions of particles in the macroscopic

world.

• For example, when two billiard balls with known velocities collide, we can predict their motions

after the collision.

• Werner Heisenberg, discovered a very important principle in 1927—the Heisenberg uncertainty

principle.
closely before we discard the theory.
er Heisenberg, whoHeisenberg’s was also Uncertainty
involved in the development of the
Principle
mechanical model for the atom, discovered a very important prin-
1927
• The that helps
Heisenberg us
Uncertainty to understand
Principle the
is a fundamental theory in meaning
scientist cannot measure multiple quantum variables simultaneously.
of
quantum mechanics orbitals—the
that defines why a

g uncertainty principle. Heisenberg’s mathematical analysis led him

• Heisenberg made the bold proposition that there is a lower limit to this precision making our knowledge of
rising conclusion: There is a fundamental limitation to just how
a particle inherently uncertain.
we can know both the position and the momentum of a particle at
• There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and the momentum
me. ofStated
a particle mathematically,
at a given time. the uncertainty principle is

# U
Dx Dp $ ℏ = ℎ/2(
2
is the uncertainty in a particle’s position, !p is the uncertainty in a
where Δx is the uncertainty in a particle’s position, Δp is the uncertainty in a particle’s momentum.
momentum, and " is Planck’s constant divided by 2! (" # h/2!).
minimum
Note: There uncertainty
is no restriction onin the product
the precision !x $ !p
in simultaneously is h/4!. This
knowing/measuring relation-
the position along a
ns given
thatdirection
the more (x) and the momentum along another, perpendicular direction (z):
precisely weΔpknow a particle’s position, the less
z. Δx = 0
we can know its momentum, and vice versa. This limitation is so
 Making Sense of the Uncertainty Principle

• To localize a particle in space (i.e. to specify the particle’s position accurately, small Δx) many
waves of different wavelengths (l) must be superimposed Þ large Δpx (p = ℎ/l).

• The Uncertainty Principle imposes a fundamental (not experimental) limitation on

how precisely we can know (or determine) various observables.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT7xJ0tjB4A
An electron is confined to the size of a magnesium atom with a 150 pm radius. What is the minimum
uncertainty in its velocity?
Determine the uncertainty in the position of the ball (163 gm) bowled at
with velocity of 111 kph.
The hydrogen atom has a radius on the order of 0.05 nm. Assuming that we know the position of an electron to an
accuracy of 1% of the hydrogen radius, calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of the electron using the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. Then compare this value with the uncertainty in the velocity of a ball of mass 0.2 kg and radius
0.05 m whose position is known to an accuracy of 1% of its radius.

Thus the uncertainty principle is negligible

in the world of macroscopic objects but is
very important for objects with small
masses, such as the electron.
• This limitation is so small for large particles such as baseballs or billiard balls that it is

unnoticed.

• However, for a small particle such as the electron, the limitation becomes quite

important.

• Applied to the electron, the uncertainty principle implies that we cannot know the exact

path of the electron as it moves around the nucleus.

• It is therefore not appropriate to assume that the electron is moving around the nucleus in

a well-defined orbit as in the Bohr model.

 Quantum Mechanics (Wave Mechanics)
12.5similar
To Schrödinger and de Broglie, the electron bound to the nucleus seemed The Quantum Mechanical
to a standing Description
wave, and theyof the Atom
began 4
research on a wave mechanical description of the atom.
sure that treating an electron as a wave makes any sense: The test would be
whether the model could correctly fit the experimental data for hydrogen and
other atoms. n=4
To illustrate the most •important
The wave ideasmodel
of the was
waveapplied
mechanical (quantum
by de
mechanical) model of the atom, we will first concentrate on the wave function
Broglie to the Bohr atom by imagining (a)
corresponding to the lowest energy for the hydrogen atom. This wave function
thepoint
is called the 1s orbital. The first electron in theis hydrogen
of interest the meaningatom
of thetoword
be a
orbital. One thing is clear: Anstanding wave.
orbital is not a Bohr orbit. The electron in the
hydrogen 1s orbital is not moving around the nucleus in a circular orbit. How,
then, is the electron moving?
• The
Onlyanswer
certainis somewhat surprising:
circular orbits have Wea do not n=5
know. The wave function gives us no information about the movements of the
circumference
electron. This observation is somewhat into When
disturbing. whichwea whole number
solve problems
of wavelengths
involving the motions of particles of the standing
in the macroscopic world, weelectron
are able to (b)
predict their trajectories. For wave willwhen
example, “fit.”two billiard balls with known
velocities collide, we can predict their motions after the collision. However, we
cannot predict the electron’s motion using the 1s orbital function. Does this
• All other orbits would produce destructive
mean that the theory is useless? Not necessarily: We have already learned that
an electron does not behave muchinterference of the
like a billiard standing
ball, electron
so we must examinewave
the Mismatch

and are
situation closely before we discard not allowed.
the theory. n = 4 13
Werner Heisenberg, who was also involved in the development of the
quantum mechanical model for the atom, discovered a very important prin- (c)
ciple in 1927 that helps us to understand the meaning of orbitals—the
Quantum Mechanics
Schrödinger: If electrons are waves, their
position and motion in space must obey a wave
equation.

Solutions of wave equations yield

wavefunctions, Y, which contain the
information required to describe ALL of the
properties of the wave.
 ec a c (He e be g 1925 ed a e e a a ec a c ).
c n e ai e e , The
e e eSchrödinger
g ac a , aEquation
d e (1926)
e-de e de fac f E
e ace- fac ( a e Se a a i n f Va iable ec e d c ed Sec 2.2)
• The central equation in Quantum Mechanics.
• Observable = total energy of system.

e Schrödinger
e a a ef c de e de ( e- deHamiltonian
e de )Operator
a ef c a d
Equation Ĥψ = Eψ Ĥ
a E a a d ca ce g e e e a fac , e ba
E Total Energy
a : ˆ =T ˆ +V ˆ
where H and E = T + V.

• SE can be set up for any physical system.

• The form of Ĥ depends on the system.
• Solve SE Þ y and corresponding E.

e ea f f eE a a e ec ed a e e
M f a ca f a ec a c c e be ba ed
ec c ). T e e f e e- de e de Sc d ge e a ca e be e
 Time-Dependent Schrodinger Wave Equation

@ ~2 @ 2
i~ (x, t) = (x, t) + V (x) (x, t)
@t 2m @x2
Total E term K.E. term P.E. term
PHYSICS
NOTATION
iEt/~
(x, t) = e (x)
Time-Independent Schrodinger Wave Equation

~2 @ 2
E (x) = (x) + V (x) (x)
2m @x2