Fundamentals of Entomology2

Fundamentals of Entomology 2
Semilooper (Achaea janata):
Scientific Name: Achaea janata

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Cereals, including rice, maize, and wheat
Distribution: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions
Biology: The larvae feed on leaves, causing defoliation and reduced photosynthetic
activity. Larvae may also bore into fruits.
Nature of Damage: Leaves become skeletonized, resulting in reduced plant vigor and
yield losses.
Management: Use of insecticides, biological control agents like parasitoids, cultural
practices such as crop rotation, and resistant crop varieties.
2. Capsule Borer (Conogethes punctiferalis):
Scientific Name: Conogethes punctiferalis

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Castor, okra, cotton, and other broad-leaved crops
Distribution: Found in tropical and subtropical regions
Biology: Larvae bore into capsules, feeding on developing seeds. Pupal stage occurs
inside the damaged capsules.
Nature of Damage: Reduced seed set, empty capsules, and yield loss. Secondary
infections may occur in damaged capsules.
Management: Application of insecticides, cultural practices such as sanitation and crop
rotation, use of pheromone traps, and biological control using natural enemies like
parasitoids and predators.
3. Jassids (Empoasca spp.):
Scientific Name: Empoasca spp.

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Cicadellidae
Host Range: Wide range of crops, including cereals, pulses, and vegetables
Distribution: Worldwide, particularly in temperate and tropical regions
Biology: Nymphs and adults feed on plant sap by piercing and sucking mouthparts. They
excrete honeydew, leading to sooty mold development.
Nature of Damage: Stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, reduced photosynthesis, and
yield loss. Heavy infestations may cause plant death.
Management: Insecticide applications, use of resistant crop varieties, cultural practices
such as early planting, and conservation of natural enemies.
4. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera litura
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Tobacco, castor, cotton, and a wide range of vegetables and ornamentals
Distribution: Found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide
Biology: Larvae feed on leaves, often in groups, and may also bore into fruits and stems.
They undergo several instars before pupating.
Nature of Damage: Defoliation, reduced plant vigor, yield loss, and secondary infections
due to wounds created by feeding larvae.
Management: Insecticide applications, use of biopesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis,
cultural practices like crop sanitation and early planting, and biological control using
natural enemies like parasitoids and predators.
General Account of Arthropod Pests Affecting Cereals, Safflower: Aphids, Capitulum Borer,
and Guzia Weevil
1. Aphids:
Scientific Name: Aphidoidea (Order: Hemiptera)

Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Various cereal crops including wheat, barley, oats, and safflower.
Distribution: Worldwide, commonly found in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly, producing numerous offspring without mating
through parthenogenesis. They have piercing-sucking mouthparts to feed on plant sap.
Some species also vector plant viruses.
Nature of Damage: Aphids cause damage by feeding on plant sap, leading to stunted
growth, wilting, yellowing, and distortion of leaves. They also excrete honeydew,
promoting the growth of sooty mold and reducing photosynthesis.
Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and intercropping, biological
control using natural enemies like lady beetles and parasitoid wasps, and chemical
control with insecticides are common methods for aphid management.
2. Capitulum Borer:
Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera (Order: Lepidoptera)

Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Cereals such as wheat, barley, and maize, along with other crops like cotton,
chickpeas, and sunflower.
Distribution: Widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: The larvae bore into the capitulum (flower head) of plants, feeding on
developing seeds. They pupate within the infested capitulum. Adults are nocturnal
moths.
Nature of Damage: Capitulum borers damage the reproductive structures of plants,
leading to reduced seed set and quality. Infested plants show wilting and drying of
flowers.
Management: Cultural practices like early planting to avoid peak moth activity, use of
resistant varieties, biological control with parasitoid wasps and predators, and chemical
control with insecticides targeting larvae are effective management strategies.
3. Guzia Weevil:
Scientific Name: Smicronyx guzianus (Order: Coleoptera)

Family: Curculionidae
Host Range: Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
Distribution: Primarily found in safflower-growing regions, especially in arid and semi-arid
areas.
Biology: Adult weevils feed on safflower leaves and lay eggs in the soil near the base of
safflower plants. Larvae feed on safflower roots, causing damage to the root system.
Nature of Damage: Guzia weevils damage safflower plants by feeding on leaves and roots,
leading to reduced plant vigor, wilting, and decreased yield. Severe infestations can
result in plant death.
Management: Cultural practices like crop rotation and soil cultivation to disrupt the life
cycle, use of resistant varieties, biological control with parasitic nematodes, and
chemical control with soil-applied insecticides are common management options.
General Account on Nature and Types of Damage by Different Arthropod Pests
1. Capitulum Borer (Helicoverpa armigera):
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Cereals, sunflower, cotton, legumes, and various vegetable crops.
Distribution: Widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions.
Biology: Larvae bore into the capitulum (flower head) of sunflower plants, causing
damage to developing seeds. Adults are nocturnal moths, laying eggs on flower buds.
Nature of Damage: Larvae feed on developing seeds, resulting in reduced seed weight
and quality, leading to economic losses.
Management: Cultural practices, biological control using parasitoids like Trichogramma
spp., and insecticide applications during peak egg-laying periods.
2. Hairy Caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua):
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Erebidae
Host Range: Cereals, sunflower, cotton, legumes, and various vegetable crops.
Distribution: Found in temperate and tropical regions worldwide.
Biology: Larvae have dense, long hairs covering their bodies. They feed voraciously on
foliage, defoliating plants.
Nature of Damage: Heavy defoliation by larvae affects plant growth, yield, and seed
quality.
Management: Biological control using natural enemies like parasitoids and predators,
cultural practices like crop rotation, and chemical control when infestation levels exceed
economic thresholds.
3. Jassids (Empoasca spp.):
Order: Hemiptera
Host Range: Wide range of crops including cereals, sunflower, cotton, vegetables, and
fruit trees.
Distribution: Found globally, with species-specific distribution patterns.
Biology: Small, sap-sucking insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Nymphs and adults
feed on plant sap, causing stippling on leaves.
Nature of Damage: Stippling and chlorosis on leaves due to sap removal, leading to
reduced photosynthesis and yield losses.
Management: Cultural practices such as early planting to avoid peak populations,
biological control using natural enemies like parasitoids and predators, and chemical
control with insecticides.
4. Thrips (Frankliniella spp.):
Order: Thysanoptera
Family: Thripidae
ornamental plants.
Distribution: Global distribution with many species adapted to specific climates.
Biology: Small, slender insects with rasping-sucking mouthparts. Both nymphs and adults
feed on plant tissues, causing damage to leaves, buds, and flowers.
Nature of Damage: Feeding damage results in silvering, stippling, and distortion of leaves,
buds, and flowers. May also transmit plant viruses.
Management: Cultural practices like removing weeds and crop residues, biological
control with predators and parasitoids, and chemical control using insecticides.
5. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci):
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
ornamental plants.
Distribution: Found worldwide, particularly in warm and tropical regions.
Biology: Small, winged insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Both nymphs and
adults feed on plant sap, causing direct damage and vectoring plant viruses.
Nature of Damage: Feeding damage results in yellowing, wilting, and stunting of plants.
Honeydew excretion leads to sooty mold growth.
Management: Cultural practices like weed control and reflective mulches, biological
control using natural enemies like parasitoids and predators, and chemical control with
insecticides.
6. Stem Borer (Chilo partellus):
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Cereals, including maize, sorghum, and millet.
Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Africa and Asia.
Biology: Larvae bore into the stem of plants, causing damage to vascular tissues. Adults
are nocturnal moths, laying eggs on leaves and stems.
Nature of Damage: Larval feeding leads to wilting, lodging, and reduced yield. Secondary
infections may occur due to entry points for pathogens.
Management: Cultural practices like early planting and clean cultivation, biological
control with parasitoids and predators, and chemical control with insecticides when
necessary.
1. Aphids:
Scientific Name: Aphidoidea (Superfamily)

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Wide range of plants including cereals (e.g., wheat, barley), mustard,
vegetables, and fruit trees.
Distribution: Worldwide, prevalent in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly, with females giving birth to live offspring without
mating (parthenogenesis). They have piercing-sucking mouthparts to feed on plant sap.
Aphids often exhibit winged and wingless forms, enabling rapid colonization of plants.
Nature of Damage: Aphids damage plants by feeding on sap, causing stunting, yellowing,
and distortion of leaves. They excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty mold
and attracting ants. Some species also transmit plant viruses.
Management:
Cultural Practices: Crop rotation, early planting, and removal of weed hosts.
Biological Control: Predatory insects like ladybugs, lacewings, and parasitic wasps.
Chemical Control: Insecticides targeting aphids, but careful consideration of
beneficial insects and resistance management is essential.
2. Sawflies:
Scientific Name: Tenthredinoidea (Superfamily)

Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Tenthredinidae
Host Range: Cereals such as wheat, barley, oats, and rye, as well as mustard and other
herbaceous plants.
Distribution: Global distribution, particularly in temperate regions.
Biology: Sawflies resemble wasps but lack a constricted waist. Larvae resemble
caterpillars and are voracious feeders, often skeletonizing or defoliating leaves. Some
species exhibit gregarious behavior, forming clusters on host plants.
Nature of Damage: Sawfly larvae feed on plant foliage, causing extensive defoliation and
reduced photosynthetic capacity. Severe infestations can lead to yield losses and weaken
plants' ability to withstand other stresses.
Management:
Cultural Practices: Early detection and destruction of larvae clusters, promoting
natural enemies.
Biological Control: Parasitic wasps, predatory insects, and pathogens targeting sawfly
larvae.
Chemical Control: Insecticides targeting larvae, but careful consideration of non-
target impacts and resistance management is crucial.
3. Leaf Webbers:
Scientific Name: Crambidae (Family)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Cereals like rice, wheat, and maize, as well as mustard, pulses, and
vegetables.
Distribution: Found globally, especially in regions with suitable climatic conditions for
larval development.
Biology: Leaf webbers are moths whose larvae construct silk webs on leaves, providing
shelter while feeding. Larvae often feed within the protective webbing, consuming leaf
tissues and causing defoliation.
Nature of Damage: Leaf webber larvae feed on leaves, creating characteristic webbed
shelters and skeletonizing foliage. Severe infestations can lead to reduced
photosynthesis, yield losses, and increased susceptibility to diseases.
Management:
Cultural Practices: Timely planting, removal of crop residues, and destruction of
webbed areas.
Biological Control: Natural enemies such as parasitic wasps, predatory beetles, and
birds.
Chemical Control: Insecticides targeting larvae or eggs, with consideration for
environmental impact and resistance management.
Linseed – Gall Fly:
Scientific Name: Lipara lucens

Order: Diptera
Family: Cecidomyiidae
Host Range: Primarily attacks Linum usitatissimum (Linseed/Flax).
Distribution: Widely distributed in temperate regions.
Biology: Adults lay eggs on young linseed plants. Larvae bore into stems, forming galls
where they feed and develop. Infestations lead to stunted growth, weakened stems, and
reduced yield.
Nature of Damage: Formation of galls on stems, hindering nutrient transport and causing
wilting. Reduced plant vigor and yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and sanitation. Chemical control
with insecticides during early plant growth stages.
2. Soybean – Stem Fly:
Scientific Name: Melanagromyza sojae

Order: Diptera
Family: Agromyzidae
Host Range: Primarily attacks Glycine max (Soybean).
Distribution: Found in soybean-growing regions worldwide.
Biology: Adult flies lay eggs on soybean stems. Larvae tunnel into stems, causing stem
breakage and lodging. Infestations lead to reduced plant stand and yield.
Nature of Damage: Stem damage results in lodging and reduced nutrient uptake. Yield
loss due to weakened stems and impaired plant growth.
Management: Early planting to avoid peak pest activity. Use of resistant varieties.
Chemical control with insecticides targeting adult flies.
3. Soybean – Girdle Beetle:
Scientific Name: Oncideres cingulata

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Cerambycidae
Host Range: Attacks various leguminous plants, including soybean.
Distribution: Common in soybean-growing regions of the Americas.
Biology: Adult beetles feed on young soybean stems, creating characteristic girdling
wounds. Larvae bore into stems, causing structural damage and reduced plant vigor.
Nature of Damage: Girdling wounds disrupt nutrient flow, leading to wilting and reduced
yield. Larval feeding inside stems weakens plant structure.
Management: Cultural practices such as removing crop residues. Chemical control with
insecticides targeting adult beetles and larvae.
4. Soybean – Leaf Miner:
Scientific Name: Liriomyza sativae

Order: Diptera
Family: Agromyzidae
Host Range: Attacks various crops, including soybean.
Biology: Adult flies lay eggs on soybean leaves. Larvae tunnel into leaf tissue, creating
mines where they feed and develop. Infestations lead to reduced photosynthesis and
yield.
Nature of Damage: Mining damage reduces leaf area and photosynthetic capacity. Severe
infestations result in defoliation and yield loss.
Management: Use of resistant varieties. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and early
planting. Chemical control with insecticides targeting adult flies and larvae.
5. Tobacco – Detailed below
5. Tobacco – Tobacco Hornworm:
Scientific Name: Manduca sexta

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Sphingidae
Host Range: Primarily attacks tobacco (Nicotiana spp.).
Distribution: Common in tobacco-growing regions worldwide.
Biology: Larvae feed voraciously on tobacco leaves, defoliating plants. Mature larvae
pupate in the soil, completing the life cycle. Infestations lead to reduced leaf area and
yield.
Nature of Damage: Severe defoliation, skeletonization of leaves, and reduced
photosynthetic capacity. Yield loss due to reduced leaf biomass.
Management: Biological control with parasitic wasps. Cultural practices such as crop
rotation. Chemical control with insecticides targeting larvae.
Soybean Leaf-Eating Caterpillar:
Scientific Name: Spodoptera spp.

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Various crops including soybean, maize, cotton.
Distribution: Worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.
Biology: Eggs are laid in clusters on the undersides of leaves. Larvae feed voraciously on
foliage, causing defoliation and reducing plant vigor. Pupation occurs in the soil. Adults
are moths that may migrate over long distances.
Nature of Damage: Larvae skeletonize leaves, causing significant defoliation. Severe
infestations can lead to yield losses.
Management: Cultural practices like crop rotation, early planting, and maintaining plant
vigor can reduce susceptibility. Biological control using natural enemies like parasitoids
and predators. Chemical control with insecticides targeting larvae.
2. Whitefly:
Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
Host Range: Over 600 plant species including soybean, cotton, and vegetables.
Distribution: Worldwide, particularly in warm and humid regions.
Biology: Adults are small, white-winged insects. They feed on plant sap and excrete
honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty mold. Females lay eggs on the underside of
leaves. Nymphs are immobile and feed on sap.
Nature of Damage: Feeding causes yellowing, wilting, and stunting of plants. Honeydew
secretion leads to the growth of sooty mold, reducing photosynthesis.
Management: Cultural practices like removing weed hosts and maintaining plant vigor.
Biological control using parasitoids and predators. Insecticidal soaps, oils, or insecticides
can be used for chemical control.
3. Semilooper:

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Various crops including soybean, pigeon pea, chickpea.
Distribution: Tropical and subtropical regions.
Biology: Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Larvae feed on foliage, often leaving behind
characteristic windowpane-like damage. Pupation occurs in the soil. Adults are moths
that lay eggs on host plants.
Nature of Damage: Larvae feed on foliage, causing defoliation. Heavy infestations can
result in yield losses.
Management: Early detection and monitoring of larvae. Cultural practices like crop
rotation and planting early-maturing varieties. Biological control using natural enemies
like parasitoids and predators. Insecticides can be used for chemical control if necessary.
4. Gram Pod Borer:
Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Various leguminous crops including soybean, chickpea, pigeon pea.
Distribution: Worldwide, particularly in warm and temperate regions.
Biology: Eggs are laid singly on flowers, pods, or leaves. Larvae bore into pods and feed
on developing seeds. Pupation occurs in the soil. Adults are moths that migrate over long
distances.
Nature of Damage: Larvae feed on developing pods, leading to pod damage and yield
losses. Secondary infections may occur due to entry points for pathogens.
Management: Cultural practices like timely sowing and removal of crop residues.
Biological control using parasitoids and predators. Insecticides can be used for chemical
control, with proper timing to target larvae.
General Account on Nature and Type of Damage by Different Arthropod Pests of Sesamum
(Sesame)
1. Til Hawk Moth (Agrius convolvuli):
Scientific Name: Agrius convolvuli

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Sphingidae
Host Range: Sesamum, Convolvulus, and other plants
Distribution: Widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions worldwide
Biology: Adult moths lay eggs on the undersides of leaves. Larvae (caterpillars) feed
voraciously on foliage, causing defoliation. Pupation occurs in the soil. Complete life
cycle lasts 4-6 weeks.
Nature of Damage: Heavy feeding by larvae leads to extensive defoliation, reducing plant
vigor and yield. Severe infestations can result in crop loss.
Management: Cultural practices like crop rotation, early planting, and sanitation can help
reduce infestations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predators can be
effective. Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary in severe cases.
2. Gall Fly (Melanagromyza sesami):
Scientific Name: Melanagromyza sesami

Order: Diptera
Family: Agromyzidae
Host Range: Mainly Sesamum
Distribution: Found in various sesame-growing regions
Biology: Adult flies lay eggs in leaf tissues. Larvae feed inside the leaf, causing the
formation of galls. Larvae pupate within the galls, and adult flies emerge after a few
weeks.
Nature of Damage: Gall formation disrupts normal leaf function, leading to reduced
photosynthesis and nutrient uptake. Severe infestations can cause leaf yellowing,
stunting, and yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices like timely planting and removal of affected plant parts
can help manage infestations. Biological control using parasitic wasps can be effective.
Insecticide application may be necessary for severe outbreaks.
3. Leaf-Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera exigua):
Scientific Name: Spodoptera exigua

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Wide range of crops including Sesamum, vegetables, and ornamentals
Distribution: Global distribution in temperate and tropical regions
Biology: Adult moths lay eggs on leaves. Larvae hatch and feed on foliage, often in
groups. Larvae pupate in the soil. Life cycle varies but typically completed in 3-4 weeks.
Nature of Damage: Larvae feed on leaves, resulting in ragged appearance,
skeletonization, and defoliation. Severe infestations can cause significant yield loss.
Management: Monitoring for egg masses and larvae is essential for timely intervention.
Natural enemies like parasitic wasps and predators can help suppress populations.
Insecticide application may be necessary for severe outbreaks, with attention to
resistance management.
Niger Crop Pests
i. Semilooper (Achaea janata)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) and other oilseed crops.
Distribution: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions.
Biology: Larvae feed on leaves, flowers, and pods, causing defoliation and pod damage.
Adults are nocturnal and lay eggs on plant parts.
Nature of Damage: Larvae skeletonize leaves, bore into buds and pods, leading to yield
loss and reduction in seed quality.
Management: Cultural practices like crop rotation, early planting, and intercropping,
biological control using natural enemies like parasitoids, and chemical control with
insecticides.
ii. Gram Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Gram (chickpea), Niger, and other leguminous crops.
Distribution: Found worldwide in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Larvae bore into pods, consuming seeds, flowers, and leaves. Adults are active at
night and lay eggs on various plant parts.
Nature of Damage: Larval feeding causes pod damage, reduced yield, and quality loss.
Infestations lead to economic losses in gram production.
Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches including crop rotation, use
of resistant varieties, pheromone traps, and judicious use of insecticides.
2. Fiber Crops – Cotton Pests
i. Aphids (Aphis gossypii)
Scientific Name: Aphis gossypii

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Cotton (Gossypium spp.) and various other crops including vegetables and
fruits.
Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly, feeding on plant sap and secreting honeydew. They
have a complex life cycle involving winged and wingless forms.
Nature of Damage: Aphids weaken plants by sucking sap, causing stunted growth, leaf
curling, and reduced yields. Honeydew excretion promotes sooty mold growth.
Management: Cultural practices such as timely planting, removal of weed hosts,
biological control with natural enemies like lady beetles and parasitic wasps, and
chemical control using insecticides.
ii. Jassids (Empoasca spp.)
Scientific Name: Empoasca spp.

Order: Hemiptera
Host Range: Cotton, pulses, and various other crops.
Distribution: Found worldwide in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Jassids are small, hopping insects that feed on plant sap. They have piercing-
sucking mouthparts and undergo incomplete metamorphosis.
Nature of Damage: Jassids cause damage by sucking sap from leaves, leading to
yellowing, curling, and drying of leaves, known as hopper burn. Severe infestations can
result in yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices such as maintaining field hygiene, promoting natural
enemies like spiders and predatory insects, and chemical control with insecticides
targeting nymphs.
iii. Thrips (Thrips tabaci)
Scientific Name: Thrips tabaci

Order: Thysanoptera
Family: Thripidae
Host Range: Cotton, vegetables, ornamentals, and various other crops.
Distribution: Global distribution in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Thrips are small, slender insects with rasping-sucking mouthparts. They feed on
plant sap, causing stippling, distortion, and silvering of leaves.
Nature of Damage: Thrips damage cotton plants by feeding on leaves, buds, and flowers,
leading to reduced photosynthesis, bud abortion, and boll shedding. Thrips also transmit
viruses.
Management: Cultural practices like early planting and removal of weed hosts, biological
control using predatory mites and insects, and chemical control with insecticides
targeting nymphs and adults.
iv. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
Host Range: Cotton, vegetables, ornamentals, and various other crops.
Distribution: Worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical regions.
Biology: Whiteflies are small, moth-like insects with powdery white wings. They feed on
plant sap and have a high reproductive capacity.
Nature of Damage: Whiteflies cause damage by sucking sap from leaves, leading to
yellowing, wilting, and premature leaf drop. Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mold
growth.
Management: Cultural practices such as removal of infested plant material, use of
reflective mulches, biological control with parasitic wasps and predatory insects, and
chemical control with insecticides targeting nymphs and adults.
Mealybugs (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Pseudococcidae)
Scientific Name: Phenacoccus solenopsis

Host Range: Cotton, ornamental plants, fruit trees.
Distribution: Found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.
Biology: Females lay eggs in cotton plants, and nymphs develop into adults, feeding on
sap. Produce honeydew, leading to sooty mold growth.
Nature of Damage: Feeding damage weakens plants, stunts growth, and causes leaf
yellowing. Honeydew and sooty mold reduce photosynthesis and hinder fiber quality.
Management: Use of natural enemies like parasitoids and predators, cultural practices
like pruning infested parts, and chemical control with insecticides.
2. Spotted Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)
Scientific Name: Earias vittella

Host Range: Cotton, okra, castor, and other crops.
Biology: Larvae bore into cotton bolls, feeding on seeds and lint. Pupate inside the boll or
soil.
Nature of Damage: Larval feeding causes damage to bolls, leading to boll rot and lint
contamination. Reduces yield and fiber quality.
Management: Monitoring with pheromone traps, cultural practices like early planting and
sanitation, biological control with parasitoids, and chemical control with insecticides.
3. American Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)

Host Range: Cotton, tomato, maize, and various other crops.
Distribution: Found in temperate and tropical regions globally.
Biology: Larvae feed on cotton squares and bolls, causing damage. Pupate in the soil.
Nature of Damage: Feeding results in boll damage, reducing lint quality and yield.
Secondary infections may occur, leading to further economic losses.
Management: Crop monitoring, use of resistant varieties, cultural practices like crop
rotation, biological control with natural enemies, and chemical control.
4. Pink Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Gelechiidae)
Scientific Name: Pectinophora gossypiella

Host Range: Cotton, hibiscus, okra, and other Malvaceae plants.
Distribution: Found in cotton-growing regions worldwide.
Biology: Larvae bore into cotton bolls, feeding on seeds. Pupate inside the boll or soil.
Nature of Damage: Feeding leads to boll damage, lint contamination, and reduced fiber
quality. Economic losses due to yield reduction and increased management costs.
Management: Use of pheromone traps for monitoring, cultural practices like early
planting and destruction of crop residues, biological control with parasitoids, and
chemical control.
5. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)

Host Range: Cotton, tobacco, soybean, and various other crops.
Biology: Larvae feed on cotton leaves, flowers, and bolls. Pupate in the soil.
Nature of Damage: Severe defoliation and damage to reproductive structures like
squares and bolls. Reduces yield and fiber quality.
Management: Monitoring with pheromone traps, cultural practices like crop rotation and
weed management, biological control with natural enemies, and chemical control.
Cotton Leaf Folder

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Cotton, maize, sorghum, soybean, and various other crops
Biology: Larvae feed on leaves, flowers, and bolls, causing extensive defoliation and fruit
damage. Adult moths lay eggs on undersides of leaves.
Nature of Damage: Damage manifests as irregular holes, defoliation, and boll damage,
reducing yield and fiber quality.
Management: Cultural practices like crop rotation, planting resistant varieties, biological
control agents, and insecticides are used for control.
2. Cotton Semilooper
Scientific Name: Anomis sabulifera

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Cotton, soybean, pigeonpea, and various other crops
Biology: Larvae feed on leaves, flowers, and bolls, causing defoliation and boll damage.
Adult moths lay eggs on leaves.
Nature of Damage: Feeding leads to irregular holes in leaves, defoliation, and reduced
boll size and weight, affecting yield and fiber quality.
Management: Integrated pest management strategies involving cultural practices,
biological control agents, and insecticides are utilized.
3. Red Cotton Bug
Scientific Name: Dysdercus cingulatus

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Pyrrhocoridae
Host Range: Cotton, okra, hibiscus, and various other crops
Biology: Nymphs and adults feed on developing bolls, piercing them and sucking sap.
Females lay eggs on cotton bolls.
Nature of Damage: Feeding causes boll damage, leading to boll shedding, reduced fiber
quality, and yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices like early planting and removal of alternate hosts, along
with insecticide application, are common management strategies.
4. Dusky Cotton Bug
Scientific Name: Oxycarenus hyalinipennis

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Lygaeidae
Host Range: Cotton, jute, sunflower, and various other crops
Biology: Adults and nymphs feed on developing bolls, piercing them and sucking sap.
Eggs are laid on bolls.
Nature of Damage: Feeding results in boll damage, leading to boll shedding, reduced fiber
quality, and yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices, like crop rotation and destruction of alternate hosts,
coupled with insecticide application, are used for control.
5. Grey Weevil
Scientific Name: Hypomeces squamosus

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Curculionidae
Host Range: Cotton, castor, soybean, and various other crops
Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical regions
Biology: Adults feed on leaves, flowers, and bolls, causing damage. Eggs are laid in soil,
and larvae feed on roots.
Nature of Damage: Feeding by adults leads to notching of leaves, while larvae damage
roots, resulting in stunted growth, reduced yield, and fiber quality.
Management: Cultural practices such as early planting, field sanitation, and insecticide
application are employed for control.
General Account of Arthropod Pests and Their Damage on Sunhemp, Mesta, and Sugarcane
Crops
1. Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) - Hairy Caterpillar:
Scientific Name: Spilarctia obliqua (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)
Host Range: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea)
Biology:
Female moths lay eggs in clusters on the underside of sunhemp leaves.

Larvae hatch and feed voraciously on foliage, often in groups.
Mature larvae are covered in dense, black hairs, giving them a hairy appearance.
Complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa, adult.
Nature of Damage:
Larvae skeletonize leaves, leading to defoliation and reduced photosynthesis.
Severe infestations can stunt plant growth and reduce yield.
Management:
Early detection through regular scouting.
Manual removal of caterpillars where feasible.
Biological control with natural enemies like parasitoid wasps.
Chemical control with insecticides as a last resort, following integrated pest management
(IPM) principles.
2. Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus) - Hairy Caterpillar:
Scientific Name: Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Host Range: Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus)
Biology:
Female moths lay eggs in batches on the underside of mesta leaves.

Larvae hatch and feed on leaves, buds, and tender shoots.
Mature larvae are voracious feeders, causing extensive damage.
Nature of Damage:
Larvae chew holes in leaves, buds, and stems, leading to defoliation and yield loss.
Severe infestations can weaken plants and reduce fiber quality.
Management:
Early detection and monitoring through regular field inspections.
Cultural practices such as crop rotation and intercropping to disrupt pest life cycles.
Biological control using natural enemies like parasitic wasps and predators.
Application of insecticides as a last resort, following IPM strategies to minimize
environmental impact.
3. Sugarcane Crops:
a. Early Shoot Borer (Chilo infuscatellus):
Scientific Name: Chilo infuscatellus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
Host Range: Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Distribution: Found in sugarcane-growing regions worldwide.
Biology:
Larvae bore into sugarcane shoots, feeding internally and causing wilting and death.
Pupation occurs inside the damaged cane.
Nature of Damage:
Larval feeding causes wilting, dead hearts, and yield loss in affected shoots.
Infestations can weaken plants and predispose them to disease.
Management:
Early detection through scouting and pheromone traps.
Cultural practices such as proper sanitation and removal of infested shoots.
Biological control with natural enemies like parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chemical control using insecticides, timed to target vulnerable larval stages.
b. Internode Borer (Chilo auricilius):
Scientific Name: Chilo auricilius (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Distribution: Common in sugarcane-growing regions of Asia and Africa.
Biology:
Larvae bore into sugarcane stalks, feeding on internal tissues and causing damage.
Pupation occurs inside the tunnel.
Nature of Damage:
Feeding damage weakens internodes, leading to lodging and yield loss.
Affected stalks may have reduced sugar content and quality.
Management:
Regular monitoring for signs of damage and infestation.
Cultural practices like timely harvesting to remove infested stalks.
Biological control with natural enemies like parasitoid wasps and predatory insects.
Chemical control using systemic insecticides applied to the base of stalks.
c. Top Shoot Borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis):
Scientific Name: Scirpophaga excerptalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
Distribution: Common in sugarcane-growing regions of Asia.
Biology:
Larvae bore into sugarcane shoots, feeding on the growing points and causing dead
hearts.
Pupation occurs inside the damaged shoot.
Nature of Damage:
Larval feeding damages the apical meristem, leading to stunted growth and yield loss.
Infestations result in dead hearts and reduced tillering.
Management:
Early detection through regular field monitoring.
Cultural practices like maintaining healthy plant stands and removing affected shoots.
Biological control with parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chemical control with insecticides targeting susceptible larval stages.
d. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci):
Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)
Host Range: Wide host range, including sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Distribution: Worldwide distribution, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Biology:
Adult whiteflies feed on the undersides of leaves, sucking plant sap and excreting
honeydew.
Immature stages (nymphs) develop on the undersides of leaves.
Short life cycle with multiple generations per year.
Nature of Damage:
Feeding by whiteflies causes leaf yellowing, stunting, and reduced vigor.
Honeydew secretion promotes the growth of sooty mold, reducing photosynthesis.
Management:
Early detection through yellow sticky traps and visual inspection of leaves.
Cultural practices like removal of weed hosts and sanitation to reduce whitefly
populations.
Biological control using natural enemies like parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chemical control with insecticides targeting nymphal and adult stages, integrated with
other management tactics.
Pyrilla (Pyrilla perpusilla):
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Lophopidae
Host Range: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea)
Biology: Adult pyrilla lays eggs on the underside of leaves. Nymphs suck sap from plant
tissues, causing wilting, stunting, and yellowing of leaves. Heavy infestations lead to
defoliation and reduced plant growth.
Nature of Damage: Sap-sucking by nymphs causes wilting, yellowing, and stunting of
plants. Heavy infestations result in defoliation and yield loss.
Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, early planting, and removal of
weed hosts. Biological control agents like parasitoids and predators can be effective.
Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary in severe infestations.
2. Woolly Aphids (Eriosomatinae):
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus)
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, found in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology: Woolly aphids feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
secrete honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty mold. Heavy infestations cause leaf
curling, stunted growth, and reduced yield.
Nature of Damage: Sap feeding leads to distorted growth, leaf curling, and reduced
photosynthesis. Honeydew secretion attracts ants and promotes sooty mold growth,
further reducing photosynthesis.
Management: Natural enemies such as ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps help control
aphid populations. Horticultural oils and insecticidal soaps can be effective against
aphids. Cultural practices like pruning and weed control also aid in management.
3. Mealybug (Pseudococcidae):
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Pseudococcidae
Host Range: Sunhemp, Mesta, and various other crops.
Biology: Mealybugs have piercing-sucking mouthparts and feed on plant sap. They
secrete waxy filaments, forming a protective covering. Heavy infestations cause leaf
wilting, yellowing, and premature leaf drop.
Nature of Damage: Sap feeding weakens plants, leading to wilting, stunting, and reduced
yield. Mealybug secretions promote the growth of sooty mold, further impacting
photosynthesis.
Management: Biological control using natural enemies like parasitic wasps and predators.
Insecticidal soaps and oils can be effective against mealybugs. Cultural practices such as
pruning and weed management help reduce populations.
4. Scale Insects (Coccoidea):
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Various families within Coccoidea
Host Range: Sunhemp, Mesta, and a wide range of plants.
Biology: Scale insects have sucking mouthparts and feed on plant sap. They secrete a
protective scale covering. Heavy infestations cause yellowing, wilting, and dieback of
plant parts.
Nature of Damage: Sap feeding weakens plants, leading to yellowing, wilting, and dieback
of branches. Scale coverings protect insects from natural enemies and insecticides.
Management: Natural enemies such as parasitic wasps and predatory beetles help
control scale populations. Horticultural oils and insecticidal soaps can be used to
smother and kill scales. Systemic insecticides may be necessary for severe infestations.
5. Termites (Isoptera):
Order: Isoptera
Family: Various families within Isoptera
Host Range: Sunhemp, Mesta, and various other crops and wood products.
Biology: Termites are social insects that feed on cellulose-rich materials. They construct
intricate underground colonies and forage for food above and below ground. In
agriculture, they damage plant roots, stems, and other organic matter.
Nature of Damage: Termites cause damage to plant roots and underground structures,
leading to reduced plant vigor and yield. In severe cases, they may cause plant death.
Management: Integrated pest management strategies including physical barriers, cultural
practices, and chemical treatments. Soil treatment with termiticides and baiting systems
are commonly used for termite control.
6. White Grub (Scarabaeidae):

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Host Range: Sunhemp, Mesta, and various other crops.
Biology: White grubs are the larval stage of beetles. They feed on plant roots, causing
wilting, stunting, and reduced plant vigor. Adult beetles lay eggs in soil, and larvae hatch
and feed on plant roots.
Nature of Damage: White grub feeding on plant roots weakens plants, leading to wilting,
stunting, and reduced yield. Severe infestations can result in plant death.
Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and soil cultivation help disrupt
white grub life cycles. Biological control agents like parasitic nematodes and fungal
pathogens can be effective. Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary for
severe infestations.
General Account on Nature and Types of Damage by Different Arthropod Pests in Stored
Grains
1. Introduction to Stored Grain Pests:
Stored grain pests are arthropods that infest stored grains and cause significant
economic losses.
They belong to various orders, families, and species, each with its biology, host range,
distribution, and damage patterns.
Effective management strategies are crucial for controlling these pests and preserving
stored grain quality.
2. Biology and Damage of Primary Stored Grain Pests:
i. Internal Feeders:
a. Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae):
- Order: Coleoptera
- Family: Curculionidae
- Host Range: Primarily attacks rice, but also infests other grains such as wheat, barley, maize,
and sorghum.
- Distribution: Found worldwide, especially in regions with warm and humid climates.
- Biology: Adults are small, reddish-brown weevils with distinctive snouts. Females lay eggs
inside grains, and larvae develop within the kernels, causing damage.
- Nature of Damage: Larval feeding leads to hollowed-out grains, reducing weight and quality.
Adults also feed on grains, causing further damage.
- Management: Proper sanitation, airtight storage, temperature control, and use of
insecticides are key management strategies.
b. Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica):
- Order: Coleoptera
- Family: Bostrichidae
- Host Range: Infests a wide range of grains, including wheat, rice, maize, barley, and oats.
- Distribution: Globally distributed, particularly in temperate and tropical regions.
- Biology: Small, cylindrical beetles with reddish-brown coloration. Larvae bore into grains,
feeding on endosperm, while adults may also feed on grain surfaces.
- Nature of Damage: Larval feeding causes extensive damage to grains, reducing quality and
market value. Infestations may lead to flour contamination and mold growth.
- Management: Proper grain hygiene, fumigation, and insecticide applications are common
control measures.
c. Pulse Beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis):
- Order: Coleoptera
- Family: Chrysomelidae
- Host Range: Primarily infests pulses and legumes such as chickpeas, lentils, mung beans,
and soybeans.
- Distribution: Widespread in regions with high pulse production, especially in Asia and Africa.
- Biology: Small, dark-colored beetles with elongated bodies. Females lay eggs on grains, and
larvae bore into seeds, feeding on cotyledons.
- Nature of Damage: Larval feeding causes seed destruction, reducing germination and
marketability. Adults may also feed on seeds, causing further damage.
- Management: Proper drying and storage practices, heat treatment, and use of biological
control agents like parasitoids.
d. Angoumois Grain Moth (Sitotroga cerealella):
- Order: Lepidoptera
- Family: Gelechiidae
- Host Range: Primarily infests cereals such as maize, rice, wheat, and barley.
- Distribution: Worldwide distribution, particularly in warm and temperate regions.
- Biology: Small, grayish-brown moths with distinctive fringed wings. Females lay eggs on
grains, and larvae bore into kernels, feeding on endosperm.
- Nature of Damage: Larval feeding results in hollowed-out grains, reducing weight and
quality. Infestations may lead to mold growth and grain spoilage.
- Management: Proper sanitation, airtight storage, pheromone traps, and insecticide

applications are effective control methods.
3. Biology and Damage of Secondary Stored Grain Pests:
Secondary stored grain pests typically infest damaged or previously infested grains,
contributing to further deterioration.
These pests include various species of beetles, moths, and mites, each with specific
biology and damage patterns.
Management of secondary pests often involves controlling primary pests to minimize
grain damage and prevent secondary infestations.
General Account on Nature and Type of Damage by Different Arthropod Pests
External Feeders: Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium)
Scientific Name: Trogoderma granarium
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Dermestidae
Host Range: Khapra beetles infest a wide range of stored products including grains, cereals,
dried fruits, seeds, and even animal products like wool, hides, and leather.
Distribution: Originating from South Asia, Khapra beetles have spread globally due to
international trade, with significant populations found in regions with warm and dry climates.
Biology: Khapra beetle females lay eggs on or near stored food products. Larvae hatch from
these eggs and feed voraciously on the stored commodities, often burrowing into them.
Larval development is slow, and the pupal stage is completed within the infested food
material. Adult beetles emerge from pupae and continue the life cycle.
Nature of Damage: Khapra beetles cause extensive damage to stored products by feeding on
them, reducing their quality and market value. Larvae chew through packaging materials,
contaminate food with their excrement and cast skins, and may cause heating and mold
growth in heavily infested materials.
Management of Khapra Beetles:

Sanitation: Clean storage facilities regularly to remove debris and spilled grains that may
attract beetles.
Temperature Management: Maintain cool temperatures below 18°C to discourage beetle

development.
Monitoring: Use pheromone traps to detect and monitor Khapra beetle populations.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides approved for use in stored product protection,
following label instructions and safety guidelines.
Indian Meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella)
Scientific Name: Plodia interpunctella
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralidae
Host Range: Indian meal moths infest a variety of stored products including grains, dried
fruits, nuts, chocolate, birdseed, and pet food.
Distribution: Found globally, Indian meal moths thrive in regions with temperate climates, but
can also survive in warmer environments.
Biology: Indian meal moth females lay eggs on or near stored food items. Upon hatching, the
larvae feed on the food material, spinning silk webbing as they tunnel through it. Larvae
pupate within the infested food or in nearby crevices. Adult moths emerge from pupae and
mate, completing the life cycle.
Nature of Damage: Indian meal moth larvae contaminate stored products with silk webbing,
feces, and cast skins. They cause direct damage by feeding on the food material, reducing its
quality and rendering it unmarketable. Larval presence can also lead to mold growth and
secondary infestations.
Management of Indian Meal Moth:
Sanitation: Clean storage areas regularly to remove spilled food particles and debris.
Inspection: Inspect stored products for signs of Indian meal moth infestation, including
webbing, larvae, and adult moths.
Sealing and Packaging: Use airtight containers and packaging materials to prevent access to
stored foods.
Temperature Control: Maintain cool temperatures below 20°C to inhibit Indian meal moth
development.
Pheromone Traps: Deploy pheromone traps to monitor and capture adult moths, reducing
breeding populations.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides labeled for use against Indian meal moths in storage
facilities, following safety precautions and regulatory guidelines.
Secondary Stored Grain Pests:
Rust Red Flour Beetle (Tribolium castaneum)
Scientific Name: Tribolium castaneum
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Tenebrionidae
Host Range: Rust red flour beetles infest a variety of stored products including flour, grains,
cereals, pasta, nuts, and spices.
Distribution: Widely distributed globally, rust red flour beetles are common pests in regions
with temperate and tropical climates.
Biology: Rust red flour beetle females lay eggs on or near stored food materials. Larvae hatch
from these eggs and feed on the food items, often tunneling into them. Larvae pupate within
the food or nearby crevices. Adult beetles emerge from pupae and continue the life cycle.
Nature of Damage: Rust red flour beetles cause damage to stored products by feeding on
them, reducing their quality and market value. Larvae and adults contaminate food with their
excrement and cast skins, and heavy infestations may lead to heating and mold growth.
Management of Rust Red Flour Beetles:
Sanitation: Keep storage facilities clean and free from spilled food materials.
Temperature Management: Maintain cool temperatures below 20°C to slow beetle

development.
Aeration: Provide proper ventilation to reduce humidity levels, discouraging beetle activity.
Monitoring: Use traps baited with food attractants or pheromones to monitor beetle
populations.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides labeled for use against rust red flour beetles, following
safety precautions and regulatory guidelines.
Sawtoothed Grain Beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)
Scientific Name: Oryzaephilus surinamensis

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Silvanidae
Host Range: Sawtoothed grain beetles infest a wide range of stored products including grains,
flour, cereal products, nuts, dried fruits, and chocolate.
Distribution: Sawtoothed grain beetles are cosmopolitan pests, found worldwide in regions
with temperate and tropical climates.
Biology: Females of sawtoothed grain beetles lay eggs in cracks and crevices of stored food
materials. Upon hatching, larvae feed on the food items, often hiding within them. Larvae
pupate within the food or nearby surfaces. Adult beetles emerge from pupae and continue
the life cycle.
Nature of Damage: Sawtoothed grain beetles cause damage to stored products by feeding on
Management of Sawtoothed Grain Beetles:
Sanitation: Maintain cleanliness in storage areas to remove spilled food materials and debris.
Sealing: Use airtight containers and packaging to prevent access to stored foods.
Temperature Control: Keep storage temperatures below 20°C to inhibit beetle development.
Monitoring: Employ traps baited with food attractants or pheromones to monitor beetle
populations.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides labeled for use against sawtoothed grain beetles,
following safety precautions and regulatory guidelines.
Long-Headed Beetle (Ahasverus advena)
Scientific Name: Ahasverus advena
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Silvanidae
Host Range: Long-headed beetles infest a variety of stored products including grains, cereals,
flour, dried fruits, and animal feeds.
Distribution: Long-headed beetles are cosmopolitan pests, found in regions with temperate
and tropical climates, particularly in stored product environments.
Biology: Long-headed beetle females lay eggs on or near stored food materials. Larvae hatch
from these eggs and feed on the food items, often burrowing into them. Larvae pupate within
the food or in nearby surfaces. Adult beetles emerge from pupae and continue the life cycle.
Nature of Damage: Long-headed beetles cause damage to stored products by feeding on

Management of Long-Headed Beetles:
Sanitation: Ensure cleanliness in storage areas to eliminate food debris and spilled materials.
Sealing: Use tightly sealed containers and packaging to prevent access to stored foods.
Temperature Control: Maintain storage temperatures below 20°C to deter beetle

development.
Monitoring: Employ traps baited with food attractants or pheromones to monitor beetle
populations.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides labeled for use against long-headed beetles, following
safety guidelines and regulatory requirements.
Management of Beneficial Insects

Apiculture: Introduction and History of Beekeeping
Introduction to Apiculture:
Apiculture, commonly known as beekeeping, is the practice of maintaining colonies of

honeybees for the purpose of harvesting honey, beeswax, royal jelly, pollen, and other
products. It is an ancient practice with significant cultural, economic, and ecological
importance.
History of Beekeeping:
Beekeeping has a rich history dating back thousands of years. Here's an overview:
1. Ancient Times:
Beekeeping traces its origins to ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece,
and China.
Early beekeepers kept bees in hollowed-out logs, clay pots, or woven baskets.
Archaeological evidence, including depictions on ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and Greek
pottery, suggests early beekeeping practices.
2. Classical Period:
The ancient Greeks and Romans valued honey for its medicinal and culinary properties.
Aristotle and other Greek scholars studied bee behavior and hive organization, laying the
foundation for modern beekeeping knowledge.
Roman apiaries, called "apiaria," were established to manage bee colonies for honey
production.
3. Middle Ages:
Beekeeping continued to flourish in medieval Europe, with monasteries playing a

significant role in honey production.
Skeps, dome-shaped woven baskets, became a common hive design during this period.
Beekeeping guilds and associations emerged, furthering the exchange of knowledge and
techniques among beekeepers.
4. Renaissance and Early Modern Period:
The invention of the movable-frame beehive by Reverend Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth in

the 19th century revolutionized beekeeping.
Langstroth's hive design allowed beekeepers to inspect colonies without disturbing the
bees excessively, improving hive management and honey production.
Innovations such as the smoker, bee veil, and honey extractor further advanced
beekeeping practices during this period.
5. Modern Era:
Beekeeping evolved into a commercial industry in the 20th century, with advancements
in hive management, breeding, and pest control.
The development of beekeeping associations, research institutions, and certification
programs contributed to the professionalization of apiculture.
Today, beekeeping is practiced worldwide, ranging from small-scale hobbyists to large-
scale commercial operations.
Beekeeping: Morphology and Anatomy
1. Morphology of Honeybees:
Honeybees belong to the genus Apis and are characterized by several distinctive
features:
Body Segments: Honeybees have three main body segments – head, thorax, and
abdomen.
Exoskeleton: Their bodies are covered with a hard exoskeleton composed of chitin,
providing protection and support.
Antennae: Honeybees have two segmented antennae used for sensing chemicals and
detecting environmental cues.
Wings: They possess two pairs of wings, which allow them to fly and regulate hive
temperature through fanning.
Legs: Honeybees have six legs equipped with specialized structures for pollen
collection, grooming, and communication.
2. Anatomy of Honeybees:
Head:
Includes the mouthparts, compound eyes, simple eyes (ocelli), antennae, and brain.
Mouthparts consist of mandibles for chewing and a proboscis (tongue) for sucking
nectar.
Thorax:
Contains the muscles responsible for wing movement and locomotion.
Attached to the thorax are the legs and wings.
Abdomen:
Houses vital organs such as the digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive
organs, and sting apparatus.
The sting consists of a venom gland and a barbed stinger used for defense.
Apiculture: Bee Biology, Pollinating Plants, and Bee Conservation
1. Bee Biology:
a. Overview of Bees:
Bees are flying insects known for their role in pollination and honey production.
Belong to the order Hymenoptera and family Apidae.
Three primary types: honey bees (genus Apis), bumblebees (genus Bombus), and solitary
bees.
b. Anatomy of Bees:
Head: Contains compound eyes, antennae, and mouthparts.

Thorax: Holds the wings and legs for flying and pollen collection.
Abdomen: Contains the digestive and reproductive organs.
c. Life Cycle of Bees:
Egg: Laid by the queen bee in honeycomb cells.

Larva: Hatches from the egg and is fed by nurse bees.
Pupa: Develops in a capped cell and undergoes metamorphosis.
Adult: Emerges from the cell as a fully formed bee and joins the colony's workforce.
d. Roles within the Colony:
Queen: Reproduces and maintains the colony's population.

Workers: Females responsible for foraging, nursing, and maintaining the hive.
Drones: Male bees whose primary role is to mate with the queen.
2. Pollinating Plants and Their Cycle:

a. Importance of Pollination:
Vital process for plant reproduction and ecosystem health.

Facilitates the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs (anthers) to the
female reproductive organs (stigma) of flowers.
b. Types of Pollination:
Cross-Pollination: Transfer of pollen between flowers of different plants.

Self-Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or a
different flower on the same plant.
c. Bee Pollination Process:
Bees collect pollen and nectar from flowers while foraging for food.
Pollen grains adhere to the bee's body and are transferred to other flowers as the bee
moves from one bloom to another.
This process fertilizes the flowers, leading to seed production and fruit formation.
d. Plants Dependent on Bee Pollination:
Various crops rely heavily on bee pollination for high yields and quality produce.
Examples include almonds, apples, cherries, blueberries, and squash.
3. Bee Conservation:
a. Importance of Bee Conservation:
Bees play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

Key pollinators for many plants, including crops essential for human food production.
Declines in bee populations pose risks to agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
b. Threats to Bee Populations:
Habitat Loss: Destruction of natural habitats due to urbanization, agriculture, and

deforestation.
Pesticide Use: Exposure to insecticides and herbicides, leading to bee mortality and
colony collapse disorder.
Parasites and Diseases: Varroa mites, Nosema fungi, and viral infections weaken bee
colonies.
c. Strategies for Bee Conservation:
Habitat Restoration: Creation of bee-friendly habitats with diverse flowering plants for
forage.
Reduced Pesticide Use: Adoption of integrated pest management practices and organic
farming methods.
Beekeeper Education: Training beekeepers in sustainable hive management techniques
to support bee health.
Public Awareness: Increasing awareness about the importance of bees and their
conservation through education and outreach programs.
d. Research and Monitoring:
Continued research into bee biology, behavior, and ecology to better understand their
needs and vulnerabilities.
Regular monitoring of bee populations to track changes in abundance and diversity and
assess conservation efforts' effectiveness.
Commercial Methods of Bee Rearing:
1. Hive Establishment:
Selection of Hive Location:

Choose an area with abundant floral resources and protection from harsh weather
conditions.
Ensure adequate sunlight exposure for hive warmth and bee activity.
Hive Construction:
Use standardized hive designs such as Langstroth hives, top-bar hives, or Warre hives.
Construct hives with durable materials like wood, ensuring proper ventilation and
insulation.
2. Colony Management:
Queen Rearing:
Utilize queen cells or grafting techniques to rear new queens for colony expansion.
Implement artificial queen rearing methods for controlled breeding and genetic
improvement.
Swarm Prevention:
Conduct regular hive inspections to monitor colony population and brood
development.
Provide adequate space within the hive to prevent overcrowding and subsequent
swarming.
3. Hive Manipulation:
Brood Chamber Management:

Rotate frames within brood chambers to stimulate colony growth and prevent disease
buildup.
Maintain optimal brood nest temperature and humidity levels for healthy brood
development.
Honey Supers Addition:
Add honey supers during peak nectar flows to maximize honey production.
Remove excess honey supers after the honey harvest to prevent hive congestion.
III. Equipment Used in Beekeeping:

1. Protective Gear:
Bee Suit and Veil:

Provides full-body protection against bee stings during hive inspections and honey
harvesting.
Gloves and Boots:
Protects hands and feet from bee stings while working with hives and handling frames.
2. Hive Tools:
Smoker:
Emits cool smoke to calm bees and reduce defensive behavior during hive
manipulation.
Hive Tool:
Used for prying apart hive components, scraping propolis, and manipulating frames
during inspections.
3. Beekeeping Supplies:
Frames and Foundation:

Provides structural support for honeycomb construction and brood rearing.
Foundation sheets guide bee comb construction and maintain uniform cell size.
Bee Feeders:
Facilitates supplemental feeding during periods of nectar dearth or colony expansion.
Available in various designs such as top feeders, entrance feeders, and frame feeders.
IV. Seasonal Management of Bees:
1. Spring Management:
Colony Expansion:
Stimulate brood production by providing protein supplements and pollen substitutes.
Split strong colonies to prevent swarming and increase hive numbers.
Disease Prevention:
Monitor for signs of brood diseases like American foulbrood (AFB) and European
foulbrood (EFB).
Implement preventive measures such as hive sanitation and medication application if
necessary.
2. Summer Management:
Honey Harvesting:
Extract surplus honey from honey supers during peak nectar flows.
Ensure proper hive ventilation and moisture control to prevent honey fermentation.
Pest Control:
Monitor for Varroa mite infestations and implement integrated pest management
(IPM) strategies.
Control other pests like wax moths and small hive beetles through trap placement and
hive manipulation.
3. Fall Management:
Winter Preparation:
Reduce hive entrance size to minimize heat loss and prevent robbing by other bee
colonies.
Provide supplemental feeding of sugar syrup or fondant to ensure adequate food
stores for overwintering.
Queen Assessment:
Evaluate queen performance and replace old or failing queens to maintain colony
vigor and productivity.
Bee Hives and Their Description:
Types of Bee Hives:
Langstroth Hive:
Consists of rectangular boxes with frames that hang vertically, allowing bees to
build comb and store honey.
Top-Bar Hive:
Features horizontal bars on which bees build comb, typically used in traditional or
natural beekeeping methods.
Warre Hive:
Vertical hive with stacked boxes, designed to mimic natural bee nesting habits.
Flow Hive:
Innovative hive with frames that allow honey to be harvested without disturbing
the bees.
Components of a Bee Hive:
Bottom Board: Provides the base and entrance for the hive.
Boxes or Supers: Vertical sections where bees build comb and store honey.
Frames: Removable structures within the boxes where bees build comb.
Inner and Outer Covers: Protect the hive and regulate temperature.
Description of Bee Hive Components:
Langstroth hives typically consist of deep and medium boxes, with frames containing
foundation or comb.
Top-bar hives feature a single box with bars from which bees suspend comb.
Warre hives have stacked boxes with top-bars for comb attachment.
Flow hives include special frames for honey extraction without disturbing bees.
III. Bee Pasturage:
Definition:
Bee pasturage refers to the floral resources available to honeybees for nectar and
pollen collection.
Types of Bee Pasturage:
Natural Pasturage:
Wildflowers, trees, and shrubs provide diverse nectar and pollen sources.
Cultivated Pasturage:
Agricultural crops such as clover, alfalfa, sunflowers, and fruit trees are cultivated
specifically to support bee populations.
Factors Influencing Bee Pasturage:
Seasonality: Different plants bloom at different times of the year, providing seasonal
variation in bee forage.
Diversity: A diverse range of plant species supports healthier bee populations by
providing varied nutrition.
Geography: Regional climate and vegetation determine the availability of bee
pasturage.
IV. Bee Foraging Behavior:
Foraging Process:
Orientation: Bees leave the hive and orient themselves to their surroundings, memorizing
landmarks to navigate.
Search: Bees search for floral resources based on scent, color, and nectar guides.
Collection: Bees collect nectar and pollen using their proboscis and specialized pollen
baskets on their hind legs.
Return: Bees return to the hive with their collected resources.
Factors Affecting Foraging Behavior:

Distance: Bees preferentially forage closer to the hive but will travel further for
abundant resources.
Resource Quality: Bees prioritize high-quality nectar and pollen sources.
Weather: Foraging activity is influenced by temperature, humidity, and wind
conditions.
Foraging Efficiency: Efficient foraging strategies maximize resource collection while
minimizing energy expenditure.
V. Bee Behavior and Communication:
1. Dance Language:
Definition: Honeybees use intricate dances to communicate the location of food
sources to nestmates.
Types of Dances:
Round Dance: Indicates nearby food sources, within 50 meters of the hive.
Waggle Dance: Conveys the direction, distance, and quality of food sources further from the
hive.
Dance Interpretation: Other bees decode the dance information and adjust their
foraging behavior accordingly.
2. Alarm Pheromones:
Definition: Bees release alarm pheromones to communicate danger or disturbance to
the colony.
Responses: When alarmed, bees exhibit defensive behaviors such as stinging and
increased aggression.
3. Nestmate Recognition:
Definition: Bees recognize and distinguish between nestmates and intruders through
chemical cues and behavioral interactions.
Importance: Facilitates cooperation and coordination within the hive, maintaining
colony cohesion.
4. Queen Pheromones:
Definition: The queen bee releases pheromones that regulate colony behavior,
including reproduction, worker tasks, and overall colony health.
Effects: Queen pheromones influence worker behavior, suppress worker reproduction,
and maintain colony unity.
5. Trophallaxis:
Definition: Mutual exchange of regurgitated food between bees, serving as a means of
communication and resource sharing within the colony.
Function: Regulates food distribution, transfers nutrients and pheromones, and
strengthens social bonds.
Insect Pests of Honey Bees
1. Varroa destructor (Varroa Mite):
Identification:
Varroa mites are external parasitic mites that infest honey bee colonies.
Oval-shaped, reddish-brown mites visible to the naked eye.
Damage:
Feed on the bodily fluids of adult bees and brood, weakening the colony.
Vector for various viruses, leading to colony collapse disorder (CCD).
Management:
Chemical treatments with miticides.
Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, including drone brood removal and
hygienic behavior.
Breeding for varroa-resistant bee stocks.
2. Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida):
Identification:
Small, dark brown beetles with clubbed antennae.
Larvae are white, legless grubs found in honey and pollen stores.
Damage:
Larvae consume honey, pollen, and brood, causing fermentation and spoilage.
Contaminate honey with feces and secretions, rendering it unfit for consumption.
Management:
Beetle traps with oil or diatomaceous earth.
Maintaining strong colonies with healthy populations of worker bees.
Proper hive management practices to reduce beetle habitat.
3. Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella):
Identification:
Small, grayish-brown moths with a wingspan of 1-1.5 inches.
Larvae are whitish-gray caterpillars with dark heads.
Damage:
Larvae feed on beeswax, pollen, and bee brood, causing damage to comb and
weakening colonies.
Produce silk webbing that contaminates honey and comb.
Management:
Maintaining strong colonies with healthy populations of worker bees to defend against
wax moths.
Freezing or solar heating infected frames to kill moth eggs and larvae.
Use of chemical controls such as paradichlorobenzene or acetic acid fumigation.
Part 2: Diseases of Honey Bees
1. Nosema Disease (Nosemosis):
Identification:
Caused by the microsporidian parasites Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae.
Symptoms include dysentery, weakened colonies, and reduced lifespan of infected
bees.
Management:
Fumagillin-based treatments to control Nosema spores.
Proper sanitation and hygiene practices to minimize spore transmission.
Maintaining colony strength and nutrition to reduce susceptibility to disease.
2. American Foulbrood (Paenibacillus larvae):
Identification:
Bacterial disease affecting honey bee brood.
Larvae become brown and ropey, with a foul odor resembling decay.
Spores of Paenibacillus larvae are highly resistant and can persist in equipment and
hive debris.
Management:
Antibiotic treatment with oxytetracycline or tylosin.
Destruction of infected brood and hive material through burning or burial.
Strict biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of spores between colonies.
3. European Foulbrood (Melissococcus plutonius):
Identification:
Bacterial disease affecting honey bee brood, primarily larvae.
Larvae exhibit a yellowish color and become twisted and shriveled.
Foul odor may be present, but less pronounced than in American foulbrood.
Management:
Antibiotic treatment with oxytetracycline or lincomycin.
Improve hive ventilation to reduce moisture levels, as European foulbrood thrives in
humid conditions.
Requeening with resistant bee stocks to prevent recurrence.
Sericulture: Terminologies, History, and Development in India, Types of Silkworms, Voltinism,

and Biology of Silkworms
I. Introduction to Sericulture:
Sericulture refers to the cultivation of silkworms and the production of silk. It is an ancient
practice dating back thousands of years, valued for its luxurious fabric and economic
significance. Sericulture involves various terminologies, historical developments, and the
biology of silkworms, contributing to its rich heritage and global industry.
II. Terminologies in Sericulture:
Silk: A natural protein fiber produced by silkworms, primarily used in textile manufacturing.
Sericulture: The cultivation of silkworms and the production of silk.
Silkworm: The larval stage of the silk moth, primarily known for spinning silk cocoons.
Mulberry Silk: The most common type of silk produced by silkworms fed on mulberry leaves.
Eri Silk: A type of silk produced by eri silkworms (Samia ricini), feeding on castor leaves.
Tasar Silk: A coarse type of silk produced by tasar silkworms (Antheraea mylitta), feeding on
oak leaves.
Muga Silk: A golden-colored silk produced by muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis),

endemic to Assam, India.
Sericulture Industry: The sector involved in silk production, including rearing of silkworms,
cocoon harvesting, and silk processing.
III. History and Development of Silkworms in India:
Ancient Origins:
Sericulture has ancient origins in China, where silk production began around 5000
years ago.
Historical evidence suggests that silk cultivation spread to India through the Silk Road
trade route.
Introduction to Sericulture in India:
The exact time of silk cultivation introduction to India is unclear, but it likely dates
back to antiquity.
According to historical accounts, sericulture flourished in various regions of India,
including Bengal, Assam, and Karnataka.
Silk Route Connections:
India played a crucial role in the historic Silk Road trade, exporting silk to the Middle
East, Europe, and beyond.
The silk trade contributed to the prosperity of ancient Indian kingdoms and facilitated
cultural exchanges.
Regional Variations:
Different regions of India specialized in the production of various types of silk, such as
mulberry silk in Karnataka and eri silk in Assam.
Modern Developments:
With advancements in technology and scientific research, sericulture practices in

India have evolved to improve silk quality and increase production efficiency.
Government initiatives and sericulture institutes have promoted research and
development in the sericulture sector.
IV. Types of Silkworms:
Mulberry Silkworm (Bombyx mori):
Feeds exclusively on mulberry leaves.

Produces fine and lustrous silk fibers, ideal for high-quality textiles.
Cultivated extensively in regions with favorable climate and mulberry cultivation.
Eri Silkworm (Samia ricini):
Feeds on castor leaves.

Produces a coarser silk fiber known for its warmth and durability.
Cultivated in regions where castor cultivation is prevalent, such as Assam and parts of
South India.
Tasar Silkworm (Antheraea mylitta):
Feeds on oak leaves.

Produces a coarse and textured silk fiber used in a variety of textiles, including sarees
and shawls.
Cultivated in forested regions of India, including Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Muga Silkworm (Antheraea assamensis):
Endemic to Assam, India.

Feeds on a variety of leaves, including som and soalu.
Produces a unique golden-colored silk prized for its sheen and durability.
V. Voltinism in Silkworms:
Univoltine:
Silkworms that complete their life cycle once a year.

Commonly associated with mulberry silkworms in temperate regions with distinct
seasons.
Bivoltine:
Silkworms that complete their life cycle twice a year.

Cultivated in regions with favorable climatic conditions, allowing for two generations
per year.
Multivoltine:
Silkworms that have multiple generations per year, typically in tropical regions with
continuous favorable conditions.
VI. Biology of Silkworms:
Life Cycle:
Egg: Laid by female silk moths on suitable surfaces.

Larva (Caterpillar): Hatches from the egg and feeds voraciously on mulberry leaves.
Pupa: Forms a silk cocoon around itself for metamorphosis.
Adult: Emerges from the cocoon as a moth, ready for mating and egg-laying.
Feeding Behavior:
Silkworms exhibit specialized feeding behavior, consuming large quantities of

mulberry leaves to fuel rapid growth.
Mulberry leaves provide essential nutrients for silk production and larval
development.
Silk Production:
Silkworms produce silk fibers from specialized glands, known as silk glands, located in
their heads.
The silk fibers are secreted as a viscous fluid, which hardens upon exposure to air,
forming the silk filament.
Silkworms spin silk cocoons to protect themselves during the pupal stage, providing
the raw material for silk production.
Metamorphosis:
Inside the cocoon, the silkworm undergoes metamorphosis, transforming from a larva
to a pupa and finally into an adult moth.
The adult moth emerges from the cocoon to mate and lay eggs, completing the life
cycle.
Sericulture: Mulberry Cultivation, Crop Varieties, Harvesting Methods, and Preservation of

Mulberry Leaves
1. Introduction to Sericulture:
Sericulture, the cultivation of silk-producing insects and the production of silk, has been
practiced for centuries, dating back to ancient civilizations such as China and India.
Mulberry cultivation forms an integral part of sericulture, providing the primary food
source for silkworms (Bombyx mori).
2. Mulberry Cultivation:
a. Climate and Soil Requirements:
Mulberry trees thrive in subtropical and temperate climates with well-drained soil.
Ideal temperature ranges from 25°C to 30°C, with moderate humidity.
b. Varieties of Mulberry:
Several varieties of mulberry are cultivated for sericulture, with variations in leaf size,
color, and nutrient content.
Common varieties include:
Morus alba (White Mulberry)
Morus indica (Indian Mulberry)
Morus nigra (Black Mulberry)
Each variety has specific attributes suited for different climatic conditions and silkworm
breeds.
c. Cultivation Practices:
Mulberry trees are typically propagated through stem cuttings or seeds.
Planting is done during the rainy season, ensuring adequate moisture for establishment.
Mulberry plants require regular watering and fertilization to promote healthy growth.
Pruning is essential to maintain desired tree shape and encourage new leaf growth.
3. Crop Management:
a. Irrigation:
Mulberry trees require consistent moisture, especially during the growing season.
Drip irrigation or sprinkler systems are commonly used to provide uniform water
distribution.
b. Fertilization:
Application of organic or chemical fertilizers helps in replenishing soil nutrients and

promoting vigorous growth.
Balanced fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium is essential for optimal
leaf production.
c. Pest and Disease Management:
Mulberry plants are susceptible to pests such as aphids, mites, and leaf-eating
caterpillars.
Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies involving biological control agents and
botanical pesticides help in minimizing pest damage.
Diseases like powdery mildew and leaf spot can be managed through proper sanitation
and fungicidal treatments.
4. Harvesting Methods:
a. Leaf Harvesting:
Mulberry leaves are harvested at specific intervals to meet the nutritional requirements
of silkworms.
Leaves are plucked by hand or through mechanical methods, ensuring careful handling to
avoid damage.
Harvesting is typically done during the early morning or late afternoon to minimize leaf
moisture content.
b. Leaf Sorting and Grading:
After harvesting, mulberry leaves undergo sorting and grading based on size, color, and
maturity.
Only tender, healthy leaves are selected for feeding silkworms, while damaged or
diseased leaves are discarded.
5. Preservation of Mulberry Leaves:

a. Sun Drying:
Freshly harvested mulberry leaves are spread out in thin layers and sun-dried to reduce
moisture content.
Sun drying helps in preserving the nutritional quality of leaves and inhibiting microbial
growth.
b. Shade Drying:
In regions with high humidity or limited sunlight, shade drying is preferred to prevent leaf
deterioration.
Leaves are dried under shade structures or in well-ventilated areas to maintain quality.
c. Storage:
Dried mulberry leaves are stored in airtight containers or bags to protect them from
moisture and pests.
Proper labeling with date of harvest and variety ensures traceability and quality control.
d. Processing:
In some cases, dried mulberry leaves are further processed into powder or pellets for
convenient storage and feeding.
Sericulture: Silkworm Rearing, Mounting, Harvesting, and Marketing of Cocoons
I. Introduction to Sericulture:
Sericulture, the practice of silk production, has a rich history dating back thousands of
years, primarily in regions like China, India, and Japan.
The process involves the rearing of silkworms, primarily the domesticated Bombyx mori
species, for the production of silk cocoons.
Sericulture plays a significant economic and cultural role in many countries, providing
livelihoods to millions of people worldwide.
II. Silkworm Rearing:
Selection of Silkworm Eggs:

Quality silkworm eggs are selected from disease-free, healthy moths.
Eggs are carefully examined for uniformity in size, shape, and color.
Incubation:
Eggs are incubated under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity.
After hatching, larvae or caterpillars emerge from the eggs.
Feeding and Maintenance:
Larvae are fed mulberry leaves or artificial diet formulations.
Proper hygiene and sanitation are maintained to prevent disease spread.
Molting and Growth:
Larvae undergo several molting stages, shedding their skins as they grow.
Molting is a critical phase for silkworm development and requires appropriate
nutrition and environmental conditions.
III. Mounting:
Spinning of Silk Cocoons:

As larvae mature, they enter the spinning stage, where they begin to produce silk
threads to form cocoons.
Larvae secrete silk protein from specialized glands, spinning the silk threads around
themselves.
Cocoon Formation:
Silkworms create a protective cocoon around their bodies using silk threads.
Cocoons are carefully monitored for uniformity and quality during the spinning
process.
Harvesting of Cocoons:
Cocoons are harvested carefully to prevent damage to the delicate silk threads.
Harvesting is usually done before adult moths emerge from the cocoons.
IV. Harvesting and Marketing of Cocoons:
Cocoon Sorting:
Harvested cocoons are sorted based on quality, size, and color.
High-quality cocoons are selected for silk production, while lower-grade cocoons may
be used for other purposes.
Silk Extraction:
Cocoons are boiled or steamed to kill the pupae inside and soften the silk threads.
Silk threads are then carefully unraveled from the cocoons using special machinery or
manual methods.
Silk Reeling:
Silk threads are reeled onto spools or bobbins to create raw silk yarn.
The quality of silk yarn is assessed based on factors such as fineness, strength, and
luster.
Marketing and Distribution:
Processed silk yarn is marketed to textile manufacturers or sold directly to
consumers.
Silk products, including fabrics, garments, and accessories, are distributed through
various channels, including retail stores and online platforms.
V. Pest and Diseases of Silkworms and Their Management:
Common Silkworm Pests:

Silkworms are susceptible to pests such as the silkworm moth, flacherie,
grasshoppers, mites, and beetles.
Diseases of Silkworms:
Silkworms may suffer from diseases like flacherie, muscardine, pebrine, and grasserie,
caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa.
Management Strategies:
Cultural practices such as maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in rearing facilities.
Biological control methods using natural enemies of silkworm pests.
Chemical control measures with safe and effective insecticides.
Genetic improvement of silkworm strains for disease resistance.
Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches combining multiple control methods
for sustainable pest management.
Lac Culture: Unveiling the World of Lac Insects
1. Introduction to Lac Culture:
Definition: Lac culture, also known as lac cultivation or sericulture, is the practice of
rearing lac insects for the production of lac resin, a valuable natural product used in
various industries.
Significance: Lac culture serves as an important source of income for rural communities
and contributes to the economy of several countries worldwide.
2. Species of Lac Insect:
Kerria lacca (Lac Insect):

The primary species used in lac culture.
Belongs to the order Hemiptera and family Kerriidae.
Native to India and Southeast Asia.
Female lac insects are the primary producers of lac resin.
3. Morphology of Lac Insect:
Adult Female:
Small, wingless insects.
Oval-shaped body, ranging in color from reddish-brown to black.
Antennae and legs are rudimentary.
Adult Male:
Smaller than females.
Possess wings and are capable of flight.
Mainly involved in mating with females.
4. Biology of Lac Insect:
Life Cycle:
Incomplete metamorphosis with three stages: egg, nymph, and adult.
Females lay eggs on host plants.
Nymphs emerge from eggs and undergo several molts before reaching adulthood.
Reproduction:
Sexual reproduction with separate sexes.
Mating occurs shortly after adult emergence.
Females lay eggs in clusters on host plants.
5. Behavior of Lac Insect:
Feeding Behavior:
Lac insects are phloem feeders, extracting sap from host plants using their piercing-
sucking mouthparts.
They secrete lac resin as a protective covering while feeding.
Social Behavior:
Lac insects exhibit a degree of aggregation, with females often found in clusters on
host plants.
Males disperse in search of mates.
6. Host Plants for Lac Culture:
Preferred Hosts:
Several species of trees serve as host plants for lac insects, including:
Kusum (Schleichera oleosa)
Palas (Butea monosperma)
Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana)
Ailanthus (Ailanthus excelsa)
Selection Criteria:
Host plants should provide adequate nutrition and support for the growth and
development of lac insects.
Certain species may be preferred based on regional availability and climatic
conditions.
7. Lac Cultivation Practices:
Rearing Techniques:
Lac insects are reared on host plants in controlled environments such as lac nurseries
or orchards.
Proper care and management practices are essential for optimal growth and resin
production.
Harvesting and Processing:
Lac resin is harvested by scraping it off the surface of host plants.
It undergoes various processing steps to remove impurities and improve quality
before being sold in the market.
8. Economic Importance of Lac Culture:
Income Generation:
Lac cultivation provides livelihood opportunities for rural communities, particularly in
India, Thailand, and Bangladesh.
It contributes significantly to the household income of lac farmers.
Industrial Applications:
Lac resin is used in various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
and textiles.
It is valued for its properties as a natural dye, binder, and coating material.
9. Challenges and Future Prospects:
Pest and Disease Management:

Lac insects are susceptible to pests and diseases, requiring proper pest management
practices.
Market Demand and Competition:
Fluctuations in market demand and competition from synthetic substitutes pose
challenges for lac producers.
Research and Innovation:
Continued research and innovation in lac culture techniques and product
development are essential for the sustainability and growth of the industry.
Lac Culture: Production, Uses, and Types
1. Introduction to Lac Culture:
Definition: Lac culture refers to the cultivation and harvesting of lac resin, a natural
polymer secreted by the lac insect (Kerria lacca) on host trees.
Origin: Lac culture has a long history, dating back to ancient times in regions such as India
and Southeast Asia.
Significance: Lac production plays a crucial role in various industries, including
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food additives, and wood finishing.
2. Lac Production Process:
Insect Cultivation: Lac culture involves the rearing of lac insects on host trees, primarily
species of the genus Ficus, Ziziphus, and Schleichera.
Feeding and Secretion: Female lac insects feed on the sap of host trees and secrete a
resinous substance to protect their eggs.
Harvesting: Lac resin is harvested by scraping it off the branches of host trees. The
resinous material is collected and processed to obtain various lac-based products.
3. Types of Lac:
a. Seed Lac:
Definition: Seed lac consists of tiny lac resin granules encased within a hard shell
secreted by the lac insect.
Production: Seed lac is obtained by scraping the resinous encrustations from host trees
and further processing.
Uses: Seed lac serves as the raw material for the production of various lac-based
products, including shellac.
b. Button Lac:
Definition: Button lac refers to larger, button-shaped masses of lac resin formed by
multiple layers of lac secretion.
Production: Button lac is harvested by carefully removing the resinous masses from host
trees and processing them.
Uses: Button lac is primarily used in the manufacture of shellac, a versatile natural resin
with numerous industrial applications.
c. Shellac:
Definition: Shellac is a natural resin obtained by refining and processing lac resin,
primarily seed lac and button lac.
Production Process: Shellac production involves crushing, sieving, and washing the lac
resin to remove impurities, followed by melting and molding into thin sheets or flakes.
Uses: Shellac finds wide applications as a versatile coating and sealing agent in industries
such as woodworking, pharmaceuticals, food packaging, and cosmetics.
d. Lac Products:
1. Lac Dye: Lac dye, derived from lac resin, is used as a natural colorant in textiles, food,
and cosmetics.
2. Lacquer: Lacquer is a protective coating made from a mixture of shellac, alcohol, and
pigments, used in furniture finishing and decorative arts.
3. Varnish: Varnish, derived from shellac, is applied as a protective and decorative coating
on wood, metal, and other surfaces.
4. Pharmaceutical Excipients: Shellac is used as a pharmaceutical excipient in tablet
coatings and controlled-release formulations.
5. Food Additives: Lac resin derivatives such as shellac are used as food glazing agents,
coating confectionery, fruits, and pharmaceutical pills.
4. Lac Culture Management Practices:
Host Tree Selection: Suitable host trees with adequate sap flow and nutritional content
are selected for lac cultivation.
Insect Rearing: Lac insect colonies are established on host trees and managed to ensure
optimal resin production.
Harvesting Techniques: Lac resin is harvested using traditional scraping methods or
modern tools, ensuring minimal damage to host trees and maximum resin yield.
Processing and Refining: Lac resin is processed and refined to obtain various lac-based
products, employing techniques such as filtration, melting, and molding.
5. Economic Importance of Lac Culture:
Employment Generation: Lac culture provides livelihood opportunities for numerous

rural communities engaged in insect rearing, resin harvesting, and product processing.
Revenue Generation: Lac production contributes to national economies through export
earnings and domestic sales of lac-based products.
Industrial Applications: Lac-based products serve as valuable raw materials in industries
such as woodworking, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and food processing.
Cultural Significance: Lac culture is deeply ingrained in the cultural heritage of regions
where it is practiced, with traditional crafts and art forms utilizing lac-based materials.
6. Environmental Considerations:
Sustainable Practices: Sustainable lac culture practices involve ensuring the health and
vitality of host trees, minimizing environmental impact, and promoting biodiversity
conservation.
Forest Management: Proper management of lac host trees and forest ecosystems is
essential for maintaining ecological balance and long-term sustainability of lac
production.
Community Participation: Involvement of local communities in lac culture management
fosters stewardship of natural resources and promotes sustainable development.
7. Challenges and Future Prospects:
Pest and Disease Management: Effective pest and disease control measures are essential
to prevent losses in lac production and ensure the health of lac insect colonies.
Market Diversification: Exploring new markets and applications for lac-based products
can enhance the economic viability of lac culture.
Research and Innovation: Continued research and innovation in lac cultivation
techniques, resin processing, and product development are crucial for the sustainability
and growth of the lac industry.
Biocontrol Agents (Natural Enemies): Introduction, Characteristics, and Successful Examples
I. Introduction of Bioagents:
1. Definition:
Biocontrol agents, also known as natural enemies, are living organisms used to control
pests and invasive species in agriculture, forestry, and other ecosystems.
They include predators, parasites, pathogens, and herbivores that regulate pest
populations by feeding on them or interfering with their reproduction.
2. Types of Bioagents:
Predators: Hunt, kill, and consume pest organisms.

Parasitoids: Lay eggs inside or on the bodies of pests, ultimately killing them.
Pathogens: Infect pests with diseases, leading to their demise.
Herbivores: Feed on invasive plant species, reducing their populations.
II. Ideal Characteristics of Bioagents:
1. Specificity:
Target only the pest species, minimizing harm to non-target organisms.

Prevent ecological disruptions caused by broad-spectrum pesticides.
2. Effectiveness:
Efficiently control pest populations to levels below economic thresholds.

Adaptability to different environmental conditions and pest densities.
3. Safety:
Non-toxic to humans, animals, and beneficial organisms.

Environmentally friendly with minimal ecological impact.
4. Persistence:
Remain active over extended periods, providing long-term pest control.

Ability to establish and maintain populations in the target area.
5. Compatibility:
Compatible with other pest management strategies, such as cultural and chemical
controls.
Integration into integrated pest management (IPM) programs for holistic pest control.
6. Ease of Application:
Practical and cost-effective methods for mass production and distribution.

User-friendly application techniques for field deployment.
III. Successful Examples of Biological Control:
1. Ladybird Beetles (Coccinellidae):
Bioagent Type: Predators.

Target Pests: Aphids, scale insects, mites.
Effectiveness: Ladybirds voraciously feed on aphids and other soft-bodied pests,
providing effective biological control in various crops such as citrus, cotton, and
vegetables.
2. Parasitic Wasps (Hymenoptera):
Bioagent Type: Parasitoids.

Target Pests: Caterpillars, fruit flies, whiteflies.
Effectiveness: Parasitic wasps lay eggs inside host insects, leading to their eventual
death. Examples include Trichogramma species for controlling moth pests and Encarsia
formosa for whitefly management.
3. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt):
Bioagent Type: Pathogen.

Target Pests: Lepidopteran larvae (e.g., caterpillars).
Effectiveness: Bt is a soil bacterium that produces toxins lethal to certain insect larvae
when ingested. Commercial formulations of Bt are widely used in organic farming and
forestry for pest control.
4. Entomopathogenic Fungi:
Bioagent Type: Pathogen.

Target Pests: Termites, ants, beetles.
Effectiveness: Fungi such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae infect and
kill a wide range of insect pests, offering sustainable and environmentally friendly pest
control options.
5. Biological Control of Invasive Weeds:
Bioagent Type: Herbivores.

Examples: Goats for controlling invasive plant species like kudzu and goatsrue; Leaf-
feeding beetles for managing invasive aquatic weeds like water hyacinth.
Effectiveness: Grazing animals and herbivorous insects feed on invasive plants, reducing
their populations and restoring native ecosystems.
6. Biological Control of Plant Diseases:
Bioagent Type: Antagonistic Microorganisms.

Examples: Trichoderma spp., Bacillus spp.
Effectiveness: Beneficial microorganisms antagonize plant pathogens, suppressing
disease development and enhancing plant health. They are applied as biofungicides in
agriculture and horticulture.
General Classification of Important Insect Orders Bearing Predators and Parasitoids Used in
Pest Control
Insects play a crucial role in ecosystem balance, and many are valuable allies in pest control
efforts. Predators and parasitoids are natural enemies of pests and are often utilized in
biological control strategies to manage pest populations in agricultural systems.
Understanding the classification and identification of major parasitoids and predators is
essential for effective pest management. This article provides an overview of the important
insect orders bearing predators and parasitoids commonly used in pest control, along with
identification techniques for some major species.
1. Coleoptera (Beetles):
Predators:
Ground beetles (Carabidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), lady beetles (Coccinellidae),
and tiger beetles (Cicindelidae) are important predators.
Parasitoids:
Some beetles in the families Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae exhibit parasitoid
behavior.
2. Diptera (Flies):
Predators:
Hoverflies (Syrphidae) and predatory midges (Ceratopogonidae) are significant
predators.
Parasitoids:
Tachinid flies (Tachinidae) and some parasitic wasps in the family Braconidae are
important parasitoids.
3. Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasps, Ants):

Predators:
Predatory wasps such as mud daubers (Sphecidae) and potter wasps (Vespidae), as
well as some ants (Formicidae), are effective predators.
Parasitoids:
Many parasitic wasps in families like Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, and
Trichogrammatidae are widely used for biological control.
4. Hemiptera (True Bugs):
Predators:
Assassin bugs (Reduviidae) and damsel bugs (Nabidae) are important predators.
Parasitoids:
Some members of the family Miridae exhibit parasitoid behavior.
5. Neuroptera (Lacewings, Antlions, Owlflies):
Predators:
Green lacewings (Chrysopidae) and brown lacewings (Hemerobiidae) are well-known
predators.
Parasitoids:
Some species of antlions (Myrmeleontidae) have parasitoid larvae.
Identification of Major Parasitoids and Predators:
1. Green Lacewings (Chrysoperla spp.):
Identification:
Adult lacewings are slender, green insects with delicate wings and golden eyes.
Larvae are voracious predators with elongated bodies and large sickle-shaped
mandibles.
Role in Pest Control:
Green lacewing larvae feed on aphids, thrips, mites, and other soft-bodied pests.
2. Lady Beetles (Coccinellidae):
Identification:
Lady beetles are small, round beetles with colorful elytra (wing covers) usually marked
with spots or stripes.
Larvae are elongated with spiky bodies.
Both adult and larval lady beetles prey on aphids, scale insects, mealybugs, and other
soft-bodied pests.
3. Parasitic Wasps (Braconidae):
Identification:
Parasitic wasps vary widely in appearance but generally have slender bodies with long
antennae.
Some species have conspicuous ovipositors used for injecting eggs into host insects.
Braconid wasps parasitize a wide range of insect hosts, including caterpillars, aphids,
and beetle larvae.
4. Tachinid Flies (Tachinidae):
Identification:
Tachinid flies resemble houseflies but are often larger and hairier.
They have a distinctive bristly appearance, especially on the abdomen.
Tachinid fly larvae parasitize caterpillars, beetles, and other insect pests, often killing
the host.
5. Ground Beetles (Carabidae):
Identification:
Ground beetles are typically elongated with flattened bodies and prominent
mandibles.
They come in various colors, often dark brown or black, with metallic hues.
Ground beetles are generalist predators that feed on a wide range of insects, including
caterpillars, beetle larvae, and weed seeds.
Biocontrol Agents: Major Parasitoids
1. Introduction to Biological Control Agents:
Biological control agents are organisms used to manage pests in agriculture, forestry, and
other sectors.
Among these agents, parasitoids play a crucial role in controlling pest populations by
parasitizing and ultimately killing their hosts.
This article focuses on major parasitoids, including Trichogramma spp., Chelonus
blackburni, Cotesia (Apanteles) spp., Bracon spp., Epiricania melanoleuca, Goniozus
nephantidis, and Campoletis chloridae.
2. Trichogramma spp.:
Description:
Trichogramma species are tiny parasitic wasps belonging to the family
Trichogrammatidae.
They are egg parasitoids, targeting the eggs of various insect pests.
Importance:
Widely used for biological control due to their effectiveness against pests such as
lepidopteran and coleopteran species.
They are highly efficient in controlling pests while causing minimal harm to non-target
organisms.
Example:
Trichogramma brassicae is used to control the cabbage moth (Plutella xylostella) in
cabbage crops.
3. Chelonus blackburni:
Description:
Chelonus blackburni is a parasitic wasp belonging to the family Braconidae.
It targets various lepidopteran pests, including Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera
litura.
Importance:
Widely used in biological control programs to manage agricultural pests.
Females lay eggs inside the caterpillars of target pests, leading to their eventual
death.
Example:
Chelonus blackburni is commonly employed in the control of cotton bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera) in cotton fields.
4. Cotesia (Apanteles) spp.:
Description:
Cotesia spp., formerly known as Apanteles spp., are parasitic wasps in the family
Braconidae.
They parasitize the larvae of various lepidopteran pests.
Importance:
Effective biological control agents against caterpillar pests in agriculture.
They lay eggs inside the bodies of caterpillars, leading to their eventual death.
Example:
Cotesia congregata is used to control tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) infestations
in tobacco crops.
5. Bracon spp.:
Description:
Bracon species are diverse parasitic wasps belonging to the family Braconidae.
They exhibit a broad range of host specificity, targeting various insect pests.
Importance:
Widely used in biological control programs due to their effectiveness against
agricultural pests.
They parasitize the larvae or pupae of their hosts, leading to mortality.
Example:
Bracon hebetor is utilized for controlling stored product pests such as the Indian
mealmoth (Plodia interpunctella) in grain storage facilities.
6. Epiricania melanoleuca:
Description:
Epiricania melanoleuca is a parasitic moth belonging to the family Eulophidae.
It is a larval parasitoid targeting rice stem borers, particularly the yellow stem borer
(Scirpophaga incertulas).
Importance:
Important biological control agent in rice ecosystems, particularly in Asia.
Larvae of E. melanoleuca parasitize and kill the larvae of rice stem borers, reducing
their populations.
Example:
Widely used in integrated pest management (IPM) programs for rice pest control in
countries like India and Thailand.
7. Goniozus nephantidis:
Description:
Goniozus nephantidis is a parasitic wasp belonging to the family Bethylidae.
It is an endoparasitoid targeting the larvae of coconut caterpillar (Opisina arenosella)
and other related pests.
Importance:
Valuable biological control agent in coconut plantations, particularly in Southeast
Asia.
Females lay eggs inside the caterpillars, leading to their eventual death.
Example:
Goniozus nephantidis is extensively used in the Philippines and Indonesia for
controlling coconut pests.
8. Campoletis chloridae:
Description:
Campoletis chloridae is a parasitic wasp in the family Ichneumonidae.
It is a larval parasitoid targeting various caterpillar pests, including corn earworm
(Helicoverpa zea) and tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens).
Importance:
Effective biological control agent in various crops, including corn, cotton, and
tobacco.
Females lay eggs inside the caterpillars, leading to their eventual death.
Example:
Campoletis chloridae is commonly used in the United States for managing caterpillar
pests in agricultural crops.
Biocontrol Agents: Major Predators and Weed Killers
Introduction:
Biocontrol agents play a crucial role in managing pests and weeds in agriculture, reducing
reliance on chemical pesticides. Major predators such as Chrysoperla sp. and Australian
ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, along with weed killers like Zygogramma
bicolorata and Neochetina spp., contribute to sustainable pest and weed management
practices. This article explores their characteristics, effectiveness, and applications in
agricultural ecosystems.
1. Major Predators:
1.1 Chrysoperla sp. (Green Lacewings):
Description: Chrysoperla sp. are voracious predators known for their delicate, green lace-
like wings.
Characteristics:
Adults and larvae feed on a variety of pests including aphids, mites, and small insects.
Larvae are active predators, exhibiting high mobility and feeding rates.
Effectiveness:
Known for their efficiency in controlling aphid populations in various crops.
Larvae consume a large number of prey during their development stages, contributing
to pest suppression.
Applications:
Widely used in integrated pest management (IPM) programs in greenhouses and open
field crops.
Suitable for organic farming systems due to their minimal impact on non-target
organisms and the environment.
1.2 Australian Ladybird Beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri):
Description: Also known as the Mealybug Destroyer, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is a

small ladybird beetle native to Australia.
Characteristics:
Both adults and larvae feed voraciously on various stages of mealybugs, including
eggs, nymphs, and adults.
Exhibits cryptic coloration, allowing it to blend into its surroundings.
Effectiveness:
Highly effective in controlling mealybug infestations, which are notorious pests of
many crops including citrus, grapes, and ornamental plants.
Larvae consume large numbers of mealybugs, preventing their proliferation and
reducing crop damage.
Applications:
Used in biological control programs to manage mealybug populations in orchards,
vineyards, and greenhouses.
Integrated with other biocontrol agents to enhance overall pest suppression and
reduce reliance on chemical pesticides.
2. Weed Killers:
2.1 Zygogramma bicolorata (Leaf Beetle):
Description: Zygogramma bicolorata is a leaf-feeding beetle known for its effectiveness in

controlling invasive weed species.
Characteristics:
Adult beetles and larvae feed on the foliage of target weed species, causing damage
and reducing their vigor.
Exhibits specificity towards certain weed species, minimizing damage to non-target
plants.
Effectiveness:
Effective in managing weed species such as Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium
weed) and Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed).
Larvae feed extensively on weed foliage, leading to defoliation and weakening of weed
populations.
Applications:
Deployed in biological control programs targeting specific weed species in agricultural
and natural ecosystems.
Integrated with other weed management strategies such as mechanical and cultural
control methods for comprehensive weed suppression.
2.2 Neochetina spp. (Weevil):
Description: Neochetina spp. are weevils known for their biocontrol potential against
aquatic and semi-aquatic weed species.
Characteristics:
Adults and larvae feed on the foliage, stems, and roots of target weed species, causing
damage and reducing growth.
Adapted to aquatic environments, making them effective biocontrol agents for
aquatic weed species.
Effectiveness:
Successfully used in managing invasive aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes).
Larvae bore into the stems and rhizomes of target weeds, disrupting their vascular
system and leading to wilting and eventual death.
Applications:
Deployed in biocontrol programs targeting aquatic and semi-aquatic weed species in
irrigation canals, ponds, lakes, and wetlands.
Integrated with other control measures such as herbicides and mechanical removal to
achieve long-term weed suppression.
Biocontrol Agents: Mass Multiplication and Field Release Techniques
Biocontrol agents play a crucial role in managing agricultural pests sustainably. Among them,
parasitoids are highly effective natural enemies that parasitize and kill pest organisms. This
article focuses on mass multiplication and field release techniques for some important
parasitoids, including Trichogramma chilonis, Chelonus blackburni, Cotesia/Bracon, Goniozus
nephantidis, and Epiricania melanoleuca.
1. Trichogramma chilonis:
Mass Multiplication:
Trichogramma chilonis, a tiny parasitoid wasp, is mass multiplied using eggs of its
preferred hosts, such as the eggs of lepidopteran pests like Helicoverpa armigera.
Mass multiplication involves rearing the parasitoids on a large scale in controlled
environments like insectaries or laboratories.
Host eggs are provided to adult Trichogramma chilonis females for oviposition.
Rearing conditions are optimized for temperature, humidity, and photoperiod to enhance
reproduction rates.
Field Release Techniques:
Once mass multiplied, Trichogramma chilonis is released into the field to target pest
populations.
Releases are strategically timed to coincide with the peak activity of the target pest.
Release methods include using specialized dispensers or cards containing parasitized
host eggs, which are strategically placed in crop fields.
Timing and placement of releases are crucial for effective pest control and to ensure
maximum parasitoid efficacy.
2. Chelonus blackburni:
Chelonus blackburni, a parasitic wasp, targets pests like the sugarcane top borer
(Scirpophaga excerptalis).
Mass multiplication involves rearing the parasitoids in insectaries or specialized rearing
facilities.
Suitable host larvae are provided for the adult female wasps to parasitize and develop.
Rearing conditions are optimized for temperature, humidity, and other environmental
factors to maximize parasitoid production.
Chelonus blackburni is released into sugarcane fields to control top borer populations.
Releases can be achieved using specialized dispensers or by directly releasing parasitized
host larvae into the field.
Proper timing of releases is essential to ensure that the parasitoids encounter the target
pest population at the appropriate developmental stage.
3. Cotesia/Bracon:
Cotesia and Bracon species are parasitoid wasps known for targeting various
lepidopteran pests, including caterpillars of crops like cabbage, tomato, and cotton.
Mass multiplication involves rearing these parasitoids in controlled environments similar
to other parasitoid species.
Rearing conditions are optimized to ensure high rates of parasitoid production.
Cotesia and Bracon species are released into crop fields infested with target pest
populations.
Proper timing and placement of releases are critical to maximize the impact on pest
populations and minimize non-target effects.
4. Goniozus nephantidis:
Goniozus nephantidis is a parasitic wasp that targets the coconut black-headed

caterpillar (Opisina arenosella).
Mass multiplication involves rearing the parasitoids in controlled environments similar to
other parasitoid species.
Goniozus nephantidis is released into coconut plantations infested with black-headed

caterpillar populations.
Proper timing and placement of releases are crucial to maximize the impact on pest
5. Epiricania melanoleuca:
Epiricania melanoleuca, commonly known as the rice leaffolder parasitoid, targets rice
pests like the rice leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis).
Mass multiplication involves rearing the parasitoids in controlled environments similar to
other parasitoid species.
Epiricania melanoleuca is released into rice fields infested with leaffolder populations.
Proper timing and placement of releases are crucial to maximize the impact on pest
Biocontrol Agents: Mass Multiplication and Field Release Techniques
1. Introduction to Biocontrol Agents:
Biocontrol agents are organisms that are used to control pests and weeds in agriculture,
horticulture, and forestry.
They play a crucial role in integrated pest management (IPM) programs, providing
effective and sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides.
Mass multiplication and field release techniques are essential for ensuring the successful
establishment and efficacy of biocontrol agents in the field.
2. Predatory Insects: Chrysoperla sp. (Green Lacewings)
Mass Multiplication Techniques:
Rearing Conditions:
Green lacewings are reared in controlled environments such as insectaries or
greenhouses.
Optimal temperature, humidity, and lighting conditions are maintained to promote
growth and reproduction.
Feeding Regimen:
Green lacewing larvae are voracious predators of aphids, thrips, and other soft-bodied
pests.
They are fed with aphid-infested plants or artificial diets rich in protein to ensure their
proper development.
Life Cycle Management:
Careful monitoring of the life cycle stages, including egg laying, larval development,
pupation, and adult emergence, is essential.
Proper management of rearing containers and substrates to prevent overcrowding
and disease outbreaks.
Optimal Timing:
Green lacewings are released into the field when pest populations are at their peak.
Early morning or late afternoon releases are preferred to minimize stress on the
insects.
Distribution Methods:
Lacewing adults or larvae are evenly distributed throughout the field using handheld
blowers, mechanical dispensers, or drones.
Strategic placement near pest hotspots or on host plants enhances their
effectiveness.
Monitoring and Evaluation:
Regular monitoring of released populations and pest densities helps assess the
efficacy of biocontrol.
Adjustments to release rates and timings may be made based on field observations.
3. Australian Ladybird Beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri)
Cultural Conditions:
Australian ladybird beetles are reared in insectaries under controlled conditions.
Suitable temperature, humidity, and light regimes are maintained to support their
development.
Prey Availability:
Mealybugs are the primary prey of Australian ladybird beetles.
Mealybug-infested plants or artificial diets are provided to the beetles for feeding and
reproduction.
Life Cycle Management:
Proper management of eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults is crucial for successful mass
multiplication.
Regular cleaning and sanitation of rearing facilities prevent disease outbreaks and
ensure optimal conditions for growth.
Timing and Frequency:

Ladybird beetles are released when mealybug populations are high and vulnerable.
Multiple releases may be necessary to establish populations and maintain control
throughout the growing season.
Release Strategy:
Beetles are released near mealybug-infested plants or in areas with known pest
populations.
Care is taken to avoid adverse environmental conditions and pesticide applications
that may harm the beetles.
Post-release Monitoring:
Regular monitoring of mealybug populations and beetle survival rates helps gauge the
effectiveness of the biocontrol program.
Adjustments to release rates or timing may be made based on field observations.
4. Weed Predators/Killers: Zygogramma bicolorata (Leaf Beetle)
Rearing Protocol:
Leaf beetles are reared on weed hosts such as Parthenium hysterophorus under
controlled conditions.
Suitable temperature, humidity, and light levels are maintained to support beetle
growth and reproduction.
Host Plant Management:
Adequate supplies of host plants are cultivated to ensure continuous availability for
feeding and oviposition.
Crop rotation and sanitation practices help prevent buildup of pests and diseases in
rearing facilities.
Release Timing:
Beetles are released when weed populations are actively growing and vulnerable to
herbivory.
Early-season releases may target weed seedlings, while later releases focus on mature
plants.
Release Density:
Beetles are released at recommended densities based on weed density and growth
stage.
Even distribution throughout the field maximizes the impact on weed populations.
Regular monitoring of weed densities and damage levels helps assess the
effectiveness of biocontrol.
Adjustments to release strategies may be made based on weed suppression and crop
performance.
5. Neochetina sp. (Weevil) for Aquatic Weed Control
Aquarium Rearing:
Weevils are reared in aquariums or water tanks under controlled conditions.
Aquatic plants such as water hyacinth or water lettuce serve as host plants for weevil
development.
Water Quality Management:
Proper water quality parameters, including temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen
levels, are maintained for optimal weevil growth.
Regular water changes and nutrient supplementation ensure healthy aquatic plant
growth and weevil development.
Introduction Timing:
Weevils are released into water bodies infested with aquatic weeds during the growing
season.
Early releases may target young weed populations, while later releases focus on
established plants.
Release Strategy:
Weevils are released directly into water bodies using boats, floating rafts, or other
aquatic vehicles.
Multiple release points are selected to ensure even distribution and maximize weed
coverage.
Monitoring of weed coverage, weevil establishment, and plant damage helps evaluate
the success of biocontrol efforts.
Regular surveys may inform adjustments to release rates or timing based on observed
outcomes.

Fundamentals of Entomology2

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Fundamentals of Entomology2

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Fundamentals of Entomology 2

Semilooper (Achaea janata):

Scientific Name: Achaea janata

2. Capsule Borer (Conogethes punctiferalis):

Scientific Name: Conogethes punctiferalis

3. Jassids (Empoasca spp.):

Scientific Name: Empoasca spp.

4. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):

Scientific Name: Aphidoidea (Order: Hemiptera)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera (Order: Lepidoptera)

Scientific Name: Smicronyx guzianus (Order: Coleoptera)

General Account on Nature and Types of Damage by Different Arthropod Pests

1. Capitulum Borer (Helicoverpa armigera):

2. Hairy Caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua):

4. Thrips (Frankliniella spp.):

5. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci):

6. Stem Borer (Chilo partellus):

Scientific Name: Aphidoidea (Superfamily)

Scientific Name: Tenthredinoidea (Superfamily)

Scientific Name: Crambidae (Family)

Linseed – Gall Fly:

Scientific Name: Lipara lucens

2. Soybean – Stem Fly:

Scientific Name: Melanagromyza sojae

3. Soybean – Girdle Beetle:

Scientific Name: Oncideres cingulata

4. Soybean – Leaf Miner:

Scientific Name: Liriomyza sativae

5. Tobacco – Detailed below

5. Tobacco – Tobacco Hornworm:

Scientific Name: Manduca sexta

Soybean Leaf-Eating Caterpillar:

Scientific Name: Spodoptera spp.

Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci

Scientific Name: Achaea janata

4. Gram Pod Borer:

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

1. Til Hawk Moth (Agrius convolvuli):

Scientific Name: Agrius convolvuli

2. Gall Fly (Melanagromyza sesami):

Scientific Name: Melanagromyza sesami

3. Leaf-Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera exigua):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera exigua

Niger Crop Pests

i. Semilooper (Achaea janata)

Scientific Name: Achaea janata

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

2. Fiber Crops – Cotton Pests

i. Aphids (Aphis gossypii)

Scientific Name: Aphis gossypii

ii. Jassids (Empoasca spp.)

Scientific Name: Empoasca spp.

Scientific Name: Thrips tabaci

iv. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci

Mealybugs (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Pseudococcidae)

Scientific Name: Phenacoccus solenopsis

2. Spotted Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)

Scientific Name: Earias vittella

3. American Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

4. Pink Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Gelechiidae)

Scientific Name: Pectinophora gossypiella

5. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae)