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 IONIC EQUATION
I. Only formulae of ions that change is included; ions don’t change = omitted
II. Only aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and gases written in full
Ionic Charges depend on group numbers

Group Number I II III IV V VI VII 0

Formula of ion +1 +2 +3 varies -3 -2 -1 stable

Polyatomic Ions (to memorize)

Carbonate CO32-, Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 -
Hydroxide OH - , Hydride H-
Nitrate NO3 – , Nitrite NO2 –,Nitride N3-
Phosphate PO43-
Sulfate SO42 -, Sulfite SO32- , Sulfide S2-
Ammonium ion NH4+

MOLES
23
One mole of any substance contains 6 X 10 particles (Avogadro’s number).

Molar Formulas

1. When number of particles (atoms/molecules or formula units) are asked

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑛
6 × 1023
2. When mass or identification of element/compound is involved
The molar mass of an element is the mass of one mole of atoms of the element.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
3. When asked about the gas

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚3𝑎𝑡 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑝.

24 000 𝑐𝑚3 /24dm3
4. When liquids with Concentration/Volume are involved

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑑𝑚3 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3
 • Percentage composition by mass

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐴𝑟

100%
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
• Empirical formula Calculation
Empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the compound
Empirical Formula Mass x n = Molecular Formula Mass

• Percentage Yield
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
× 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

• Percentage Purity

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

× 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Molar Calculations STEPS

STEP 1: Find the moles of the standard (known solution/element/compound)
STEP 2: Make a balanced Chemical Equation
STEP 3: Molar Ratio between the standard and unknown (Values from the equation vs value from step I).
Cross multiply the values
STEP 4: from the calculated moles of the unknown, calculate the quantity of concern using the relevant
formula of moles.

Limiting vs Excess:
Calculate the moles of both the reactants.
Make a Molar ratio according to the equation.

ACID, BASES & SALTS

Reactions of Acids:
Metals: salt and hydrogen gas with a pop sound (except lead, insoluble salt)
Carbonates and hydrogen carbonates: salt, water and carbon dioxide React with metal
Oxides and hydroxides (base/alkali): salt and water

Alkalis heated with ammonium salts give out salt + water +ammonia
ACIDIC OXIDE BASIC OXIDE AMPHOTERIC OXIDE NEUTRAL OXIDE
Oxides of non-metals, Oxides of metals, Oxides of transition Oxides that don’t react
usually gases which usually solid which metals, usually solid, with either acids/alkalis,
reacts with water to reacts with water to which reacts with hence do not form salts,
produce acids, e.g. produce alkalis, acids/alkalis to form e.g. H2O, CO, NO
CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2 e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO salt and water, e.g.
Al2O3, FeO, PbO
 Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts
All Nitrates -
All Suphates BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4
All Chlorides PbCl, AgCl
Potassium, Sodium, Ammonium salts -
K2CO3, Na2CO3, NH4CO3 All Carbonates
K2O, Na2O All Oxides
Hydroxide salts of Group I elements are soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble.
Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+ are insoluble.

REACTIVITY SERIES

EXTRACTED
BY
ELECTROLYSIS

EXTRACTED
BY
BLAST
FURNACE

EXTRACTED
BY
PHYSICAL
METHODS

Please send charlie's monkeys and zebras in lead & hydrogen cages in mountains securely guarded
by Plato
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution (redox reaction)
A more reactive metal can reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal
 OXIDIZING AGENTS REDUCING AGENTS
Bromine Carbon
Chlorine Carbon Monoxide
Concentrated sulfuric acid Hydrogen
Nitric acid Hydrogen Sulfide
Oxygen Metals
Ozone Potassium Iodide
Potassium Manganate (VII) (KMnO4) Sulfur Dioxide
Potassium Dichromate (VI) (Kr2Cr2O7)

OXIDATION STATE
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7

Manganese Mn MnCl2 MnO2 KMnO4

Chromium Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 K2Cr2O7
Iron Fe FeCl2 FeCl3
Sulphur FeS S SO2 H2SO4
Carbon C CO CaCO3

ACTION OF HEAT ON METAL CARBONATES

Metal Carbonate Observation
Potassium carbonate Unaffected by heat
Sodium carbonate
Calcium carbonate Decompose into metal oxide and carbon dioxide
Magnesium on heating
carbonate Zinc
carbonate
Iron (II) carbonate
Lead(II) carbonate
Copper(II) carbonate
Silver carbonate Decomposes into silver and carbon dioxide on
Heating

IMPORTANT PROCESSES

a) BLAST FURNACE/Extracting iron from haematite

i. Carbon dioxide is produced
C(s) + O2(g) →CO2(g)
ii. Carbon monoxide is produced
C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO(g)
iii. Haematite is reduced to iron
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
iv. Impurities are removed
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
 b) Haber process/Industrial Preparation of Ammonia
Nitrogen + hydrogen ⇌ ammonia (added in the ratio 1:3)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) -⇌ 2NH3(g)
Conditions: 200 atm, 450°C, iron as catalyst
Only about 10-15% of nitrogen and hydrogen concerted to ammonia (ammonia gas cooled to liquid)

c) Contact Process/Industrial Prepation of Sulfuring Acid

i. Sulphur is reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2
S(g) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
ii. Sulphur dioxide is further reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
Conditions: 1atm, 450-500°C, V2O5 Catalyst
iii. Sulphur trioxide is cooled & reacted in concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum, H2S2O7. SO3 is not
reacted with water right now as mist forms at this temperature.
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
iv. Oleum is diluted with water to produce sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

d) Air Pollution Reduction

i. Catalytic converters
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) →16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

ii. Flue Gas Desulfurisation (remove sulfur dioxide)

CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(S) + CO2
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) → 2CaSO4(s)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s)

REVERSIBLE REACTION & LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

a) Pressure:
Increase Pressure → Moves towards the side with lesser number of moles

b) Temperature:
Increase Temperature → Favors the Endothermic reaction
Decrease Temperature →Favors the Exothermic reaction

c) Concentration
Increase Concentration → Moves towards the side with lesser concentration

d) Catalyst:
No effect
 ELECTROLYSIS
Tip: for half equation, if confused, balance the total/net charge on both sides of the equation.

At cathode
• In CONCENTRATED solutions of nickel/lead compound, nickel/lead will be discharged instead of
hydrogen ions of water which is less reactive than nickel/lead.
• In VERY DILUTE solutions, hydrogen, copper and silver ions are preferrable to be discharged, according
to its ease to be discharged.
• Reactive ions (potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium) will NEVER BE DISCHARGED in
either concentrated or dilute condition. Instead, hydrogen ions from water will be discharged at
cathode.

At anode
• In CONCENTRATED solutions, iodine/chlorine/bromine ions are preferrable to be discharged, although
it’s harder to discharged compared to hydroxide ions.
• In VERY DILUTE solutions containing iodide/chloride/bromide ions, hydroxide ions of water will be
discharged instead of iodide/chloride/bromide, according to ease of discharge.
• Sulphate and nitrate are NEVER DISCHARGED in concentrated/dilute solutions.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Alkanes

CnH2n+2
Only Carbon & Hydrogen. No functional Group
i. Combustion

Alkane + O2 → CO2+ H20

ii. Substitution (under ultraviolet light)

Alkane + Cl2 → Alkyl Halide/Halogen Alkane + HCl

iii. Cracking

Long Chain Alkanes → Alkanes + Alkenes

 Alkenes

CnH2n
Only Carbon & Hydrogen. Carbon-carbon Double Bond (C=C) present

i. Combustion

Alkene + O2 → CO2+ H20

As alkenes have higher percentage of carbon than alkanes, alkenes will burn with a sootier flame.

ii. Addition Reaction

An Addition reaction is a reaction in which an unsaturated organic compound combines with another
substance to form a single new compound. As double bond is easier to break.

• Hydrogen/Hydrogenation of Alkenes
Alkene + H2 → Alkane
Conditions: 200°C, nickel as catalyst
Convert vegetable oils to solid margarine

• Bromine/Bromination of Alkenes
Ethene + Br2→ 1,2-dibromooethane
Serve as a chemical test to distinguish between alkane and alkene

• Steam/Hydration
Alkene + steam → Alcohol
Conditions: 300°C, 60 atm, phosphoric (V) acid as catalyst

• Addition polymerization
Alkene→ poly(alkene)
Conditions: High temperature and pressure and catalyst

Alcohol

CnH2n+1OH
-OH (Hydroxyl Group) present

i. Combustion

Alcohol + O2 → CO2+ H20

Can be used as a fuel
Burnt on some food such as fruit cake to give it a distinct flavor

ii. Oxidation
Alcohol + oxidizing agent → carboxylic acid + water
C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH +H2O (Oxidizing Agent)
C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH +H2O (Atmospheric Oxygen)
 8

Producing ethanol
a) From catalytic addition of steam to ethene
b) fermentation to make Biofuel/Bioethanol
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Carboxylic acids

CnH2n+1COOH

Are weak acids

Reaction with reactive metals (salts of ethanoic acid are known as ethanoates)
Reaction with carbonates
Reaction with bases
Reaction with alcohols to produce ester and water (esterification)

Ester
An ester is a colourless liquid that is insoluble in water
Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol → Ester
Ethanoic acid + methanol → methyl ethanoate (concentrated sulfuric acid as catalyst)
Ester name is [alcohol]yl [carboxylic acid]oate. For instance, example above is butyl propanoate, where
“butyl” is from butanol; “propanoate” is from propanoic acid.

Functional group

Polymerization
Additional polymerization occurs when unsaturated monomers join together without losing any
molecules or atoms.

Condensation polymerization occurs when monomers combine to form a polymer with the removal of a
small molecule such as water.

ENERGY PROFILE
 9

RATE OF REACTION

Directly Proportional to Temprature, Pressure, Catalyst, Concentration

Inversely Proportiona to Particle Size

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
anion test test result
2−
carbonate, CO add dilute acid, then test for carbon effervescence, carbon dioxide
3
dioxide gas produced
chloride, Cl − [in acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add white ppt.
solution] aqueous silver nitrate
bromide, Br− [in acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add cream ppt.
solution] aqueous silver nitrate
iodide, I− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add yellow ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
nitrate, NO − add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then ammonia produced
3
[in solution] aluminium foil; warm carefully
sulfate, SO 2− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add white ppt.
4
[in solution] aqueous barium nitrate
2−
sulfite, SO add a small volume of acidified aqueous
3 the acidified aqueous potassium
potassium manganate(VII) manganate(VII) changes colour
from purple to colourless

cation NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)

aluminium, Al 3+ white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a white ppt., insoluble in excess
colourless solution
+
ammonium, NH4 ammonia produced on warming –
calcium, Ca2+ white ppt., insoluble in excess no ppt. or very slight white ppt.
 10

chromium(III), Cr3+ green ppt., soluble in excess green ppt., insoluble in excess

copper(II), Cu2+ light blue ppt., insoluble in excess light blue ppt., soluble in excess, giving
a dark blue solution
iron(II), Fe2+ green ppt., insoluble in excess, ppt. green ppt., insoluble in excess, ppt.
turns brown near surface on standing turns brown near surface on standing

iron(III), Fe3+ red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess
zinc, Zn2+ white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a
colourless solution colourless solution

Gas Colour and Odour Test Observations

Hydrogen H2 Colourless and odourless Place a lighted splint at the The light splint is
mouth of the test extinguished with a
tube ‘pop’ sound
Oxygen O2 Colourless and odourless Insert a glowing splint The glowing splint is
into the test tube rekindled
Carbon Dioxide Colourless and odourless Bubble gas through limewater A white precipitate is formed
CO2 The ppt dissolves upon
further bubbling
Chlorine Cl2 Greenish-yellow gas with Place a piece of moist blue The moist blue litmus
a pungent smell litmus paper at the mouth of paper turns red and is
the test then bleached
tube
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 Colourless gas with a Place a piece of filter paper The purple acidified
pungent smell soaked with acidified potassium potassium manganate
manganate (VII) at the (VII) turns colourless
mouth of the test tube
Ammonia NH3 Colourless gas with a Place a piece of moist red The moist red litmus paper
pungent smell litmus paper at the turns blue
mouth of the test tube

FLAME TEST
metal ion flame colour
+
lithium, Li red
sodium, Na+ yellow
potassium, K+ lilac
calcium, Ca2+ orange-red
barium, Ba2+ light green
copper(II), Cu2+ blue-green