Review of the Principles of High Quality Assessment

Clarity of the Learning Targets

The appropriateness of the assessment method to be implemented in assessing
learning processes in a classroom depends on the predetermined learning targets.

A quality assessment covers the knowledge and skills in the learning targets with
the same degree of emphasis since not all learning targets are created equal. The
determination of which targets will carry more weight is called balance of
representation.

According to Michigan Assessment Consortium (2016), there are five types of

learning targets. These are Knowledge Mastery, Reasoning, Skills,
Products/Performances, and Dispositions.

5 Types of Learning Targets

1. Knowledge Mastery Targets

The Knowledge Mastery targets ask students to know or understand specific content
related to a learning target. These targets can either be to know outright or by
reference through memorization. In addition, these targets are often stated using
verbs such as define, name, list, describe, explain, and identify. Moreover, the
students are asked to internalize facts, generals, processes, and specific steps in
each process.

The Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives in the Cognitive Domain
was crafted by Bloom in 1954.
According to Krathwohl (2002),
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a framework for
classifying statements of what we
expect or intend students to learn as a
result of instruction. The framework
was conceived as a means of
facilitating the exchange of test items
among faculty in various universities
in order to create banks of items,
each measuring the same educational
objective.

Knowledge refers to the acquisition of facts, concepts, and theories.

A. Knowledge of Facts
A.1 Knowledge of Specifics
A.2 Knowledge of Terminology
A.3 Knowledge of Specific Facts

B. Knowledge of Ways and Means of dealing with specifics

B.1 Knowledge of conventions
B.2 Knowledge of trends and sequences
B.3 Knowledge of classifications and categories
B.4 Knowledge of criteria
B.5 Knowledge of methodology

C. Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field

C.1 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
C.2 Knowledge of theories and structures

Example: At the end of the lesson, the students are able to state the big bang
theory correctly.
Comprehension refers to constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic
messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring,
comparing, and explaining.

A. Translation
B. Interpretation
C. Extrapolation

Example:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to compare the coefficient of
standard deviation with a bias estimator and the one with an unbiased estimator.

Application refers to the process of carrying out or using a procedure and/or a

particular concept for execution and implementation.

Example:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to construct different types of
triangles by using a compass and a pencil only.

Analysis refers to the breaking of material into constituent parts, determining how
the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through
differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

A. Analysis of elements
B. Analysis of relationships
C. Analysis of organizational principles

Example:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to analyze the income tax in the
context of the place of consumption of goods.

Synthesis is putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole;

reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning,
or producing.

A. Production of a unique communication

B. Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
C. Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Example:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to combine at least two propaganda
techniques in one commercial script.

Evaluation refers to making judgments based on criteria and standards through

checking and critiquing.

A. Evaluation in terms of internal evidence

B. Judgments in terms of external criteria

Example:
Sa katapusan ng aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay makapagkikritik ng isang siyentifik na
akdang pananaliksik sa Filipino.

In his paper, Krathwohl (2002) emphasized

that the revision of the original Taxonomy is a
two-dimensional framework: Knowledge and
Cognitive Processes. The former most
resembles the subcategories of the original
Knowledge category. The latter resembles the
six categories of the original Taxonomy with
the Knowledge category named Remember,
the Comprehension category named
Understand, Synthesis renamed Create and
made the top category, and the remaining
categories changed to their verb forms: Apply,
Analyze, and Evaluate. They are arranged in
a hierarchical structure, but not as rigidly as in
the original Taxonomy. Technically, all levels
were termed to as such using verbs, unlike
the original Taxonomy which uses nouns.

I. Remember refers to retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

A. Recognizing
B. Recalling

II. Understand refers to determining the meaning of instructional messages,

including oral, written, and graphic communication.
A. Interpreting
B. Exemplifying
C. Classifying
D. Summarizing
E. Inferring
F. Comparing
G. Explaining

III. Apply refers to carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation.

A. Executing
B. Implementing

IV. Analyze refers to breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting
how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
A. Differentiating
B. Organizing
C. Attributing

V. Evaluate refers to making judgments based on criteria and standards.

A. Checking
B. Critiquing

VI. Create refers to putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or
make an original product.
A. Generating
B. Planning
C. Producing

2. Reasoning Targets
The Reasoning targets ask students to recognize concepts and contents by
explaining, putting ideas in their own words, and interpreting. Additionally,
students may be asked to extend and refine their reasoning and use that knowledge
in a meaningful way.

The known Taxonomy of Reasoning includes:

Inductive Reasoning
1. Inductive Reasoning targets are anchored on the premises that are viewed as
supplying some evidences for the truth of the conclusion. This is in contrast
to deductive reasoning targets that rely on a general statement or
hypothesis--sometimes called a premise or standard--held to be true.

Analytical Reasoning
2. Analytical Reasoning refers to the targets that call for the ability to look
at information, be itg qualitative or quantitative in nature, and discern
patterns within the information.

Comparative Reasoning
3. Comparative Reasoning refers to the learning targets that establish the
importance of one thing by comparing it with another thing. It may be a
comparison of standards to make something look advantageous or undesirable. It
may also be a comparison of a weak example to make another look good.

Classifying
4. Classifying refers to the learning targets that focus on grouping various
objects, ideas, and concepts on basis of their common properties, and
characteristics.

Evaluating Reasoning
5. Evaluating Reasoning refers to the learning targets that synthesize the
answers to lower-and mid-level evaluation questions into defensible judgments
that directly answer the key evaluation questions.

Synthesis
6. Synthesis is the set of learning targets that focus on the ability to combine
parts of a whole in new and different ways. It requires students to think
flexibly, determine alternatives, and find new ways to accomplish a given
task.

Stiggins, et.al (2004) enumerated the following observable behaviors underlying the
Reasoning Targets:

 Use
 Analyze
 Evaluate
 Make decisions
 Formulate questions
 Make predictions
 Verify Compare Contrast
 Set goals
 Strategize
 Distinguish between
 Examine data and propose meaningful interpretation
 Use insights and conclusions from data to generate potential solutions

Example: Students are able to compare with each other their viewpoints about
classroom issues.

3. Skill Targets
Skill targets are those that must be observed or demonstrated in order to be
assessed such as calling students to do a performance task, requiring them to have
a mastery of a skill necessary to do such task. These targets lend themselves to
performance assessment. These involve knowledge targets as well as reasoning
targets.

The Skill targets are often classified as:

 Measure
 Read aloud
 Dribble and pass
 Participate
 Use simple equipment
 Demonstrate relationships
 Collect data (Stiggins, et.al., 2004)

Example: Students are able to demonstrate skillful use of appropriate vocabularies,

tools, instruments, and technologies of the visual, performing, or applied arts
discipline.

4. Product/Performance Targets
The Product/Performance targets require students to create a product. However,
it is important to determine the difference between “tasks” and product targets.
Tasks are the activities students engage in while working on knowledge, reasoning
or skill targets. Products, on the other hand, are the focus of the lesson by which
we judge knowledge and reasoning.

Below are the examples of Product/Performance targets according to Stiggins, et.al.

(2004):

 Construct graphs
 Develop a plan
 Create a product to support a thesis
 Construct models
 Create a scripted scene
 Write simple directions
 Generate a viable action plan and address the problem

Example of a product target:

Students are able to construct simple charts from data and observations collected
in the science experiment.

5. Disposition Targets
Disposition targets reflect students’ attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. These
also represent valuable affective outcomes we hope students attain as a result of
their educational experiences. Also, these targets may be difficult to quantify and
represent a challenge to a quality assessment, but may best be assessed through
observation/conversations with a rubric.

The following are the examples of Disposition targets according to Stiggins, et.al.
(2004):

 Likes mathematics
 Enjoys reading
 Plays sports for fun
 Plans to vote in the next election
 Looks forward to science
 Enjoys conversing in Spanish
 Exhibits a passion for learning

Example of a disposition Target:

Which of the following free-time activities do you enjoy the most participating in?