Measurement

And
Instrumentations
DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

1 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

 Types of Errors

Gross error Systematic Random

Environmental Observational
Instrumental

‫التحميل الخاطئ علي‬

‫الجهاز‬
2 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
Instrumental Errors.
These errors arise due to three main reasons:
(i) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments
(iii)Due to loading effects of instruments

3 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

1.Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments.
• These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical
structure.
• They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments
or measuring devices.
• These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
• we must recognize the possibility of such errors as it is often possible to
eliminate them, or at least reduce them to a great extent by using the
following methods;
(i) The procedure of measurement must (be carefully planned. Substitution
methods or calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.
(ii) Correction factors should be applied/after determining the instrumental
errors.
(iii)The
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instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
2. Misuse of Instruments.
• There is an old saying that instruments are better than the people who
use them.
• Too often, the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the
operator than that of the instrument.
• A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous
results. Examples which may be cited for this misuse of instrument may
be failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments,
using leads of too high a resistance etc.
5 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
3. Loading effects.
• One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the improper
use of an instrument for measurement work.
• For example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage
reading when connected across a high resistance circuit
• The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give a
more dependable reading
• These examples illustrate that the voltmeter has a loading effect on the
circuit, altering the actual circuit conditions by the measurement process.
6 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
3.6.2. Environmental Errors.
• These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring
device including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument.
• These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields.

7 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

3.6.3. Observational Errors.
• There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the
pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an
error on accent of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of vision of
the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax errors,
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales, as shown in
Figure When the pointer's image appears hidden by the pointer,
observer's eye is directly in line with the pointer. Although a mirrored
scale minimizes parallax error, an error is necessarily present though it
may
8 be very small. DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
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3.7. RANDOM (RESIDUAL) ERRORS
• It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation
from one reading to another, even after all systematic errors have been
accounted for.
• These errors are due to a multitude of small factors which Change or
fluctuate from one measurement to another and are due surely to
chance. The quantity being measured id affected by many happenings
throughout the universe.

10 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

 LIMITING ERRORS (GUARANTEE ERRORS)
• The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its design,
• The choice of an instrument for a particular application depends upon the
accuracy desired.
• If only a fair degree of accuracy is desired, it is not economical to use
expensive materials and skill for the manufacture of the instrument. But
an instrument used for an application requiring a high degree of accuracy
has to use expensive materials and a highly skilled workmanship.

11 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

• The economical production of any instrument requires the proper choice
of materials, design and skill.
• In most instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain
percentage of full scale reading.
• Components ( are guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of the
rated value) Thus the manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the
nominal value of a particular quantity. The limits of these deviations from
the specified value are defined as Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors.

12 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy

• We can say that the manufacturer guarantees or promises that the error
in the item he is selling is no greater than the limit set.
• Aa = As ± 𝛿
• For example, the nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100 Ω with a limiting
error of ± 10 Ω. The magnitude of the resistance will be between the
limits : Aa = 100 ± 10 Ω
Aa ≥ 90 Ω and Aa ≤ 110 Ω
In other words, the manufacturer guarantees that the value of resistance of
the resistor lies between 90 Ω and 110 Ω.
13 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy
Limiting error of Combined Quantities
(i) Sum or difference of more than two quantities

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(ii) Product or quotient of more than two quantities

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Thanks for your
kind attention
20 DR. Eng. Samir Elshamy