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BABA-AHMED UNIVERSITY, KANO

GSP 2201: LOGIC AND SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT

Module 5: The Subject Matter of Philosophy: Schools of Philosophical Thought

Philosophy

Metaphysics Idealism

LOGIC
Realism
Epistemology

Pragmatism
Axiology

Existentialism

The Subject Matter of Philosophy: Figure adopted from Saulawa, (n.d.)

Introduction

The above figure represents the subject matter of philosophy in that all the
branches as well as the major schools of philosophical thought are presented
in conjunction with logic as a tool being present in the presentation of all
philosophical arguments. However, we shall first briefly, discuss logic and
then the schools of philosophical thought alongside their submissions with
concerning metaphysics, epistemology and axiology and aims designed for
educating the society’s younger generation.

Logic

The word Logic is derived from the noun logike which takes its origin from
logos meaning; word, speech, reason or study. Thus logic has to do with
reasoning and the provision of rational justification or reasons for our claims.
Logic can be defined as the study of the methods and principles used in
distinguishing correct from the incorrect argument.

Logic is not the study of human mind. The proper domain of logic is to show
how to think and reason correctly, how to reach a true and certain

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conclusions. Irving Copi (1954) refers to logic as “the science of the laws
of thought or the science of reasoning.” According to Patrick Hurley (1988),
the aim of logic is to develop a system of methods and principles that we may
use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in
constructing arguments of our own. Thomas Aquinas opines that Logic is the
art which directs the act of reason itself, through which man may proceed in
the act of reason itself in an orderly fashion, easily and without error. Logic is
practical in that it is a tool used in directing the reasoning mind. Logic
concerns itself with the being of reason.

The major concern here is about how we make inductive and deductive
arguments where by a connection is sought between premises and their
conclusions. These are sometimes syllogisms of Aristotle from his famous
work titled “the Organon”. When such connections are not established one is
charged with fallacies of the cum hoc degree.

Schools of Thought in Philosophy

For any system of education to be meaningful and effective, it has to be based

on a clearly thought out and reasoned philosophy or world view. It has to be
on a set of beliefs about the nature of the universe, a system of values both of
the individual and the society, and a scheme of knowledge that is considered
as most desirable to have. The term school of philosophy or school of thought
refers to different philosophical positions or system of thought. The schools of
thought on education are based on a well-defined philosophical system from
which we would be able to see how different views on metaphysics,
epistemology and axiology can result in different conceptions of education, of
the school, the teacher, pupil, of the curriculum, and the teaching methods
(See Akinpelu, 1982).

The ancient Philosophers did not put themselves in any of the schools of
thought ever categorized; it is the similarity of their ideas that makes the
subsequent philosophers to categorize them into groups now called ‘schools
of educational thought or philosophy’. It is pertinent to study these schools of
educational thought in order for one to understand the ideas which guide
one’s country’s educational practice.

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However, for the purpose of this module 5, we shall limit our discussions to
four of these schools of philosophy viz.: Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism and
Existentialism.

IDEALISM

Etymology: - Idea – ism from “notion, pattern” which stemmed from eido,

“I see” from the works of Plato. (See AED, 2015). The Latin origin means

Idealis which means something is existing in idea while ‘ism’ means a

doctrine; philosophy, school of thought.

Exponents – Plato, Berkely, Kant, Hegel and Hornes etc. Each of these has

talked extensively on the subject matter of idealism as a school of

philosophy. The Theory of Forms, to be is to be perceived, the noumenal

and phenomenal world, consciousness is the basis of reality, and the

material is explained by the mental, have been discussed in detail by these

philosophers respectively.

Arguments: The major argument of this school of thought is on the

supremacy of the mind and the indestructible nature of spirit and ideas

compared to material things. And ultimately, “Essence precedes existence”.

Metaphysics: Allegory of the cave of Plato, the superiority of the soul/mind

over the body/senses. Hence idealism started the duality of man

argument.

Epistemology: The objects of true knowledge are not sensory things. The

mind is the chief organ of knowledge. Knowledge is not perceivable but

conceivable (intuition) (Babarinde, 2006; Seetharamu, 2003).

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Axiology: They advocated for three spiritual values viz:- Truth, beauty and

goodness. They also have a hierarchy of values ranging from Justice ->

Wisdom - > Courage.

Aims of Education: Their aim of education is on Self-realization and an

ideal man in an ideal society.

Critique of Idealism: Too much abstractness, hijacks one from immediate

reality as it is biased towards ultimate reality. It was also criticized as being

inimical to science and technology. However, it has also been the basis for

all other schools of philosophy and could also be seen to have been

favoured by the religious sciences. Again to have placed justice to the

highest of values is a very thoughtful argument as to realizing a lawful and

peaceful society.

REALISM

Etymology: Realism sprang up as revolution towards the extreme views

of idealism where this world is seen as temporary and unreal. They said

material reality is objective and not subjective as Berkeley would argue.

Exponents: The movement started with Aristotle even though could be

traced back to Democritus (460-360BC). Reality could be explained in

terms of matter (Babarinde and Farayola, 2006).

Aristotle was interested in particular facts of life as against Plato who was

more interested in abstractions and generalities. The argument of ‘cat’ as

a word and as an animal is forwarded by Aristotle (Schofield, 1972:212).

Others include St. Thomas Aquinas on religious reality, John Amos

Comenius who contended that the mind is only a passive recipient

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reflecting all things around it as a spherical mirror (The Great Didactic in

Seetharamu, 2003:73). While John Locke came with the “tabula rasa”,

claiming that the world we live is not a world of fantasies, but real and

objective.

Nature of Man: They see man as an experiencing and intelligent organism

in the world.

Metaphysics: That reality is evident in the world around. It is a world of

objects and not ideas. The world is self-caused and moves by the laws of

cause and effect (The four Causes of Aristotle; Formal, material, efficient

and Final causes).

Epistemology: Knowledge of the material world is most desirable through

experimental and scientific method (Russell and A.N Whitehead), the

tabula rasa of John Locke could be used to explain this.

Axiology: They rejected the idea of ideal values (Seetharamu, 2006:74;

Babarinde and Farayola, 2006: 36). The social values here, govern the

individual values. The individual must therefore, conform to the societal

norms and values according to the realists.

Critique of Realism: Realism makes man to come to terms with reality

and the world around him (Seetharamu, 2006:77), but criticized on placing

too much priority on knowledge. Again, it could be observed that the

individual’s uniqueness and values are nothing when compared with the

societal values; he must be a conformist to the superior societal values.

PRAGMATISM

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Etymology: The philosophy originated from the word ‘Pragma’, which

means ‘action’, ‘a thing done’, ‘a fact’ from ‘Prassein’, ‘to do’ (AED, 2015)

which by implication deals with the facts, actions that could be practicable.

This philosophy is regarded as essentially American in that all the

renowned proponents hailed from America viz – C. S. Pierce, William James

and John Dewey respectively.

Nature of man: Active and intelligent. Man is an experiencing organism

capable of changing the world with his actions and efforts. They believe

that human effort will improve human situation. James asserted; the past

was not perfect, the present is not satisfactory, the future is partially

controllable (Seetharamu, 2006:62).

Arguments: They believe that reality (world) is in a constant flux. Just like

a running stream, nothing is static or permanent but must be subjected

to change. Kilpatrick in (Seetharamu 2006:62) posited that there is change

in physical, social, political, economic and such other institutional

organizations and environments of man.

Knowledge: Knowledge is based on common experience. This knowledge

must also be functional that is acquired through doing, acting and living

is most preferred. The meaning of an idea is its influence on practice. They

agree with idealists on the practicability of the proposed ideas,

Values: Pragmatism does not believe in standard, permanent, eternal

values. They are also in state of flux, they vary spatially and temporally.

Without society, there is no basis for morality (Babarinde and Farayola,

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2006:40). They believe that man is absolutely a social being and must live

in a company of others.

Appraisal: Pragmatism is credited with the promotion of the value of

experimentation, a respectable attitude towards the solution of day-to-day

problems of living (Seetharamu, 2006:70). The project method and

democratic ideals and attitudes in our schools is also credited to

pragmatism.

The philosophy is however, accused of promoting individuality by taking

the extreme side of social life. The philosophy is also classed as

metaphysically insufficient about the nature, origin and destiny of the

universe. Again, the project method cannot be used in all subjects and

problems.

EXISTENTIALISM

Etymology: Also known as the philosophy of Existence, they rejected any

kind of rationalisations, universalities and generalisations in philosophy

(Seetharamu, 2006:80). Advocated for extreme individualism and

subjectivism. They also reversed the order of philosophy in the West by

asserting that ‘existence precedes essence’ (by Soren Kierkegaard 1813 –

1855) against the popular notion of ‘existence precedes essence’ of the

idealists.

Exponents: Soren Kierkegaard, Gabriel Marcel, Karl Jaspers, Martin

Heidegger, Martin Buber, Friedrich Nietzsche, Blaise Pascal and Jean-Paul

Sartre. Kierkegaard initiated the revolution and Marcel championed the

prosecution of philosophies of abstraction while Sartre perfected and lived

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the ideas of existentialism. He (Sartre) however, asserted that ‘man is

condemned to be free’, this, has in fact, dictated the theme of philosophy

of existence – Freedom, choice and responsibility.

Man is not only free, but ironically he is condemned to be free (Seetharamu,

2006:84), meaning, man exists first then he defines what he is or what he

ought to be. Man is therefore, nothing other than what he makes or conceives

himself to be.

Basic Concepts and Themes in Existentialism

Existence precedes Essence, contingency of human life, givenness or

thrownness of human life and anxiety – to be or not to be.

Metaphysics: Against all forms of rationalities, universalities, and

generalizations. Man can only rely on himself and not a non-existent God (as

the atheists believe) but left to suffer the agony of decision making and the

anguish of its consequences. Man is the ultimate reality in general. Therefore,

they see man as self-reliant and capable of self-discovery and realization.

Epistemology: Knowledge is attained through personal effort. The

justification of claims must satisfy the skeptical theory of truth. Knowledge

however is not absolute.

Axiology: Values are subjective. Conformity to social values for conformity

sake is a loss of humanity. The basic value in existentialism is existence

(Babarinde and Farayola, 2006: 42) or life by implication. No absolute values

are entertained.

Critique: There seems to be controversies and inconsistences in the

arguments of the proponents of this philosophy in that some of them are

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theists while others are atheists, therefore there submissions regarding

religions is bound to be incoherent, consider these assertions; ‘you are a free

man if you deny God’ by Sartre and ‘you are a free man if you accept God’ by

Kierkegaard, confused? (Seetharamu, 2006).

The philosophy is also accused of too much subjectivism which leads to too

much prejudices and biases in the administration of justice, since the self is

always first!

However, the philosophy is observed to have shaped the 21st century thoughts

and ideals of capitalism, which is a child of individualism and healthy

competition among individuals and nations of the world.

REFERENCES/READING LIST

Adewale, A. O. (Ed.) (2009). Introduction to Philosophy. Lagos: National Open

University.

Akinpelu, J. A. (1981). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. London &

Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Akinpelu, J. A. (2005). Essays in Philosophy and Education. Ibadan:

Stirling_Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.

Armstrong, T. J. (1992). Michel Foucault: Philosopher. Hertfordshire:

Harvester Wheat sheaf.

Babarinde, S. A., & Farayola, J. A. (2006). Philosophical Foundations of

Education, Ibadan: Joytal Printing Press.

Doyle, J. F. (Ed.) (1973/2010). Educational Judgements: Papers in the

Philosophy of Education. USA and Canada: Routledge and Taylor &
Francis e-Library.

“Idealism”. Advanced English Dictionary (2014). Version 4.3.0.1. Windows

phone App Store: Cosmos Chong.

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“Pragmatism”. Advanced English Dictionary (2014). Version 4.3.0.1.
Windows phone App Store: Cosmos Chong.

Ozmon, H. A., & Samuel, M. C. (2008). Philosophical Foundations of Education,

8th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson.

Saulawa, M. A. (n.d.). A Treatise on the Philosophy of Education: A Handbook

for Tertiary Institution Students and Practitioners in the Fields of
General Philosophy and Philosophy of Education. An unpublished
handbook written in the Department of Education, Bayero University,
Kano.

Schofield, H. (1972). The Philosophy of Education: An Introduction. London:

George Allen & Unwin.

Seetharamu, A. S. (2004). Philosophies of Education. New Delhi: Ashish

Publishing House.

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