DESIGN TOOLS LAB REPORT

On
SCREEN-PRINTED, FLEXIBLE, PARASITIC BEAM-SWITCHING MILLIMETER-
WAVE ANTENNA ARRAY FOR WEARABLE APPLICATIONS
By
Ravinutala Sree Aparna
20NN1A04F1

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VIGNAN’S NIRULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE FOR WOMEN
(Approved by AICTE, NEW DELHI and Affiliated to JNTUK,
KAKINADA) PEDAPALAKALURU, GUNTUR-522009

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “Screen-Printed, Flexible, Parasitic

Beam-Switching Millimeter-Wave Antenna Array for Wearable Applications” is
the bonafide work carried out by Sree Aparna Ravinutala for design tools lab in the
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, from J.N.T.U. Kakinada
during the year 2023- 2024.

Lab Incharge Head of the Department

Dr. G. Sandhya
Associate Professor

External Examiner

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 ABSTRACT
Millimeter wave antennas are integral components in sensing and communication
systems, finding particular relevance in the realm of modern miniaturized devices and wearable
technologies. This study addresses the intricate challenges associated with the design of such
antennas, focusing on the imperatives of being low profile, flexible, and cost-effective, while
also incorporating beam steering capabilities for enhanced detection. Our innovative approach
involves the integration of a partially reflective surface in conjunction with a parasitic patch
array, resulting in a sophisticated yet streamlined beam-switching antenna system.
To maintain cost-effectiveness and compatibility with wearable systems, a flexible
substrate was utilized, and the antenna pattern was screen printed onto the surface. The antenna
array was meticulously optimized for the 77 GHz band, achieving an impressive high gain of
11.2 dBi. Notably, the system features three independent beams, each capable of orienting from
bore-sight to ±32 degrees through a straightforward switching mechanism.
A distinctive attribute of our antenna array lies in its ability to preserve optimal
performance in both flat and flexed conditions, addressing the inherent challenges posed by the
dynamic nature of wearable applications. The flexibility of the system enables seamless
integration with the contours of wearable devices, ensuring unobtrusive deployment without
compromising functionality.
In practical field tests, the implemented antenna array demonstrated exceptional
proficiency in detecting objects moving in three different directions. This empirical validation
underscores the real-world applicability and robustness of the system, highlighting its potential
deployment across diverse environments and applications.
In conclusion, our proposed low-profile, flexible millimeter wave antenna array with
beam-switching capability represents a significant advancement for wearable detection systems.
The amalgamation of a partially reflective surface, parasitic patch array, and screen printing on
a flexible substrate not only contributes to a cost-effective design but also enhances versatility.
The demonstrated performance in both controlled laboratory settings and dynamic field
conditions underscores the potential impact of this antenna system in applications ranging from
surveillance to human-machine interaction within the burgeoning field of wearable technology

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 INDEX

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------Pg 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW-------------------------------------------------------Pg 4

CHAPTER 3: ANTENNA DESIGN------------------------------------------------------------Pg 5

 3.1 Micro Strip Antenna----------------------------------------------------------------Pg 7

 3.2 Parasitic Antenna Array-----------------------------------------------------------Pg 8

 3.3 P R S - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - p g 9

 3.4 Flexed Antenna---------------------------------------------------------------------Pg 12

CHAPTER 4: FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENTS --------------------------------Pg 18

CHAPTER 5: DETECTION TESTING-------------------------------------------------------Pg 20

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION------------------------------------------------------------------Pg 22

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES----------------------------------------------------------------Pg 23

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 3.1 Intended antenna design with three beams on a t-shirt for a sensing
application…………...5

Fig 3.2 (a) Single element patch antenna and H-plane radiation pattern; (b) parasitic array with
an open parasitic element and its H-plane radiation pattern; (c) parasitic array with a shorted
parasitic element and its H-plane radiation pattern; (d) surface current plot; (e) parasitic patch
array with an open and a short parasitic element and its H-plane radiation
pattern………………………………6

Fig 3.3 (a) Parasitic antenna array (PA) with eight parasitic elements; (b) HPlane radiation
patterns of a single
act………………………………………………………………………………………8

Fig 3.4 (a) Antenna stack up; (b) parasitic patch array with PRS (top view)
……………………...10

Fig 3.5 H-plane radiation pattern of the single element and parasitic patch with
PRS…………..11

Fig 3.6 (a) Parasitic antenna array with PRS and metal sheet; (b) H-plane radiation pattern of the
single-patch and parasitic antenna array with updated PRS………………………………………
11

Fig 3.7 (a) S-parameters of the planar and flexed antennas with a bent antenna at the inset (R =
50 mm); (b) H-plane radiation pattern of the bent antenna with a 100-mm bend radius; (c) H-
plane radiation pattern of the bent antenna with a 50-mm bend
radius…………………………………13

Fig 3.8 The fabrication

process…………………………………………………………………..13

Fig 3.9 (a) Parasitic antenna array; (b) PRS for the parasitic antenna array; (c) patch antenna and
its PRS layer; (d) bent antenna with a 50-mm bend radius; (e) patch antenna image under
microscope for the non-bent case; and (f) patch antenna image under microscope for the bent

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case………………………………………………………………………………………………13

Fig 4.1 (a) Measurement of the antenna inside the anechoic chamber; (b) comparison of
simulated (Sim) and measured (Meas) return losses of the singlepatch antenna with PRS and
parasitic antenna array with PRS; (c) H-plane radiation patterns of the single-patch antenna with
PRS and parasitic antenna array with
PRS…………………………………………………………………15

Fig 5.1 (a) Radar test method; (b) measured and calculated received power versus
distance……..17

Fig 5.2 (a) Measured movement detection in the ax direction, and (b) measured movement
detection in the ay direction. A light colored boxes has been used to show the previous position
of the box (object)
……………………………………………………………………………….18

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Comparison of parasitic antenna arrays…………………………………………………

1

Table 3.1 Antenna

dimensions…………………………………………………………………...10

Table 4.1 Simulated and measured

results……………………………………………………….15

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In the ever-evolving landscape of wireless communication and sensing systems,

millimeter-wave (mm-wave) antennas have emerged as indispensable components, finding
applications across diverse domains, including 5G communication, radio frequency
identification, and automotive radars. The surge in wearable technologies has further
accentuated the need for specialized antennas capable of intricate functionalities, such as object
detection and sensing through electromagnetic waves. A particularly intriguing application in
this context is the potential use of wearable sensing systems to assist visually impaired
individuals during mobility.
The design imperatives for such antennas in wearable applications are multifaceted.
They must exhibit multidirectional beams or possess beam-switching capabilities to cater to the
dynamic environments in which wearables operate. Simultaneously, these antennas must
maintain a low profile to seamlessly integrate into the compact designs characteristic of modern
miniature devices. Flexibility is paramount, allowing the antenna to conform to the contours of
wearable devices. Moreover, in the era of cost-conscious technology development, achieving
these specifications in a cost-effective manner is imperative.
The challenge of designing a beam-steerable antenna system that embodies qualities of
being low-cost, low-profile, and flexible, while incorporating a simple yet effective beam-
steering mechanism, is non-trivial. Continuous beam steering techniques, such as mechanical
and electrical scanning, are available but come with their own set of limitations. Mechanical
scanning, reliant on bulky components, is impractical for miniaturized designs. On the other
hand, employing discrete phase shifters for electrical scanning at mm-wave frequencies is not
only expensive but also results in narrow-banded and lossy antenna arrays.

Table 1.1 Comparison of parasitic antenna arrays.

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 In this context, the concept of beam switching, steering at discrete points, offers a more
straightforward approach. Techniques such as Butler and Blass matrices, Rotman lenses, and
parasitic antenna arrays have been explored. While Butler matrices introduce extra power
losses, Rotman lenses are unsuitable for wearables due to their large dimensions. Parasitic
antenna arrays, however, present a promising avenue for low-loss and flexible beam-switching
systems.
The parasitic antenna array relies on parasitic elements in close proximity to a driven
antenna, inducing current through mutual coupling. This induced current alters the total
radiation pattern of the array, providing a means for beam switching. Although simpler and
lower in loss compared to other methods, parasitic antenna arrays face challenges such as wider
beamwidth and lower directivity. Design techniques must be adapted to narrow the beam for
parasitic arrays, especially as narrow beams enhance detectability in most beam steering and
switching applications.
Conventional methods for achieving narrow beams involve lenses, reflectors, or
transmit arrays. However, these methods are generally incompatible with the requirements of
low-profile, flexible, and planar designs. Enter the concept of a partially reflective surface
(PRS), a novel approach that introduces a thin, flexible superstrate layer on top of the antenna.
While multiple antennas with PRS layers have been studied, the application of PRS to enhance
the directivity of a parasitic antenna array or flexible antennas remains unexplored.
This paper addresses this research gap by presenting a beam-switching parasitic antenna
array integrated with a partially reflective surface (PRS). The design choices, combining a
parasitic array with a PRS, contribute to a low-profile antenna system. Realized on a flexible
substrate through screen printing, the antenna not only aligns with the requirements of wearable
applications but also stands out as a cost-effective solution. A comparative analysis, presented
in Table 1, underscores the uniqueness of the proposed work—the only flexible antenna
realized through an additive manufacturing technique.
Key performance metrics of the presented antenna array include a ±32° beam-switching
range, which represents the limit of the parasitic antenna array concept. While the beam-
switching range could be extended up to 50° using the ground-plane truncation method
described in [5], this study prioritizes the practical considerations of W-band antenna
fabrication limitations due to its small dimensions. Notably, the presented antenna array

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achieves the highest gain among published parasitic patch array designs (11.2 dBi) due to the
integration of the PRS.
Furthermore, the proposed antenna stands out in terms of its low profile, flexibility,
narrow beamwidth (resulting in high directivity), and a simple yet effective beam-switching
mechanism. The comprehensive set of features, including low cost, positions the presented
design as particularly attractive for a wide array of wearable sensing applications. This work
marks a significant advancement in the realm of millimeter-wave antennas for wearables,
offering a pioneering combination of beam-switching parasitic antenna arrays with a partially
reflective surface.
In summary, this introduction sets the stage for the subsequent sections, providing a
comprehensive overview of the challenges in designing millimeter-wave antennas for wearable
applications, the existing limitations of beam-steering techniques, and the innovative approach
adopted in this paper. The integration of a partially reflective surface with a parasitic antenna
array presents a novel solution, and the subsequent sections will delve into the detailed design,
fabrication, and performance evaluation of the proposed system

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4
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The authors in [1] proposed the clinical investigation results of a novel, wearable, orientation
and mobility assistive device that uses radar technology. The radar device sends radio signals,
detects objects in the environment, and conveys this information to the users by way of sound
or vibration feedback.
The authors in [2] proposed the new technique is presented demonstrating the use of switched
parasitic elements in electronic beam steering applications. Experimental and theoretical results
are presented for a linearly polarised five element steerable patch antenna array operating at
1.55 GHz. Shorted parasitic elements have been used to steer the beam in two directions for
tracking polar orbiting satellites. The minimum gain of the system for elevation angles >20°
above the horizon is -1.5 dBi in the forward direction.
The authors in [3] proposed the Base-station tracking in mobile communications benefits from a
directional antenna and so requires direction finding technology. A novel technique for
electronically directing the radiation pattern of an antenna array employs a directional array
with only one active element and three parasitic elements operating near resonance.
The authors in [4] proposed the reconfigurable beamforming of a four-parasitic-elements patch
antenna (FPPA) for WiMAX application is presented. The proposed FPPA is successfully
capable to steer the radiation pattern in azimuth planes (0 ° , 45 ° , 135 ° , 225 ° , and
315 ° angles) and in elevation plane (0 ° , 13 ° , 15 ° , 10 ° , and 12 ° ).
The authors in [5] proposed the low-profile, broadly steerable, and reconfigurable array
antenna with parasitic patches is proposed and investigated in this work. For patch-type antenna
arrays, improvement of the beam-scanning range using parasitic patches is very limited.
The authors in [6] proposed the planar beam steerable array antenna system is proposed with
dual-control circuits for feeding and reactive loadings. Two orthogonally arranged planar
dipoles are excited by SPDT switching circuits, while the forward and backward beam
directions are controlled by the adjusted effective electric lengths of the parasitic dipole
elements.

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 CHAPTER 3
ANTENNA DESIGN

The primary aim of this study was to develop a cutting-edge, low-profile, and flexible
beam-switching antenna tailored specifically for wearable applications. Given the prevalence of
detectors, particularly radars, operating within the 77 GHz band, this frequency band was
strategically chosen as the center frequency for the antenna system. The antenna design
unfolded on a flexible substrate from Premix Group, characterized by a low-loss tangent of
0.0044 and a permittivity of 2.6 [16]. The choice of substrate material is pivotal in ensuring the
antenna's flexibility and overall performance.
Antenna simulations were meticulously executed using CST Microwave Studio,
offering a virtual environment to analyze and optimize the design parameters. The simulations
served as a crucial step in the iterative process of refining the antenna configuration to meet the
desired specifications.
In terms of conceptualization and practical application, the designed antenna serves as a
proof of concept for a wearable device geared towards detecting obstacles in three distinct
directions: slightly right, front, and slightly left. This targeted application aligns with the
broader objective of enhancing safety and navigation, especially for visually impaired
individuals. The envisioned wearable device can be seamlessly affixed to the chest area, as
illustrated in Figure 1, showcasing the potential for unobtrusive integration into daily wear.
Crucially, each antenna in the array is meticulously connected to a dedicated integrated
circuit (IC). This strategic integration facilitates a continuous operating mode for each
individual beam, enabling precise and dynamic beam steering. The use of dedicated ICs adds a
layer of sophistication to the system, allowing for independent control and optimization of each
directional beam.

Fig 3.1 Intended antenna design with three beams on a t-shirt for a sensing application.
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 Fig 3.2 (a) Single element patch antenna and H-plane radiation pattern; (b) parasitic
array with an open parasitic element and its H-plane radiation pattern; (c) parasitic array
with a shorted parasitic element and its H-plane radiation pattern; (d) surface current
plot; (e) parasitic patch array with an open and a short parasitic element and its H-plane
radiation pattern.

Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the three antennas on the textile substrate, each
associated with its dedicated IC for steering the beam in one of the three specified directions.
The compact square footprint of 85 mm × 27 mm highlights the efficiency of the antenna
design in terms of real estate on the wearable textile. This compact form factor is critical for
wearable applications, ensuring minimal intrusion into the user's personal space while
maintaining optimal functionality.
The textile-based implementation underscores the flexibility of the substrate,
emphasizing the adaptability of the antenna to conform to the contours of the human body.
Such flexibility is paramount for wearables, allowing for comfort and unobtrusive integration
into clothing or accessories.
In essence, the antenna design presented in this section goes beyond mere theoretical
considerations by translating the conceptual requirements of a wearable, beam-switching
antenna into a tangible proof of concept. The specific focus on obstacle detection in three
directions, the utilization of a 77 GHz center frequency, and the integration of dedicated ICs
underscore the meticulous attention to practical applicability and performance optimization in
the design process. The subsequent sections will delve into the fabrication methodology and
experimental validations, providing a holistic understanding of the antenna system's
development and capabilities.

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 3.1 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

In the pursuit of an optimal antenna design for wearable applications, a microstrip patch
antenna was strategically chosen. This selection was motivated by the inherent advantages of a
microstrip patch antenna, particularly its possession of a ground plane, which serves as a shield
against losses induced by the proximity of the human body. This shielding is crucial in
maintaining the integrity and performance of the antenna in real-world wearable scenarios.
The decision to employ a single-patch antenna stems from its characteristic boresight
maximum radiation pattern. This attribute makes it ideal for realizing the central beam in the
antenna system. The left- and right-tilted beams, crucial for achieving beam-switching
capabilities, are ingeniously implemented through parasitic antenna arrays. In this
configuration, each parasitic array comprises one driven element, a design strategy elaborated
upon in the subsequent subsection.
The single-patch antenna is fed through a 50-ohm microstrip line with inset feeding, as
depicted in Figure 2(a). This feeding arrangement is not merely a technical detail but a key
element influencing the antenna's performance. The single-patch antenna, as configured,
achieves a noteworthy gain of 6.8 dBi and a half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of 68 degrees.
These metrics are indicative of the antenna's radiation efficiency and the angular span within
which its radiated power is significant.
The incorporation of a microstrip patch antenna as the central element in the overall
design highlights the careful consideration of factors such as radiation pattern, gain, and feeding
mechanisms. The subsequent subsections will delve into the intricacies of implementing
parasitic antenna arrays and a partially reflective surface (PRS), providing a comprehensive
understanding of the innovative elements contributing to the success of the beam-switching
wearable antenna system.

3.2 PARASITIC ANTENNA ARRAY

In the intricate realm of beam-switching antenna design, the integration of a parasitic

antenna array constitutes a critical facet. As expounded in the Introduction, parasitic elements
offer a means to manipulate and steer the antenna beam, enabling directional versatility. Figure
2(b) provides a visual insight into this phenomenon, showcasing the deliberate tilting of the

8
bore-sight maximum beam of the single-patch antenna to the right side (23° from the boresight)
by introducing an open parasitic element on the left side. This open parasitic element, devoid of
electrical connection to any metal, becomes a key player in shaping the directional
characteristics of the antenna system.
Further refinements in the beam steering mechanism are achieved by introducing a
shorted parasitic element on the right side of the driven element, as illustrated in Figure 2(c).
The deliberate shorting, achieved through a metalized via connected to the ground, introduces
subtle variations in the radiation pattern. The intricate interplay between the open and shorted
parasitic elements is elucidated in the antenna surface current plot presented in Figure 2(d).
Notably, the open parasitic element exhibits a more robust coupling, exerting a pronounced
influence on the radiation pattern of the parasitic array.

Fig 3.3 (a) Parasitic antenna array (PA) with eight parasitic elements; (b) HPlane
radiation patterns of a single act
Figure 2(e) consolidates the insights gained from the abovementioned configurations,
showcasing the combined effect of open and shorted parasitic elements. This amalgamation
results in a maximum angle of 26° for the parasitic array, showcasing the adaptability and
tunability inherent in this beam-switching approach.
Recognizing the need for a more substantial tilt, the study proceeded to increase the
number of parasitic elements to four on each side of the driven patch. This augmentation
facilitates a further tilt, reaching a maximum beam angle of 34°, as vividly depicted in Figure
3a. However, the study also discerned a diminishing return with a further increase in parasitic
elements. The weakening coupling in the farthest parasitic elements becomes a limiting factor,
prompting a careful balance in the array configuration.
The culmination of these design considerations results in an eight-parasitic-element
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array, evenly distributed with four open and four shorted elements. This configuration attains a
commendable gain of 6.59 dBi and a half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of 96.9°, as visually
represented in Figure 3b. Despite the success in achieving a substantial beam tilt, the broad
beamwidth observed in Figure 3b highlights a trade-off between beam coverage and precision –
a challenge that necessitates further refinement for effective object detection.
In recognition of this challenge, the study introduces a crucial element to the design
paradigm – a Partially Reflective Surface (PRS) structure. This structural addition, situated atop
the antenna array, introduces a novel dimension to the design strategy. The subsequent sections
will meticulously unravel the intricacies of the PRS structure, its role in beam shaping, and the
resultant impact on achieving a narrower beam for enhanced object detection capabilities.
3.3 PRS (Partially Reflective Surface)
The operational foundation of the Partially Reflective Surface (PRS) layer hinges on the
principle that an electromagnetic wave traversing the layer undergoes partial reflection and
transmission through its surface. By modulating the reflection and transmission properties of
the PRS, the objective is to achieve co-phase radiation—a state where the transmitted wave and
the wave reflected from the ground plane of the antenna are in phase, as depicted in Figure 4.
This co-phase radiation serves as a mechanism to enhance gain and narrow the beamwidth,
crucial attributes for optimizing antenna performance.

Fig 3.4 (a) Antenna stack up; (b) parasitic patch array with PRS (top view).

The co-phase radiation is harnessed through a matrix of periodically placed small square
patches with side length (l) and gap (g) positioned on top of a superstrate layer composed of
PreFlex material with thickness H. The reflection coefficient (R(θ)e^(jϕ(θ))) characterizes the
PRS for plane wave excitation with an incident angle θ. The total radiation pattern of the patch
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antenna with PRS is described analytically by the formula:

The parameters l and g, depicted in Figure 4(b), are then varied in simulations to obtain
the desired reflection phase for the given θ₀. Optimal values of l = 0.75 mm and g = 0.1 mm
were determined for a plane wave incident perpendicular to the PRS, resulting in a reflection
phase of -105°. These values yielded the highest directivity for the single patch antenna.
Subsequently, the PRS, with the determined l and g values, was integrated onto the parasitic
antenna array, and further optimization led to l = 0.85 mm and g = 0.1 mm, achieving optimal
performance considering screen printing minimum feature limitations.

Table 3.1 Antenna dimensions.

Table 2 presents the final dimensions of the single-patch antenna and the parasitic antenna array
integrated with the PRS. Simulations utilized a lossy conductor with a conductivity of 10^7
S/m, matching the measured conductivity of the stretchable silver ink employed in fabrication.

11
 Fig 3.5 H-plane radiation pattern of the single element and parasitic patch with PRS.

Fig 3.6 (a) Parasitic antenna array with PRS and metal sheet; (b) H-plane radiation
pattern of the single-patch and parasitic antenna array with updated PRS.

Figure 5 illustrates the H-plane radiation patterns of the single patch antenna and the
parasitic antenna array with PRS. The single antenna with PRS achieved a gain of 13 dBi and a
half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of 28.5°, while the parasitic antenna array reached a gain of
10.8 dBi and an HPBW of 15.8°. Both antennas exhibited an HPBW of approximately 30° in
the E-plane. The integration of PRS resulted in a gain increase of more than 4 dB, accompanied
by an 8-dB side-lobe level (SLL) for the parasitic antenna array with PRS.
Efforts to mitigate the SLL involved replacing the left half of the PRS structure with a
square metal sheet, as illustrated in Figure 6(a). The dimensions of the metallic sheet were
meticulously chosen for optimal performance. This modification led to an increased SLL of 11
dB, as seen in Figure 6(b). Notably, simulations incorporating a human body phantom did not
alter the results, affirming the stability of the presented design under real-world conditions.

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 In essence, the PRS layer serves as a transformative element, fine-tuning the antenna
system to achieve heightened gain, narrower beamwidth, and improved side-lobe
characteristics. The intricate interplay of design parameters and optimization considerations
underscore the meticulous engineering required to bring forth a versatile and robust antenna
system for wearable applications.
3.4 FLEXED ANTENNA
In the realm of wearable electronics, flexibility is a paramount attribute, allowing
devices to seamlessly conform to the contours of clothing or the human body. The adaptability
of antennas to flexed configurations is crucial to ensure their performance remains within
acceptable limits when integrated into wearable devices. In this section, simulations were
conducted to assess the impact of bending on the antenna's performance, particularly focusing
on two bending radii—50 mm and 100 mm. These radii were chosen as they are deemed
sufficient for mounting the antenna on common areas of the human body, such as the chest or
arms.

Fig 3.7 (a) S-parameters of the planar and flexed antennas with a bent antenna at the inset
(R = 50 mm); (b) H-plane radiation pattern of the bent antenna with a 100-mm bend
radius; (c) H-plane radiation pattern of the bent antenna with a 50-mm bend radius.

Fig 3.8 The fabrication process.

13
 Fig 3.9 (a) Parasitic antenna array; (b) PRS for the parasitic antenna array; (c) patch
antenna and its PRS layer; (d) bent antenna with a 50-mm bend radius; (e) patch antenna
image under microscope for the non-bent case; and (f) patch antenna image under
microscope for the bent case.
Figure 7(a) provides a visual representation of the antenna bent around a cylinder with a
50-mm radius, showcasing the feasibility of conforming to the curvature of wearable surfaces.
Importantly, Figure 7(b) demonstrates that the bending did not induce significant changes in the
return loss of the antennas, whether in the orientation of the single patch or the parasitic array.
This resilience to bending is crucial for maintaining stable and efficient communication in real-
world wearable scenarios.
To delve deeper into the impact of bending on radiation patterns, Figure 7(c) presents
the results of bent antenna radiation patterns. Notably, the bending did not significantly alter the
antenna's radiation performance. While there were slight increases in beamwidth and decreases
in gain—approximately 0.5 dB when bent around a 100-mm radius and 1 dB when bent around
a 50-mm radius—the three beams remained distinguishable. This resilience underscores the
antenna's robustness and reliability in flexed configurations.
The side lobe levels of the bent antennas were approximately 8 dB, a level deemed
acceptable. Maintaining a reasonable side lobe level is crucial for minimizing interference and
ensuring the antenna's effectiveness in practical usage scenarios. Thus, the simulation results
affirm that the antenna system, even when flexed, retains its distinguishability of beams and
acceptable side lobe levels. This resilience to bending enhances the applicability of the antenna
for diverse wearable applications, emphasizing its versatility and effectiveness in real-world,
dynamic usage scenarios.

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 CHAPTER4
FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENTS

The antennas, crucial for wearable applications, were crafted through a precise screen-
printing process using the Aurel Automation 900 screen printer. Figure 8 outlines the
fabrication steps, including the preparation of a screen with alignment marks and the
subsequent printing of antenna layers on a flexible substrate. The process involved meticulous
alignment and the application of stretchable silver ink, known for its flexibility.
Utilizing a screen with alignment marks and shorting vias, the antennas were printed
layer by layer, with the ink cured at 120°C for 10 minutes after each step. Plastic screws,
avoiding dielectric interference, were used to eliminate air gaps between layers. The lack of
suitable coaxial connectors at 77 GHz required testing with ground-signal-ground (GSG)
probes, necessitating the addition of a coplanar waveguide (CPW) transition to the antenna
design.

Fig 4.1 (a) Measurement of the antenna inside the anechoic chamber; (b) comparison of
simulated (Sim) and measured (Meas) return losses of the singlepatch antenna with PRS
and parasitic antenna array with PRS; (c) H-plane radiation patterns of the single-patch
antenna with PRS and parasitic antenna array with PRS.
In the testing phase within a specialized anechoic chamber (Figure 10a), meticulous
probe positioning was ensured using a microscope. Figure 10(b) displays the comparison
between measured and simulated reflection coefficients (S11), indicating resonance frequency
alignment. Figure 10(c) showcases the radiation patterns, with measured and simulated results
closely aligned. Table 3 provides details on the antennas' gain, half-power beamwidth (HPBW),
and side-lobe level (SLL).

15
 Table 4.1 Simulated and measured results.

The single-patch antenna with PRS achieved a maximum measured gain of 12 dBi at 0°,
and the parasitic antenna array with PRS attained 9.8 dBi at 30°. The measured gain was
slightly lower than simulated, likely due to inherent variations in material properties during
fabrication. While characterization of the bent antenna was not performed, microscopic
examination confirmed the ink's structural integrity, endorsing its suitability for flexible and
wearable applications. This comprehensive fabrication and testing process underscores the
antennas' resilience, paving the way for their integration into diverse wearable sensing
scenarios.

16
17
 CHAPTER 5
DETECTION TESTING

The exploration of the detection capabilities of the antenna system extends beyond mere
range considerations, delving into the intricate realm of object movement and directional
prediction. The testing setup, as illustrated in Fig. 11(a), orchestrates a sophisticated interplay
between three wearable antennas (A, B, and C), each with distinct beam orientations. Serving as
transmitters, these antennas receive RF input signals from a generator, engaging in a symphony
of signal reflection orchestrated by metal sheets and objects strategically positioned as
reflective targets, such as wrenches.
The subsequent orchestration involves a spectrum analyzer, intricately connected to a
horn antenna and thoughtfully stationed alongside the transmitting antennas. What unfolds is a
sequential testing regimen, with each antenna taking its turn in the limelight. Fig. 11(b) unfolds
the recorded symphony of reflected power across varying distances, a melodic representation of
the system's sensitivity and discernment.

Fig 5.1 (a) Radar test method; (b) measured and calculated received power versus
distance.

18
Fig 5.2 (a) Measured movement detection in the ax direction, and (b) measured movement
detection in the ay direction. A light colored boxes has been used to show the previous
position of the box (object).
Despite grappling with the constraints imposed by a considerable setup loss of 51 dBm,
the calculated detection range, as per the radar range equation, weaves a compelling narrative
alongside the measured values. This correlation, while most pronounced up to a 2-meter range,
instills confidence in extrapolating the calculated values to illuminate detection capacities up to
an impressive 10 meters. The prospect of integrating power and low-noise amplifiers in the
antenna front ends tantalizingly suggests the extension of this detection prowess even further.
In the intricate dance of sensing applications, the antenna's role transcends mere object
detection. Integrated seamlessly with appropriate circuits, the antenna evolves into a maestro of
real-time information, capturing nuances of object distance and velocity through a masterful
interplay of wave travel time and frequency shift. Fig. 11(b) choreographs this integration,
showcasing a calculated detection range curve waltzing alongside measured values.
However, the performance of this antenna system doesn't conclude with detection alone;
it extends its virtuosity into directional prediction and object movement analysis. The trio of
antennas, each boasting a unique beam orientation, becomes the canvas upon which the
movement of objects is artistically painted. Fig. 12(a) orchestrates a visual symphony,
illustrating the measured results that decode the subtleties of an object's movement in the ±ax
and ±ay directions.
The directional prowess of the system unfolds further in Fig. 12(b), where movement in
the ±ay direction is scrutinized. The nuanced dance of reflected power levels becomes the
language through which the system communicates the direction of movement. An increase or
decrease in reflected power elegantly communicates whether the object is gracefully
approaching or distantly receding, shifting to the right or elegantly veering left.
This comprehensive exploration paints the antenna system not merely as a sensor but as
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a sophisticated conductor of spatial awareness. The symphony of capabilities it presents - from
detecting objects at varying distances to predicting their movement and direction - positions it
as a versatile player in the orchestration of wearable sensing applications, enhancing user
awareness and expanding the horizons of interactive possibilities.

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 CONCLUSION
This study marks a significant leap forward in the realm of wearable technology,
introducing a novel wearable antenna array distinguished by its three independent beams,
flexible design, low-profile attributes, and cost-effectiveness. From its conceptual inception to
the tangible prototype and comprehensive testing, the antenna array has demonstrated not only
its technical prowess but also its potential to reshape the landscape of wearable sensing and
detection applications.
The empirical tests conducted on this innovative antenna array reveal a remarkable
detection range of up to 10 meters. This noteworthy achievement serves as a foundation for
future enhancements, as the integration of power amplifiers and low-noise amplifiers promises
to propel the detection capabilities even further. The system's adeptness in determining the
direction of an object's movement introduces an additional layer of sophistication, enhancing its
utility in various real-world scenarios.
The orchestrated collaboration of three antennas, each equipped with an independent
beam, bestows upon the system a panoramic vision, capable of detecting objects within a wide-
angle range of ±32◦. This versatility positions the design at the forefront of wearable sensing
and detection applications, offering a holistic solution that balances technical excellence with
practical applicability.
Beyond its immediate technical achievements, the success of this study lies in its
forward-thinking design philosophy. The emphasis on flexibility, low-profile form factors, and
cost-effectiveness not only aligns with the current needs of wearable technology but also
anticipates and addresses the demands of the future. As the intersection of innovation and
practicality, this wearable antenna array emerges not merely as a technical triumph but as a
harbinger of transformative possibilities in the evolving landscape of sensing and detection
technologies.
In essence, the culmination of this study paints a compelling picture of a wearable
antenna array that not only meets the demands of the present but paves the way for a future
where wearable technologies seamlessly integrate into our daily lives, enhancing our awareness,
connectivity, and interactive experiences. This is more than a technological achievement; it's a
glimpse into the future of wearable innovation.

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