PT31803

LECTURE 5

Dr. Norzihan Ayub

 Cognitive Developmental Theories
 Focus on:
 How thinking processes change qualitatively with age and
experience
 Children typically play active role in their own development.
 Two main theories : Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky

Jean Piaget
 Started career as a zoologist
 Worked on standardizing intelligence tests in Paris
 A vast number of observations on his own three daughters
 The clinical method : tasks and problem.
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 Key Ideas i Piaget’s Idea
1. Children are active and motivated learners.
 children curious about their world.
 actively seek out information to help them make a sense of it.
 manipulate stimuli and observe effect to their actions

2. Children organize what they learn from their experience.

 children pull the their experience together into an integrated view of how the world operates
(example: child observing that food, toys and other objects always fall down when released,
they begin to construct basic understanding of gravity
 learning as a constructive process: Children create their knowledge about the world.
 children learn and can do are organized as schemas.

3. Interaction with the physical environment is critical for learning and cognitive
development.
 growing children develop and modify their schemes.
 Key Ideas in Piaget’s Idea
4. Interaction with other people is equally critical and
development.
 Although that children’s knowledge and understanding of the
world of are largely self- constructed, nevertheless they have
much to learn from interacting with others..

5. Children adapt to their environment through the process

of assimilation and accommodation
6. The process of equilibration promotes
progression toward increasingly complex forms
of thought
 children can comfortably interpret and respond to
new events using existing schemas.

7. Children think in quantitatively different ways

at different age level.
 A major feature of Piaget’s theory in his description
of four distinct stages of cognitive development ,
each with its own unique pattern of thought

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 Intelligence
 It is a life function that serves adaptation to the environment

 Cognitive equilibrium: a harmony or match between

thought and the environment. It is constantly challenged by
novel stimuli and events, and restored by cognitive activity
(interactionism).

 Constructivism: children need to build up understanding of

new situations for themselves from their already existing
stock of knowledge.
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Piagetian Processes
1. Schema
 Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
 Schemes first based on actions, then functions, and conceptions

2. Assimilation
 Incorporating new information into existing knowledge
schemes
3. Accommodation
 Adjusting schemes to fit new information and experience
Piagetian Processes
4. Organization
 The child acquires new schemes by organizing (combining)
existing schemes into new ones.

5. Equilibrium
 to bring balance between assimilation and
accommodation as the person adapts more sophisticated
internal mental structures.
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 Cognitive processes
(supposedly inborn)

Adaptation Organization
(combining, rearranging,
extending existing
schemes)

Assimilation Accommodation

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 Assimilatioan and Accommodation

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Characteristics of Piaget’s Stages
1. Each stage is a structured whole and in a state of equilibrium
 The stages are qualitative within the structures and quantitative between
structures

2. Each stage derives from the previous stage and incorporate and transform
to prepare for the next
 No going back

3. The stages follow an invariant sequence.

 There is no skipping stages.

4. The stages are universal.

 Culture does not impact the stages. Children everywhere go through the same
stages no matter what their cultural background is.
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Piaget’s Stages of Cog itive Develop e t
Formal Operations

(adolescence to adult)

Concrete Operations

(~ 7-12 yrs)

Preoperational Period

(~2 to 6 yrs)

Sensorimotor Period

(~Birth to 2 yrs)
Inborn Reflexes
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 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
 Coordinate sensory inputs and motor skills
 Transition from being reflexive to reflective.
 Development of Problem-Solving Abilities
i. Reflex activity (birth – 1 month)- understands the
environment purely through inborn reflexes such as
sucking and looking.
ii. Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
 first motor habits, repetitive

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
iii. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
 Repetitive actions with objects beyond the body

iv. Coordination of secondary reactions (8-12

months)
 Coordinate 2 or more actions to achieve an
objective (intentional)

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v. Tertiary circular reactions -12-18 months
 Active experimentation, trial & error .

vi. Symbolic problem solving -18-24 months

 Inner (mental) experimentation
 Solves problems
 Creative planning
 Deferred imitation

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Development of Imitation
 Novel responses by 8-12 months of age
 Deferred imitation – 18-24 months
 Deferred imitation is a term in Piaget's theory
that refers to the ability to imitate behavior that
was observed at an earlier time
 Research now shows 6-month-olds are capable of
deferred imitation

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Imitation : Meltzoff & Moore, 1977

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Development of Object Permanence
 Objects continue to exist when they are no longer
visible/detectable
 Appears by 8-12 months of age
 A-not-B error: tendency infants to reach where
the object is located earlier, rather than where is
the object last seen
 Complete by 18-24 months

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Object Permanence

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
2. The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
 Symbolic function / representational insight
 One thing represents another
 Language – increased vocabularies,
communicate their thoughts
 Pretend (symbolic) play – developmentally
a positive activity
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Symbolic (pretend) play

 Roles and props – the latter are, in Piaget’s view,
symbols of the real thing (e.g., a chair driven by
the child as a car is a symbol of real cars).

 Pretend play starts at ~12 months with simple

pretend acts (eating, drinking)
 However, it really blossoms in the preoperational
period as role play (e.g., pretending to be a
doctor, a teacher, etc).
 Often social (although not necessarily), it
promotes social development.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Deficits in preoperational thinking
a. Animisim
 belief that inanimate objects have human feelings and
intentions.
b. Egocentrism
 View world from own perspective, trouble recognizing
other’s point of view
c. Appearance/reality distinction
 Cannot distinguish between the two

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Deficits in preoperational thinking

d. Lack of conservation – do not realize
properties of objects do not change just because
appearance does
 Lack of centration – concentrate on more than
one aspect of a problem at the same time
 Lack of reversibility – falsely believes that
actions cannot be reversed or undone.

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Example of Centration

 Do these two rows have the same number of circles?

How about now? (Moving them in front of the child)

Pre-operational child will say the second row has

more circles
3. Concrete Operational Stage
(7–12 years)
 Ability to think logically about concrete objects and
situations
 Child can now understand conservation
 Classification, seriating and categorization
 Less egocentric
 Inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically
 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
4. The Formal Operational Stage (11-12 +)
 Develop the capacity for abstract, scientific thinking
 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
 Ability to generate hypotheses and use deductive reasoning (general to specific)
(eg. Problem solving)
 Inductive reasoning
 Going from specific observations to generalizations
 Proportional thinking
 Individual evaluate the logic of
prepositions (verbal statement) without
referring to real world situations.

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 Abstract Thought
 While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in
earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges
during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on
previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes
and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in
long-term planning.

 Problem solving
 the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage
of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an
organized approach to solving a problem.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Personal and Social Implications of Formal Thought

 Thinking about what is possible in life

 Stable identity

 Understanding of other’s perspectives

 Questioning others

 Thinking of how the world ought to be

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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Does Everyone Reach Formal Operations?

 Early Piaget – Yes, at least some signs by 15-18
 Other researchers – No. Lack of education

 Later Piaget – Yes, but only on problems that are

either interesting or important

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 Implications of Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian Theories
 Children and adolescents can learn through hands on experience.
 Interactions with peers can promote advanced understanding
 Children are more likely to reason in sophisticated ways when they
work with familiar tasks and topics.
 Piaget’s stages can provide some guidance about when certain
abilities are likely to emerge, but they shouldn’t be taken too
literally
 Children can succeed in a particular domain if they have mastered
basic concepts and skills central to that domain.

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Piaget and Education
 Discovery Learning
 Children are encourage to discover for themselves through
spontaneous interaction with environment
 Sensitivity to children readiness to learn
 Piaget believed that appropriate learning experiences build
on children current thinking
 Acceptance to individual differences
 All children go through the same sequences of development,
but at different rate.

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 PT31803
Lecture 6

Dr. Norzihan Ayub

Lev Vygotsky (1896 -1934)

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Lev Vygotsky (1896 -1934)
 Russian psychologist (1896-1934)
 Focused on sociocultural theory, the idea that all
development takes place in social settings and is therefore
influenced by social forces : Cognitive development
largely - social process
 Developed theories as he worked to improve his own
teaching and looked for ideas that might help explain and
guide his experiences as an educator.

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 Interested in the development of individual
members of society
 Higher intellectual functions (reasoning, planning,
understanding, remembering) from social
experience
 Human development in terms of 3 levels (cultural,
interpersonal, individual) – integration of these
determines course each child takes.

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 The Socio-Cultural Origins of Mental Functioning

 Development & learning reflects child’s cultural experience and

cultural experience becomes internalised into child’s intellect.

 Stressed the role of interpersonal processes & society in giving

framework for child’s construction of meaning to develop.

 Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice:

first, on the social level, (interpsychological-between people ),
and later, on the individual level; (intrapsychological –inside the
child ). (Vygotsky, 1978; p 57)
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 Key Ideas in Vygotsky Theory
1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety
species; others are unique to human being.
• Lower mental function : certain basic ways of
learning and responding to environment.
• Higher mental function : cognitive processes that
enhance learning, memory, and logical reasoning.
Acquired and developed through social interaction.
(society and culture are critical for development of
higher mental functions.)
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2. Through both informal and conversations and
formal schooling, adults convey to their children
the ways in which culture interprets and responds
to the world.
• To promote higher mental functions, adults share
with children the meanings they attach to
objects, events and human experience > through
language, arts, music etc.
3. Every culture passes along physical and cognitive tools
that make daily living more effective and efficient.
 Not only do adults teach children specific ways of interpreting
experience but pass along specific tools (computers, physical
objects, maps) that can help children tackle the various task
and problem
 Cognitive tools : greatly enhance children’s thinking
abilities.
 Different cultures pass along different cognitive tools.

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4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent in the first few
years of life.
 Language : very important cognitive tools. Symbolic system which we
communicate. History and culture are transmitted through language.

Children solve practical tasks with the help of their speech as well as their eyes
& hands (Vygotsky, 1978)
 Social speech – (0 – 3 years) controls the behavior of others; expresses simple
thoughts and emotions, begin to think in term of words.
 Egocentric speech – bridge between internal and external speech; serves to
control own behavior; but spoken out loud. ( 3 – 7 years)
 Inner speech – ; children talk to themselves mentally rather than aloud; continue
to direct themselves verbally through task and activities, but other can no longer
see and hear them. involved in all higher mental function.

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5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social
activities: as children develop, they gradually
internalize the processes they use in social contexts
and begin to use them independently.
 Internalization : the process through which social
activities evolve into internal mental activities. (self
talk to inner speech)
 Overtime, children gradually internalize adults
direction so that they’re eventually giving themselves
directions.
 Not all higher mental functions emerge through
children’s interaction with adults but also with peers.

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6. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks when
they have assistance of people more advanced and
competent than themselves.
 Actual developmental level : the lower limit of tasks that he or
she can perform independently without help from anyone else.
 Level of potential development : the upper limit of tasks that
he or she can perform with the assistance of more competent
individual.
7. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive
growth.
 Zone of proximal development.

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8. Play allow children to cognitively stretch
themselves.
 Provides a valuable training ground for the
adult world.
 Intersubjectivity – shared understanding .
 in a play child always behaves beyond his
average, age above his daily behavior.

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 Zone of Proximal Development
 Tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with
assistance
 Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)
 The gap between what a child can do on their own
and what a child can do with support.
 The child will not be able to take the next step in their
development unless they are supported in the ZPD
 This support is known as scaffolding and is seen as
the main role of adults/teachers

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Vygotsky’s Zo e of Proximal Development
 Zone of Proximal Development
 Vygotsky’s view:
…what a child can do with assistance today she will be able
to do by herself tomorrow. (Vygotsky, 1978)
 Contrast with Piaget:
Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from
inventing it himself. On the other hand, that which we
allow him to discover for himself will remain with him
visible for the rest of his life. (Piaget, in Piers, 1972)

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 Scaffolding
 a Vygotskian concept to describe the various types of support
that teachers need to provide for children if they are to learn.
Scaffolding providing support through guidance,
demonstrations, explanations, provision of models,
explanation of objectives and so on.
 Scaffolding is the work required by the expert (Adult or peer
with high cognitive level) necessary to bring the learner from
that which they are capable of doing alone to that which they
are capable of doing with assistance.
 It is also used to describe the act of assistance itself.

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 Co pari g Piaget’s a d Vygotsky’s Theory
Common themes
1. Qualitative changes in the nature of thought
 Children think differently at different ages
2. Readiness
 Any child will be cognitively ready for some experiences
but not ready for others.
3. Importance of social interactions

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 Co pari g Piaget’s a d Vygotsky’s Theory
Key Theoretical Differences
1. To what extent is language essential for learning and
cognitive development?
 Piaget : language is important but much of cognitive
development occurs independently of language.
 Vygotsky : language is absolutely critical for learning and
cognitive development.
2. What kinds of experience promote learning and
development?
 Piaget : Children independent, self motivated explorations –
basis for developing schemes.
 Vygotsky : activities that are facilitated and interpreted by
more competent individual.
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3. What kinds of social interactions are most valuable?
 Piaget : Interactions with peer
 Vygotsky : interactions with adults or other more
advanced individuals.
4. How influential is culture?
 Piaget : didn’t address the role of culture
 Vygotsky : culture is important in determining the
specific skills childrens acquire.

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 Implications Of Vygotsky
1. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic
cognitive tools of various activities and academic disciplines.
2. Children learn and remember more when they talk about
experiences.
3. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that
closely resemble those they will encounter in the adult world.
4. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate
with adults and complex tasks.
 Scaffolding
 Guided participation

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 Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffolded,
are likely to foster maximum cognitive development.
 Children abilities should be assessed under a variety of work
conditions
 Group learning activities can help children internalize
cognitive strategies.
 Cooperative learning

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 Summary of Vygotsky
 Culture and social interaction very important in
cognitive development
 Social interaction with knowledgeable others
 moves development forward - ZPD
 Language is central to cognitive development:
 – social speech => private speech => thought