WORLD LANGUAGES PEDAGOGY (5841)

4 multiple choice and 2 constructed response questions

CONTENT
SECTION 1 A
Language Acquisition Theories and Instructional Practices

-Cultures, literatures, cross-disciplinary concepts.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

• What are the differences between a culture’s products, practices, and perspectives and
what are some examples of each?
Products: are things that are made, used, and enjoyed by people in a a culture.
Practices: are the things people do in a culture, like traditions, customs, or rituals. E.g. how
people greet each other, such as bowing in China or shaking hands in Western cultures,
celebrations like burning firecrackers during traditional New Year in China, and special
ceremonies like Chinese tea ceremonies.
Perspectives: are the ways people think and see the world, influenced by their beliefs and
values. Examples: whether they focus more on personal goals or group harmony, their ideas
about gender roles and their cultural values, like the importance of family.
• How could music, the arts, the sciences, and other disciplines be incorporated into
language learning?
Incorporating other disciplines into language learning can make the process more engaging,
enjoyable and connected to real-world contexts.
ART:
- Create visual aids: students can learn with the support of visual aids, especially for the
ELL or any other students with special needs. Also, students can create visual products
such as posters or drawings, to reinforce vocabulary, grammar, concepts or storytelling.
- Enhance descriptive skills: sts can practice communication skills by discussing various
artworks, like paintings or photographs.
- Explore cultural expressions: introduce art forms from different cultures, like traditional
dances and folk songs, to expose students to diverse perspectives and languages.
MUSIC:
- Learn through: Use songs in the target language to practice pronunciation, vocabulary
and grammar. Singing along and analyzing lyrics can improve listening skills and
vocabulary retention.
- Cultural exploration: introduce instruments and famous musicians from different
countries to provide cultural context and encourage language learning through music
appreciation.
SCIENCES:
- Conduct experiments or simulations: engage students in hands-on activities or virtual
experiments related to scientific concepts. For example, use magnets to help learn
North and South concepts and vocabulary in the target language.
 Other disciplines: role-playing: incorporate drama or acting exercises to practice
conversations, dialogues, or real-life situations. This enhances speaking and listening
skills.
• What are examples of content-based instruction for the second-language classroom?
Content-based second language instruction is the essence of this article. Content-based instruction is a
form of communicative language teaching in which language instruction is integrated with school or
academic content instruction.

• What aural (oral) and written materials are typically appropriate at each proficiency
level?
NOVICE:
- AURAL: short and simple spoken phrases and sentences. Audio recordings with slow
and clear speech, repetition and visual aids.
- WRITTEN: basic vocabulary with visual support. Short and simple sentences, captions
and basic questions.
INTERMEDIATE:
- AURAL: longer spoken passages with more complex sentences. Audio recordings at a
standard speed covering a range of topics.
- WRITTEN: expanded vocabulary with more varied sentence structures. Short
paragraphs, descriptions, narratives and dialogues on familiar topics.
ADVANCED:
- AURAL: authentic video recordings on various topics. Longer passages, discussions,
interviews and lectures with some use of idiomatic language and cultural differences.
- WRITTEN: extended texts, articles and essays on a wide range of topics. Clear
organization, arguments and analysis with the use of complex sentence structures.
SUPERIOR:
- AURAL: authentic audio materials from different sources. Complex and abstract
discussions, debates and lectures with minimal contextual support.
- WRITTEN: extended and sophisticated texts, including academic articles, reports, and
research papers. Coherent arguments, analysis, and abstract concepts.
DISTINGUISHED:
- AURAL: native-like proficiency in understanding spoken language across various topics,
registers and dialects. Fluent comprehension of complex and nuanced conversations,
presentations and speeches.
- WRITTEN: Native-like proficiency in written language. Ability to produce sophisticated
and nuanced texts including literary works, scholarly publications and professional
documents.

-Language acquisition theories and instructional practices

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

• What are some ways a foreign-language teacher can adapt instruction to students’
different approaches to learning?
According to Gardner´s Multi-intelligence theory, each person has a unique combination of
multi intelligences, like musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, logical-
mathematical, linguistic, spatial, naturalistic intelligences. This theory encourages the foreign-
language teachers to consider tailoring teaching methods and activities to match how individual
students learn best with their own learning styles.

1. Visual learners:
- Use visual aids like images and charts to support vocabulary learning and
comprehension.
- Use handouts, videos , slideshows or other visual materials to engage visual learners.
2. Auditory learners:
- Use audio recordings, podcasts or songs to reinforce pronunciation, listening
comprehension and speaking skills.
- Conduct group discussions, debates or role plays to promote oral language practice.
3. Kinesthetic learners:
- Incorporate hands-on activities, such as language games, role plays, or simulations that
involve movement and physical engagement.
- Encourage students to use gestures or body language to enhance communication.
4. Linguistic learners:
- Assign reading materials, such as short stories, articles or novels that cater to students´
interests and proficiency levels.
- Provide writing tasks like journals, essays or creative writing exercises that allow
students to express themselves.
5. Social learners:
- Encourage discussions, debates, or group presentations to promote interaction and
social engagement.
- Plan activities that involve cooperative learning, such as peer editing, group projects or
language exchanges.
By recognizing and accommodating students´ learning styles, foreign-language teachers can
create a more inclusive and effective learning environment and help students engage with the
language more meaningfully.

• What are some ways that students’ interests could be used to create meaningful tasks?
Incorporating students´ interests into meaningful tasks can enhance their motivation,
engagement, and overall learning experience. Examples:
1. Provide students with options: allow them to choose topics or products such as art,
music or writing, etc which are related to their interests. This encourages ownership of
learning, and allows for personalization.
2. Real world connections: relate learning tasks to real-life situations that align with
students´ interests.
3. Inquiry-based learning: design projects that allow students to explore what they are
interested in. Encourage them to ask questions, conduct research, analyze findings, and
critical thinking.
 4. Collaborative projects: facilitate group projects or tasks where students with shared
interests can work together, exchange ideas and create the product collaboratively.
5. Field trips or guest speakers: organize field trips to places or invite guest speakers
related to students´ interests. This first-hand exposure and interaction can deepen their
understanding and provide real-world context to their interests.

• What strategies could be used to facilitate beginners’ second-language literacy?

Scaffolding strategies can facilitate second-language beginner´s literacy skills. Examples:
1. Vocabulary building: introduce high-frequency words and vocabulary with visual aids,
realias and gestures to reinforce word meanings and help students make connections.
2. Sentence structure starters: provide sentence models to scaffold beginner´s writing.
Start with simple sentence structures and gradually introduce more complex ones.
3. Read aloud and repetition: this helps develop their listening comprehension and
phonemic awareness.
4. Graphic organizers: use visual organizers, such as charts, diagrams, or mind maps to
help beginners organize their thoughts and ideas before writing and speaking.
5. Connect with real life situations: connect literacy activities and authentic text, especially
the materials related to beginners´ interests, hobbies or daily life to make learning more
meaningful and relevant.
6. Fun games and activities: incorporate interactive games to make literacy learning
enjoyable and engaging for beginners. This helps reinforce vocabulary, spelling and
sentence structure.
7. Peer collaboration: encourage beginners to work with peers on literacy activities. Pair or
group them with more advanced classmates who can provide support and model
language skills.
• What is the difference between facilitating the development of strategic readers and
teaching reading strategies?
The strategic reader is one who automatically and routinely applies combinations of effective and
appropriate strategies depending on reader goals, reading tasks, and strategic processing abilities.
Reading strategies are the deliberate, cognitive acts learners use to construct meaning and monitor
comprehension. Instructional strategies, on the other hand, are the teaching techniques teachers
model and use to help students become more independent readers and learners.

• What are some strategies to help inexperienced writers begin to develop ideas for a specific
topic?

There are four primary methods of generating ideas:

1. Brainstorming
2. Freewriting
3. Idea Map/Web
4. "Moodling"
STEPS IN THE WRITING PROCESS
1. Prewriting
2. Invention
3. Researching
4. Collaboration
5. Planning
6. Organizing
7. Designing
8. Drafting
9. Rereading
10. Revising
11. Editing
12. Proofreading
13. Sharing or Publishing

• When, and how often, is it appropriate to provide error correction for students’ second-
language speaking?
It can vary depending on the context and learners´ proficiency levels.

1. Timing: interrupting students´ speech constantly to correct every error can disrupt their
fluency and confidence. Instead, consider providing feedback during specific practice
sessions, after a speaking activity or during individual conferences.
2. Frequency: the frequency of error correction should be balanced. Overcorrecting every
single mistake can overwhelm learners and hinder their fluency.
3. Concentration: focus on addressing errors that significantly impact communication,
understanding, or recurring errors that hinder the accuracy of conveying the message.
4. Feedback delivery: use a constructive and supportive approach when providing error
correction. Offer clear explanations and examples, to help learners understand and self
correct.

The key error correction is to create a supportive environment where learners feel
comfortable and safe taking risks, making mistakes and gradually improving their second
language speaking skills.

• What tasks are appropriate for students of differing ages and proficiency levels?
The teacher should provide a variety of activities and adapt the tasks based on individual
student´s abilities, interests, learning styles and cultural backgrounds to engage different
learners in the class.

1. Beginner level (young learners)

- Vocabulary Games: engage young learners in vocabulary building activities like flashcard
matching, words puzzles or memory games.
- Simple dialogues: have students practice short dialogues to develop basic
communication skills.
- Picture descriptions: ask students to describe pictures or illustrations using simple
sentences and vocabulary.
 - Songs and dancing.
2. Intermediate Level (teenagers)
- Role playing: assign students specific roles and scenarios to act out conversations and
develop their speaking skills.
- Writing emails or letters: have students write emails or letters on familiar topics, such as
introducing themselves, describing their hobbies or sharing opinions.
- Reading comprehension: provide age-appropriate texts with comprehension questions
to enhance reading skills and understanding.
3. Advanced level (Adult learners):
- Debates or discussions: Organize debates or group discussions on relevant and thought-
provoking topics to promote thinking and speaking skills.
- Opinion essays: assign writing tasks where students express their opinions on current
issues or topics of interest.
- Authentic materials: introduce authentic materials like newspaper articles, podcasts or
videos to enhance reading or listening skills and expose learners to real-world language
use.
• How does classroom management affect the learning environment?
Strong classroom management positively impacts the learning environment by establishing a
safe, engaging and supportive space for students to learn.
- Creates a safe and respectful atmosphere, and reduces stress and anxiety.
- Promotes engagement and focus
- Encourages collaboration and interaction
- Supports different learning styles and needs.
- Encourages positive behavior and motivation.

• What types of instructional models best promote communicative competencies?

1. Task based learning: students engage in communicative tasks that require using English
to accomplish specific goals. Example, they may participate in role plays, interviews or
problem solving activities in English. This approach emphasizes meaningful
communication and provides opportunities for language practice in real-life contexts.
2. Communicative Language Teaching: this approach focuses on interactive
communication in English. Students engage in pair or group activities, discussions and
information exchanges using the target language. The teacher acts as a facilitator,
providing guidance and feedback to promote effective communication.
3. Cooperative Learning: students work together in small groups or pairs to complete tasks
or projects that require communication in English. They collaborate, share ideas and
support each other´s language development. Cooperative learning provides
opportunities for authentic language practice and fosters communication skills.
4. Total Physical Response (TPR): this model connects language learning with physical
actions. The teacher provides commands or instructions in English and students respond
by performing the corresponding actions. TPR promotes comprehension and helps
develop listening and oral skills in a dynamic and interactive way.
 5. Technology- enhanced learning: incorporating technology can enhance communicative
competencies in English. Online resources, interactive multimedia, language-learning
apps, or virtual language exchange platforms can provide additional opportunities for
language practice, listening comprehension and speaking activities.
• What is scaffolding and how does it support learning?
Scaffolding refers to the instructional support provided to students to help them gradually
develop their language skills and abilities. It involves breaking down complex tasks into
manageable steps, providing guidance and offering appropriate assistance. Scaffolding aims to
bridge the gap between what students can do independently and what they can achieve with
support and building their competence and confidence in using the target language.

Scaffolding supports foreign language learning by providing students with the necessary
support and guidance to acquire new language skills. Here is a simple and easy explanation:
1. Breaking down complete tasks: breaking them down into smaller, more manageable
steps. This makes the learning process less overwhelming and enables students to focus
on one aspect at a time.
2. Providing support and guidance: scaffolding offers a variety of supports like reading
aloud and repetition, modeling, visual aids, sentence structure starters, connect with
background knowledge, gestures, subtitles, etc.
3. Fostering confidence: with support, students can practice and apply new language skills,
gradually gaining the confidence to use the language independently. Scaffolding equips
them with the tools and strategies needed for self-directed language learning.
• How would applying a cognitive instructional model be useful during a grammar lesson?
Cognitive theories put forward the belief that the nuanced processes underpinning learning must be
understood and prioritised. This means thinking about how information is received, organized, stored, and
retrieved by the mind. Therefore, in cognitivism, the spotlight is not just on the actions of the learner, but
also on understanding what they know and the mechanisms through which their knowledge is acquired.
As mentioned, the learner is perceived as an active participant, engaging in mental activities that involve
internal coding and structuring. Supporters of cognitivism see the brain as an information processor
similar to a computer, operating on self-developed algorithms for information processing and decision-
making. In this process, individuals acquire and store their knowledge, forming schema (a mental
framework) in their long-term memory. However, this knowledge is not randomly stored. Instead, it is
subconsciously organized into categories, facilitating the retrieval of pertinent information when needed.
Memory, according to cognitivists, is one of the most crucial areas of interest, so the processes and
conditions that enhance memory are key to the understanding of how we learn. Contrary to some study
methods, cognitivists advocate for tasks like ‘retrieval practice’, where learners practice recalling
information from memory, citing its effectiveness in improving memory and, consequently, allowing for
better learning outcomes
Another cornerstone of cognitivist philosophy is problem-based learning, which asserts that attempting to
solve problems before being taught the solution cultivates deeper learning, even if errors are part of the
process.
Cognitive models of instruction view learning as a process that requires learners to actively construct new
knowledge. The role of instruction is to provide an environment that helps the learner leverage the
cognitive processes summarized earlier and minimize their disruption. Specifically, instruction should
help the learner to:
*Focus attention to elements of the environment relevant to learning,
*Minimize cognitive load to use the limited resources of working memory most effectively,
*Rehearse new information in working memory so that it is integrated into existing schemas in long-term
memory,
**Retrieve new knowledge when needed after learning, and
Manage and monitor the metacognitive learning processes.

• What types of activities mirror real-world use of the target language in all three modes of
communication?
It is important to note that the activities should be meaningful and purposeful, allowing
students to engage in authentic language use. Foreign language classes can incorporate the
following 3 modes of activities:

1. Interpersonal communication: learners interact and negotiate meaning in spoken, signed, or

written conversations to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions.
- Role plays: students engage in conversations or situations that simulate real-life
interactions, such as ordering food at a restaurant or having a conversation with a friend
on campus.
- Pair or group discussions: students discuss topics of interest, share opinions, and
exchange information with their peers, such as the lunch menu of school cafeteria,
summer vacation plan.
2. Interpretive communication: learners understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard,
read, or viewed on a variety of topics
- Authentic texts and media: students read and listen to authentic materials, such as articles,
videos that reflect real-world language use. They comprehend and interpret the information
presented.
- Comprehension activities: students answer questions, summarize main ideas, or discuss their
understanding of authentic texts or media.
3. Presentational communication: learners present information, concepts, and ideas to inform,
explain, persuade, and narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media and adapting
to various audiences of listeners, readers, or viewers.
- Presentations or speeches: students prepare and deliver presentations on specific topics,
sharing information and expressing their ideas on certain topics which students are familiar
or concerned with, like choosing college or major environmental issues, etc.
- Creative writing tasks: students write essays, reports or letters to express their thoughts
and ideas in an organized manner.

-Professionalism
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What professional organizations are available to support World Languages teachers and
teachers in general, and what is their focus? (e.g., advocacy groups, unions, state and
national education department websites)
There are several professional organizations available to support English language teachers:
- American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL): is a national
organization that supports language educators across all languages. They focus on
providing resources like proficiency guidelines, standards, professional development
opportunities for effective language teaching and learning.
-The Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (NECTFL) is a multi -
language association of pre-kindergarten through university teachers, representing 14
states in the northeast region. Although nominally a regional association, its activities,
publications and annual conference attract participants from around the country and
the globe.
- Member organizations of The Joint National Committee for Languages (JNLC) and the
National Council for Languages and International Studies (NCLIS) are united in their
belief that all Americans must have the opportunity to learn and use English at least one
other language.
-The center for Advanced Language Proficiency Education and Research (CALPER)
conducts research to inform foreign language pedagogy, develops language teaching
and learning materials and assessment procedures and provides an array of
educational opportunities for language professionals.
- The Center for Applied Linguistics is dedicated to providing a comprehensible range of
reaseach-based information, tools and resources related to language and culture. The CAL
website has a wealth of information on testing and assessment.
- National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL) provides leadership in support of
successful early language learning and teaching. This site contains valuable resources for
educators, parents and policy makers.
- The non-profit National Language Resource Centers of the U.S Department of Education´s Title
VI program have a huge variety of resources available for teachers.
- The role of the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA) is to improve
the nation´s capacity to teach and learn foreign languages effectively.
- The National Capital Language Resource Center is a join project of Georgetown University, The
George Washington University and the Center for Applied Linguistics.
- TESOL: International Association advances professional expertise in English language teaching
to speakers of other languages in multilingual contexts worldwide through professional learning,
research, standards, and advocacy. We serve the community by providing the programs, tools, and
resources needed to advance expertise in English language teaching.

• What student activities might promote lifelong language learning?

The T should design activities that cultivate student´s interest, motivation and enthusiasm for
language learning beyond the classroom.
1. Connect to real life experiences
2. Authentic materials: books, movies, music or websites. This helps students discover
culturally relevant content and develop an interest in the language and its use in real-
world contexts.
 3. Language Exchanges Program: The program with native speakers provides students
with opportunities to practice their language skills in meaningful interactions and
cultural backgrounds.
4. Language Learning Apps and Platforms: encourage students to use language learning
apps or online platforms that provide interactive and interesting exercises, games and
resources for independent language practice and skill development.
5. Cultural events and immersion experiences: organize cultural events, and study abroad
opportunities that immerse students in the target language and culture. These
experiences can deepen their connection to the language and promote lifelong learning.
• What would a “reflective process” look like and what documentation would help
identify professional development needs?

A reflective process involves:

1. Goal setting: teachers set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound
(smart) goals for their professional development and align with their overall teaching
objectives. It may include how to improve student engagement, implement new
instructional approaches or enhance assessment practices.
2. Gathering data: during and after teaching, teachers collect and analyze data related to
student performance and engagement. This may include reviewing student work,
assessment results and classroom observations. They also seek feedback from
students, colleagues or supervisors to gain multiple perspectives on their teaching
practices.
3. Documentation: the documents include lesson plans, student product samples,
observation notes, reflection journals, and student feedback. These documents serve as
evidence of teaching practices and outcomes, to find the strengths and areas for
growth. Also, it can record the data to track teachers´ professional development.
4. Self-reflection: teachers analyze and reflect on what worked well, what could be
improved, and the impact on student learning.
5. Professional development planning: teachers create a plan they will take to improve
future teaching practice. This may involve attending online/offline workshops, and
conferences, collaborating with colleagues, seeking mentorship or engaging in self study
though research and reading.

Major Language Acquisition Approaches

• The Grammar-Translation Approach: The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching
foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Ancient
Greek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those
rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language.
• The Direct Approach: The direct method was developed as an antithesis to grammar-translation
method: here are no grammar exercises, no committing of rules to memory, no lessons on how to write
the plural form of a noun or how to conjugate a verb. That’s why it’s also known as the “anti-grammatical
method.” And while the grammar-translation is taught using the students’ first language, the direct method
uses only the target language. The direct method is also known as “the natural method” because it looks to
the process of first language acquisition to set the context and techniques for second language acquisition.
• The Audio-lingual Method: is a behaviorist theory method of teaching foreign languages that focuses
on repetition and grammar over vocabulary.
It also teaches the language in the foreign language rather than the students’ native one. The audio-lingual
method began during World War II as a way to give troops survival communication tools before sending
them to the front lines.
• The Cognitive Approach: Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills in life
situations. They encourage you as you continue to develop problem-solving skills. Cognitive learning
theory explains how internal and external factors influence an individual’s mental processes to
supplement learning. Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn
how to maximize your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new information with
existing ideas hence deepening your memory and retention capacity.
• The Total Physical Response Approach: is a language teaching method developed by James Asher. It
is based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to
students in the target language with body movements, and students respond with whole-body actions. The
method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Listening and responding
(with actions) serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly recognizing meaning in the language being
learned, and a means of passively learning the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught
explicitly but can be learned from the language input. TPR is a valuable way to learn vocabulary,
especially idiomatic terms, e.g., phrasal verbs.
• The Natural Approach: developed by Krashen. It is a method of second language learning that focuses
on communication skills and language exposure before rules and grammar, similar to how you learn your
first language. The theory is based on the radical notion that we all learn a language in the same way. And
that way can be seen in how we acquire our first languages as children.
• The Silent Way Approach: It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as
possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods. Learning
is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. Learning is facilitated by problem
solving involving the material to be learned.

• The Community Language Learning Approach: Community language learning (CLL) is a language-
teaching approach focused on group-interest learning. It is based on the counselling-approach in which
the teacher acts as a counselor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator. It's
a method that is based on English for communication and is extremely learner-focused.
• The Communicative Approach: is a teaching approach that highlights the importance of real
communication for learning to take place. instead of focusing on the acquisition of grammar and
vocabulary (grammatical/linguistic competence), the Communicative Approach aimed at developing the
learner’s competence to communicate in the target language (communicative competence), with an
enhanced focus on real-life situations. Lessons have communicative aims. Teacher acts as a facilitator in
the learning process. Fluency and accuracy practice
SECTION 1B
Integration of Standards into Curriculum and Instruction

TIPS: analyze the purpose of learning activities

Choose proper activities according to designed standards.

No need to memorize 5C (ACTFL will be provided)

Need to understand 5C and 3 modes of communication (work on the examples in the study
companion and practice test)
Apply de 5C standards, especially the 3 modes of communication in Part 4 Lesson Plan writing.

-Integration of standards in curriculum and instruction

Understanding World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages (formerly Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in the 21st Century) as defined by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages (ACTFL) (Five Cs = communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities)
 -Integrating standards in planning
-Integrating standards in instruction
-Selecting and designing standards materials
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
•What is the primary focus of each standard?
• What activities or assignments would demonstrate each standard?
• What are lesson scenarios that would describe students using various modes of
communication?
• What pedagogical purpose does the use of realia and authentic cultural materials serve?
• What are the three modes of communication?
• How can the three modes of communication be woven throughout a classroom activity?

SECTION 1C
Assessment of Languages and Cultures

-Knowing and using assessment models

-Reflecting on assessment
-Reporting assessment results

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• What types of assessment tools are available and under what classroom circumstances
are they appropriate?

• What is the difference between formal and informal assessment and how does each
relate to formative and summative assessment?
Formal assessment are planned, structured and standardized evaluations conducted under
controlled conditions. They typically have predetermined criteria and scoring rubrics. Examples
include written tests, standardized exams, and performance based assessments. Formal
assessments are often used for summative assessment purposes which aims to evaluate
student learning outcomes at the end of a unit, course or grading period.
Informal assessment: occur throughout the instructionl process to gather ongoing feedback on
student progress, identify areas of strength and weakness, and inform instructional
adjustments. They can be conducted in various ways, such as classroom observations,
questioning, discussions, exercise papers and teacher-student interactions. They provide
immediate feedback and help teachers make instructional decisions. They are primarily used
for formative assessment which focuses on monitoring student learning during instruction to
guide instructional planning and provide timely feedback for improvement.

Both formative and summative assessments are important components of the assessment
process. Formative asssessments help teachers track student progress, provide timely
interventions and support student learning. Summative assessments provide a comprehensive
evaluation of student achievement and are often used for grading and reporting purposes. By
combining both formal and informal assessment methods, teachers can gain holistic
understanding of student learning and tailor the instruction to meet individual needs.
• How can instruction be improved through reflecting on assessment results?
1. Monitoring progress: assessment results serve as benchmarks for monitoring student
progress over time. Teachers can compare current results with previous assessments to
track growth and determine the effectiveness of their instruction.
2. Providing feedback: teachers can offer specific comments on areas of improvement and
provide guidance on how students can enhance their language skills.
3. Identifying strengths and weaknesses of their instruction and the specific needs of their
students.
4. Adjusting instructional strategies/approaches: they can modify their instructional
approaches to address the identified weaknesses and provide additional support in
areas where students are struggling. They can make informed decisions about what
instructional approaches are most successful and make adjustments accordingly.
5. Differentiating instruction: it helps teachers recognize the diverse learning needs of
their students. They can use this information to differentiate instruction providing
individualized support or enrichment activities based on each student´s strengths and
weaknesses.
By reflecting on assessment results, teachers gain valuable insights into student performance
and the impact of their instruction. This reflective process allows them to make data-informed
decisions, personalize instruction and continuously improve their teaching practices to better
meet the needs of the students in the foreign language class.
• What are norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessments and how are they
used?
1. Norm-referenced assessments: compare a student´s performance to a norm group or
reference group´s performance. Rank sts based on their performance, showing how
they compare to others. Focus on relative performance rather than mastery of specific
content or skills.
2. Criterion-referenced assessment: measure a student´s performance against
predetermined criteria or standards. Assess mastery of specific skills or content and
determine whether students have met the established criteria. Focus on individual
performance and determine the level of proficiency or achievement. Include rubrics,
checklists and proficiency scales that specify the criteria for different levels of language
proficiency.

Both types of assessments serve different purposes in the class. Norm-referenced assessments
provide comparative information about student´s performance, while criterion-referenced
assessments focus on individual mastery of specific language skills or content. Teachers use a
combination of these assessments to gain a comprehensive understanding of language
proficiency, set learning goals and monitor progress.
• With what type of assessments are rubrics used?
Rubrics can be used In various types of assessments, such as:
1. Writing assessments: organization, grammar, vocabulary usage, etc.
2. Speaking assessments: pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary usage, grammar accuracy
and ability to convey ideas effectively.
3. Presentation assessments: content, organization, delivery, visual aids and overall
presentation effectiveness.
 4. Project assessments: content knowledge, research skills, creativity, organization and
presentation quality.

By using rubrics, teachers provide students with clear expectations and criteria for success.
Rubrics help standardize the assessment process, provide feedback that is specific and
actionable, and ensure consistent and fais evaluation across different student´s work.

• What kind of assessment task will demonstrate a targeted level in the Performance
Indicators (Can-Do Statements)?
The Can-Do Statements reflect the continuum of growth in communication skills through the Novice,
Intermediate, Advanced, Superior, and Distinguished levels.
Rubrics to provide feedback on performance and proficiency assessment tasks.
TARGETED LEVEL = NOVICE HIGH
Identify cultural products and practices in my own and other cultures to help me understand perspectives
using words, phrases, or simple sentences with graphic or visual support. Present personal information
about my life and activities, using simple sentences most of the time. Express preferences on familiar and
everyday topics of interest, using simple sentences most of the time. Request and provide information by
asking and answering practiced and some original questions on familiar and everyday topics, using simple
sentences most of the time. Interact with others to meet basic personal needs related to routine everyday
activities, using simple sentences and questions most of the time. Identify the topic and some isolated
facts from simple sentences in short informational and literary texts. Understand familiar questions and
statements from simple sentences in short conversations.

Instructional Practice: Integrated Skills

SECTION 2D LESSON PLAN: CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE

SECTION 2E TOPIC ESSAY: CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE

Discussion Questions: Part D

• What is the purpose of lesson planning?
Lesson planning is how teachers synthesize the curriculum goals with pedagogy and knowledge of their
specific teaching context. As a teacher, creating a lesson plan is an essential part of your job. It helps you
to be organized and focused while teaching, ensures that your students are learning the right things, and
makes it easier for you to evaluate their progress.
*They help setting clear objectives.
* They provide structure to the class period.
*Ensure a cohesive content flow
*Serve as a guide for teachers during instruction
*Improve teacher confidence in delivering content
*Contribute to effective time management
*Aid in the organization of teaching materials.
*Facilitate meeting diverse learning needs.
*Assist in assessing student learning.
*Underline the importance of student engagement
*Track curriculum coverage
*Offer a framework for reflection and improvement.
*Document teaching practices

Effective lesson planning contributes to successful learning outcomes for students in several ways. A
well-designed lesson plan:
*Helps students and teachers understand the goals of an instructional module
*Allows the teacher to translate the curriculum into learning activities
*Aligns the instructional materials with the assessment
*Aligns the assessment with the learning goal
*Helps assure that the needed instructional materials are available
*Enables the teacher to thoughtfully address individual learning needs among students

• What are some common lesson plan formats?

A comprehensive lesson plan typically includes clear learning objectives, a list of materials needed, an
engaging introduction, interactive activities, assessment strategies, and a meaningful closure.
When creating a lesson plan, it's important to consider which format will work best for your objectives.
Amongst some of the more popular options is the:
Traditional format.
One can also opt for Backward design
Project-based learning where students have a real-world application for their learning.
Flipped classrooms aim to build student autonomy
Differentiated instruction focuses on meeting all students’ needs regardless of their starting point.

• How does the sequence of a lesson plan affect reaching the stated educational
objective?
Properly sequencing lessons can help maximize student engagement and achievement by providing
students with a sense of structure and coherence, improving their ability to understand and retain the
material being taught.

• What activities, materials, and instruction are essential to reaching the stated objective
and are appropriate for the students?
Lesson Objective: The lesson objective states what students will know or be able to do at the end of the
lesson. The strategies, materials, assignments, and assessments used in a lesson are determined by, and
must align with, the lesson objective. Therefore, lesson planning begins with the end in mind.
Learning activities should be challenging, yet offer students a realistic chance to master the objective.
Relevant, understandable.

Discussion Questions: Part E

• What are the types of essays and how are they different?
Four main types of writing:
Persuasive
Descriptive
Narrative
Expository
These aren’t four specific types of essays, but four distinct methods of communicating an essay’s theme.
1. Expository essay: also known as a definition essay, is the most basic type of essay. Expository essays
aim only to explain an idea or define a concept, without making an argument. In general, expository
essays are shorter pieces that answer a question (for example, “How is paper made?”) as directly as
possible.
2. Analytical essay: similar to an expository essay in that it describes a concept, but the analytical essay
takes the topic one step further by presenting the advantages and disadvantages of the subject to provide
an objective analysis. For instance, an expository essay would describe how the president is elected, while
an analytical essay would describe how the president is elected and dive into the possible benefits and
pitfalls of the electoral process.
3. Persuasive essay: also known as an argumentative essay, is a type of essay that takes a stance on an
issue. In a good argumentative essay, a writer attempts to persuade readers to understand and support their
specific point of view about a topic by stating their reasoning and providing evidence to back it up. A
persuasive essay usually includes an introduction, a thesis statement, body paragraphs that feature a
counterargument and data to back up your central thesis, and a conclusion.
4. Narrative essay: also called a personal essay or reflective essay, combines personal storytelling with an
academic argument. This essay type allows the writer to make an argument or impart a lesson through
personal experience. Narrative essays are always nonfiction and are usually autobiographical, often
written from the first-person point of view. They are written with a more creative style versus the strictly
objective, fact-based language of academic writing or journalism. Narrative essays can be organized in
any way the writers chooses to illustrate its main point. Many personal statements, college application
essays, and scholarship essays can also be classified as narrative essays.
5. Descriptive essay: aims to describe a certain event or object with vivid sensory details (sight, smell,
taste, touch, and sound). Similar to a narrative essay, a descriptive essay is often written in a more creative
style—but unlike a narrative essay, a descriptive essay usually doesn’t tell a full story or try to make an
argument. Many writers choose to write descriptive essays as a writing exercise before they start writing a
narrative essay.
6. Compare and contrast essay: it places two things side-by-side and points out the similarities and
differences between them, usually to illustrate a larger point. In general, compare and contrast essays have
body paragraphs that are organized in two main sections: a comparison section, and a contrast section.
7. Cause and effect essay: Similar to a compare and contrast essay, a cause and effect essay aims to show
the relationship between things—in particular, how something was influenced by something else (e.g.,
how an unfair law caused a riot). Cause and effect essays are often organized chronologically, first
explaining the cause and then showing its effect.
8. Critical analysis essay: A critical analysis (also called a critical essay) is a literature-based essay, in
which the writer breaks down a short piece of literature (often as small as a single sentence) in order to
make an argument about what the author is trying to say. Similar to persuasive essays, critical essays
usually follow a traditional argument format—introduction, thesis, body, and conclusion—that uses
textual evidence and other critics’ writing to back up its ideas.
• What are the parts of an essay and how are they connected to create a coherent whole?
While coherence is related to the macro-level features of a text, cohesion is concerned with its micro-level
– the words, the phrases, and the sentences and how they are connected to form a whole. If the elements
of a text are cohesive, they are united and work together or fit well together.
The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

• When might a teacher need to use an essay format to advocate for a language
program?

• What are some educational issues where a written response would be effective?

Examples of Skills Demonstrated at the Novice Level

Novice speakers can communicate about topics directly affecting them through isolated words they have
memorized or encountered frequently. Speakers at the Novice level generally provide short responses.

Listeners at the Novice level can understand formulaic expressions and contextualized keywords like
introductions. Novice-level listeners typically require repetition or a slowed speech rate for comprehension and
are most accurate when they can anticipate topics.

Readers at the Novice level can understand a limited amount of information in predictable texts where the
topic or context is familiar, like a credit card receipt. Readers at the Novice level rely on their background
knowledge and can recognize keywords.

Writers at the Novice level can copy or recall basic words or phrases. At the Novice level, writers can express
simple biographical information and may be able to produce a limited number of words or phrases from
memory.
Examples of Skills Demonstrated at the Intermediate Level
Speakers at the Intermediate level can discuss familiar topics directly related to their daily lives. At
Intermediate, speakers can recombine what they have learned to express ideas and ask simple questions to
succeed in survival situations.

At the Intermediate level, listeners can understand simple sentence-length speech on daily topics. Generally,
listeners at the Intermediate level can comprehend one utterance at a time while engaging in conversation or
listening tasks like receiving directions.

Readers at an Intermediate proficiency level can understand information through context clues in predictable
texts. Most readers at this level can comprehend texts that convey basic information and messages in everyday
contexts.

Writers at an Intermediate proficiency level can meet functional writing needs, such as simple messages and
letters, and respond to basic questions in written form. At the Intermediate level, writers can also use language
to communicate facts and ideas through loosely connected sentences in the present tense.

Examples of Skills Demonstrated at the Advanced Level

For a speaker to be at an Advanced proficiency level, they must actively participate in conversations to
communicate information about themselves and topics of interest on a community or international scale.
Speakers at the Advanced level can deal with unexpected complications in social situations and narrate and
describe past, present, and future events.

Listeners at the Advanced level can understand the main ideas in conversation about general topics and
compensate for limitations in their lexical or structural control through real-world knowledge and context
clues. Listeners at the Advanced level can understand a range of general interest topics.

Readers that meet the Advanced-level proficiency guidelines can understand the main ideas in a text and use
context clues to compensate for any limitations. At the Advanced level, readers can understand texts with a
clear and predictable structure and show independence in reading new subject matter.

Writers at the Advanced level can write formal and informal correspondence in past, present, and future time
frames. At the Advanced level, writers can also produce a paragraph of connected discourse and showcase
control of frequently used writing structures.

Examples of Skills Demonstrated at the Superior Level

Speakers at the Superior proficiency level can accurately and fluently communicate to participate in
conversations on various topics. At the Superior level, speakers can present their opinions, use extended
discourse without unnaturally long hesitations and provide structured arguments.

Listeners at the Superior proficiency level can understand familiar and unfamiliar topics. Listeners at the
Superior level can follow extended discourse and have a greater command over a language due to a broad
vocabulary and understanding of complex structures within a specific culture.
At the Superior level, readers must be able to understand texts from many genres and draw inferences from
complex structures and target cultures. At Superior, readers can understand texts with specialized vocabulary
and elements such as hypotheses and abstract linguistic formulations.

Writers at the Superior proficiency level can produce formal and informal correspondence that deals with
concrete and abstract topics. At the Superior level, writers can organize and prioritize ideas and showcase a
high degree of control with a precise and varied vocabulary.

THEORISTS
Piaget: children think and reason differently at different stages (differentiated instruction). His theory of
cognitive development, which explains how children progress through four stages of intellectual growth
from birth to adulthood. each representing varying cognitive abilities and world comprehension: the
sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage
(7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond). A child’s cognitive development
is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world,
which is referred to as a schema.
Maslow: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. The five levels of the
hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower-level basic
needs like food, water, and safety must be met first before higher needs can be fulfilled. Few people are
believed to reach the level of self-actualization, but we can all have moments of peak experiences. The
order of the levels is not completely fixed. For some, esteem outweighs love, while others may self-
actualize despite poverty. Our behaviors are usually motivated by multiple needs simultaneously.
Applications include workplace motivation, education, counseling, and nursing - //safe environment
physically and emotionally//

Chomsky: Noam Chomsky introduced the nativist theory of language development, emphasizing the role
of innate structures and mechanisms in the human brain. Key points of Chomsky’s theory include:
*Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky proposed that humans have an inborn biological
capacity for language, often termed the LAD, which predisposes them to acquire language.
*Universal Grammar: He suggested that all human languages share a deep structure rooted in a set of
grammatical rules and categories. This “universal grammar” is understood intuitively by all humans.
*Poverty of the Stimulus: Chomsky argued that the linguistic input received by young children is often
insufficient for them to learn the complexities of their native language solely through imitation or
reinforcement. Yet, children rapidly and consistently master their native language, pointing to inherent
cognitive structures.
*Critical Period: Chomsky, along with other linguists, posited a critical period for language acquisition,
during which the brain is particularly receptive to linguistic input, making language learning more
efficient.
Critics of Chomsky’s theory argue that it’s too innatist and doesn’t give enough weight to social
interaction and other factors in language acquisition.
Skinner: Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is
influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and
behavior that is punished will occur less frequently. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect
– Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not
reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Schumann: Acculturation model (motivation and attitude are important factors). Some learners make
rapid progress in learning a second language, while others with the same initial ability and language
instruction make little progress in the same amount of time. Schumann hypothesized that this difference
could be accounted for by characteristics of the social and psychological distance learners placed between
themselves and the language they were learning. Schumann identified eight characteristics of social
distance and four characteristics of psychological distance.
Hymes: speaking model, using language in real-world. Hymes’ view of communicative competence
provides a model for analyzing a communicative event in its socio-cultural context. His model indicates
the various parameters that govern communication in terms of what to say, when, to whom, and how to
say it, and with what intention.
This approach focused on language functions in a few specific domains of language use such as shopping,
travel, house and home, food, and drink. Language teaching for communicative competence reduced
Hymes’ notion of communication to a limited and fixed set of situational topics, through which the
learner would encounter and practice communicative acts such as giving a warning, inviting someone or
asking for help, within set domains using set phrases.
Bloom: Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used for classification of educational
learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives
in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of
most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments
and activities.
Vygotsky:

- Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

- Sociocultural theorist (SLA is a social process)
- Scaffolding (assistance: visual aids, repetition, subtitles, speed)

Krashen: Monitor Theory

Input hypothesis: comprehensible input is the most important element of SLA.
Affective filter hypothesis: SLA takes place in a low stress environment (connected to Maslow´s
hierarchy of needs)
Gardner: Multiple intelligences theory.
Linguistic Intelligence (word smart) – Communicative approach
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (number/reasoning smart) - Direct approach
Spatial Intelligence (picture smart) – Cognitive approach
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (body smart) - TPR
Musical Intelligence (music smart) – Natural approach
Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart) - Sociocultural
Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-smart) – Grammar-translation
Naturalist intelligence (nature smart) – Bloom´s taxonomy e.g. makes them create sth related to
nature
SAMPLE QUESTIONS