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Keywords: Littering is a problem in many human societies. In this study, 9 individual street bins were manipulated on a
Pro-environmental behavior central street in the city of Gävle, Sweden. The aim was to explore if changing the appearance of the bins, thereby
Littering manipulating the different types of social norms they signal, can increase the amount of trash they collect and
Saliency
mitigate littering. A field experiment tested the effectiveness of two alternatives to the conventional grey street
Norms
bin; one bin foliated with pictures drawn by school children containing a normative anti-littering message
Design
Physical environment (explicit norm), and one bright orange salient bin (implicit norm). Observed behavioral data was collected, and
both the weight and volume of trash in the bins were measured each day for a period of one month. The results
showed a tendency for the salient orange bin to increase trash collection compared to other bins; an effect most
tangible towards the end of the weeks. The biggest effect was, however, that the explicitly normative bin reduced
trash collection overall. These results provide lessons on how the appearance of bins can influence trash
collection, potentially resulting in both desirable and undesirable outcomes.
* Corresponding author at: Global Economic Dynamics and the Biosphere, The Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Lilla Frescativägen 4A, SE-104 05 Stockholm,
Sweden.
E-mail address: noah.linder@kva.se (N. Linder).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcradv.2023.200186
2. Theoretical background social norms in support of electric vehicles amongst the neighbors
(White et al., 2022). Another example is the biking revolution that
2.1. Social norms occurred in Copenhagen over the last decades; this shift in behavior,
from a car-centric culture to one embracing cycling, is mainly attributed
A promising way to motivate behaviors, or behavior change, is to to physical changes in the urban landscape (Kaaronen and Strelkovskii,
make people aware of a social norm in a situation that aligns with the 2020b). These modifications involve the allocation of greater road space
desired behavior (Nyborg et al., 2016). Social norms can be seen as the for dedicated bike lanes, increased safety measures for bikers, and the
predominant behavioral pattern within a group, supported by a shared use of colored roads to demarcate bike lanes: all changes that collec
understanding of acceptable actions (Nyborg et al., 2016). Social norms tively contribute to creating an environment that is signaling an implicit
are often built on the foundation of shared values which can be regarded pro-cycling social norm.
as general guiding principles for actions and attitudes (Axelrod, 1986).
These values also assist in evaluations and judgments, signaling what is 2.3. Aims and hypotheses
important, or what is deemed good and bad for individuals and collec
tives (Rokeach, 1968). Social norms can be an important motivator for The overarching aim of the current study was to test if it is possible to
behavior, and have been highlighted as an especially promising make trash bins collect more trash by manipulating their physical
approach to help address sustainability challenges in their capacity to appearance. An additional aim of the study was to contribute to the
instigate pro-environmental behavioral change (Bergquist et al., 2019; understanding of how social norms influence decisions, by exploring
Chapin et al., 2022; Farrow et al., 2017; Nyborg et al., 2016). For how trash bins designed to signal different social norms (explicit or
example, normative messages can be persuasive and have been exten implicit norms) influence waste behaviors. At the time of data collec
sively used to promote different sustainable behaviors in different do tion, the conventional street bins at the city center of Gävle (where the
mains, such as energy, water savings, and recycling (Allcott, 2011; data collection was conducted) were grey and arguably made to blend in
Ferraro et al., 2011; Linder et al., 2018; Miranda et al., 2020). Note with the surrounding environment (Fig. 1, panel A). And the research
however, that the focus theory of normative conduct (Cialdini et al., area had an average litter rate of about 0.75 misplaced trash (excluding
1990) suggests that human behavior is both systematically and signifi cigarettes and chewing gum) per 10 m2s, according to a report from the
cantly affected by norms — but only when these norms are made salient previous year (Håll Sverige Rent, 2016). Based on the theory presented
to the individual. above, two alternative types of bins to the conventional street bins were
designed. One type of bin, henceforth called the explicitly normative
2.2. Explicit and implicit norms bin, was covered in drawings that stated an explicit pro-environmental
norm (Fig. 1, panel B). Another type of bin, henceforth called the
Social norms can be utilized to foster sustainable behavior, but it implicitly normative bin, was foliated with a bright orange color (Fig. 1,
matters in which way they are communicated. For example, a recent panel C). To explore the effectiveness of these bin manipulations, a field
meta-analysis showed that social norms tend to have a greater impact on experiment (Harrison and List, 2004), was conducted, in the city center
behavior when they are implicitly emphasized through cues in the of Gävle, Sweden.
environment, in comparison with when norms are stated explicitly, e.g., Grounded in the insights gleaned from previous literature presented
through communication messages (Bergquist et al., 2019). The authors above, the study seeks to test the following hypotheses:
argue that this effect likely arises because norms conveyed by the
environment often lead to automatic behavioral responses, that occur H1: The physical appearance of street bins affects the amount of trash
with minimal conscious deliberation (Bergquist et al., 2019). Conse they collect.
quently, these implicit norms are less prone to evoke anti-conformity H2: Both the implicitly normative bins and the explicitly normative
responses, such as psychological reactance, i.e., the resistance or defi bins will collect more trash than the conventional control bin.
ance that can occur when an individual perceives that their freedom or
choices are being threatened (Brehm, 1966). Such results highlight the 3. Method
potential of changing behavior through the manipulation of the physical
environment so that it conveys implicitly stated norms. One way of 3.1. Design and procedure
creating such normative environments could be by making the desired
behavior more salient so that it is clear what behavior is expect The design of the explicitly normative bin was done in collaboration
ed/promoted in a certain situation. If successful, those environments with a local school. Children painted pictures with an anti-littering
would signal the implicit norm that most people behave accordingly. message “e.g., do like me, it is important to put your trash in the bin”
Furthermore, salient objects in the environment might increase the signed by the kids’ name and the name of the school (see example in
chance of choosing one option over another because it is better at Fig. 1, panel B). Different versions of the kids’ drawings and messages
grabbing people’s attention (Milosavljevic et al., 2012). Saliency is a were used under the same theme. The idea was to create a trash bin that
property by which an object, person, or event stands out from the sur explicitly stated the local social norm of caring for the environment and
rounding context and can be a result of the physical intensity and the importance of reducing litter, as well as activating a pro-
characteristics of the object (e.g., color; Itti and Koch, 2001) but also a environmental norm.
result of emotional or cognitive associations made by the individual who The bin with an implicit normative appeal was foliated to be bright
perceives the object (Wood and Cowan, 1995). The tendency for a sa orange, aiming to make it more salient and stand out from the sur
liency bias in choices (i.e., the tendency to select the more salient op rounding context. The intent was to draw attention to the bin, clearly
tions) has been utilized in many areas to influence decisions (e.g., indicating the desired behavior within the current context without
(Castelo et al., 2015; Chetty et al., 2009), wherein perhaps the most relying on explicit normative text, symbols, or signs. See Fig. 2 for the
prominent is within marketing design (Milosavljevic et al., 2012). differences in saliency between the orange bins and the conventional
Hence, one idea of conveying implicit norms is by making the desired bins (panel A compared to panel B).
behavior more salient in the decision situation. There is some research in
support of this suggestion; for example, it has been shown that installing 3.2. Manipulation check
charging stations for electric vehicles at greater density in a neighbor
hood increases intentions to buy electric cars amongst residents in the To test if the manipulation of the implicitly normative bins was
area, and that this association is mainly due to a perceived increase in successful, a post-hoc manipulation check was conducted using a
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N. Linder et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 19 (2023) 200186
Fig. 1. The three different manipulations of street bins: a conventional control bin (A), the explicit normative bin (B), and the implicit normative bin (C).
Fig. 2. The pictures show the same bin area with two different manipulations of the bins: the implicitly normative bin (panel A) and the conventional control bin
(Panel B).
modified version of the implicit association test (Greenwald et al., A paired samples t-test was conducted to further explore the differ
1998). A convenient sample of 31 non-informed colleagues observed a ence in reaction time between conditions. When the reaction time for the
series of 5 different pictures on a computer, with and without trash bins. control bin (M = 1.49 s, SD = 1.03) and for the orange bin (M = 1.16 s,
The first picture was a generic picture of central park, with a path and no SD = 0.78) were compared, the mean difference was 328.1 ms (SD =
bin (this picture was always shown first and acted as a warmup trial that 745.3). This difference was statistically significant, t(30) = 2.45, p =
was later discarded from the analysis), the following pictures were a .020, 95 % CI [54.75, 601.51]. That is, the participants were signifi
series of photoshopped versions of the same picture of the street, con cantly faster to identify a trash bin in the street when the trash bin
taining the different versions of the bins. And one last picture showing wasorange compared to the conventional color. There was no significant
the street without any bins (See Fig. 3). The order of the pictures was differences between the other pairs. Categorization accuracy was also
alternated between participants. In response to each picture, partici analyzed. The participants had no problem correctly identifying
pants were asked to identify if there were any trash bins in the picture, as whether there was a bin in the street or not. Only 6 times (out of a total
fast and as accurately as possible. The reaction time was compared of 93 times a participant saw one of the 3 versions of the bins) did
across the different versions of the bins. participants mistakenly say that there were “no trash bins in the picture”
The results showed that participants were fastest at identifying the when the picture in fact contained a bin. Three times when the picture
orange implicitly normative bin, followed by the explicitly normative included a control bin, one time for the explicit bin, and two times for
bin, and slowest to identify the conventional control bins (See Fig. 4). the implicit bin. These results suggest that people have no problem
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N. Linder et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 19 (2023) 200186
4. Results
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N. Linder et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 19 (2023) 200186
Fig. 5. The figure shows the mean amount of trash, measured in kilograms (Panel A) and in volume/percentage filled (Panel B), that was thrown in the conventional
grey trash bins across the seven days of the week before the experimental period in the different bin areas on the street.
Fig. 6. The figure shows the mean amount of trash, measured in kilograms (Panel A) and in volume/percentage filled (Panel B), that was thrown in various trash bins
across the seven days of the week. During the experimental period of three weeks, a third of the trash bins were implicitly normative (orange), a third were control
(grey/regular) and a third were explicitly normative (white with normative drawings pasted on them), with positions counterbalanced across the three measure
ment weeks.
0.028, 95 % CI [0.09–1.20], and were more filled (Mdiff = 18.37, SE = without an “environmental identity” might experience an adverse re
5.32), t(8) = 3.25, p = 0.012, 95 % CI [5.32–31.42], than the explicitly action to the explicitly normative message on the bin, something a more
normative bins. There were, in turn, no differences between the neutral bin, such as the control and the implicitly normative (salient)
implicitly normative bins and the control bins, either for weight (Mdiff = bin, would avoid. On the other hand, it is also possible that some pe
0.48, SE = 0.41), t(8) = 1.17, p = 0.27, 95 % CI [-1.41-0.45], or for destrians appreciated the bins and didn’t want to “soil them” with their
volume (Mdiff = 0.33, SE = 9.25), t(8) = 0.04, p = 0.972, 95 % CI litter. Lastly, it is possible that the appearance of the explicitly norma
[-21.66-20.66]. While the mean difference was in the expected direc tive bins was changed too much, so that pedestrians no longer under
tion, the difference could not reach statistical significance, probably due stood the trash bins were, in fact, trash bins, but perhaps instead
to low statistical power. Thus, we conclude that Hypothesis 2 is not associated them with an advertising campaign or something along that
supported by the data. While part of the evidence, and in particular the line. However, the results from the manipulation check reported in the
descriptive statistics, points toward the conclusion that the implicitly methods section of the paper contradict this last potential explanation,
normative trash bin collects more trash than the control trash bin, this since the manipulation check indicated that participants seem to have
was not the case for the explicitly normative trash bin. no problem identifying the explicitly normative bins as trash bins. The
implicitly normative bins, on the other hand, showed some trends of
5. Discussion increasing trash collection and were significantly more effective than
the explicitly normative bins at doing so. In view of the results from the
What is clear from these results is that the appearance of the bin manipulation check, one possible explanation of this effect is that the
significantly influenced how well it encouraged bin use, supporting orange (implicitly normative) bins attract attention. These results give
Hypothesis 1. The biggest effect seen, however, was that the explicitly support to studies on how saliency influences action (e.g., Itti and Koch,
normative bins foliated with kids’ drawings and an environmental 2001; Milosavljevic et al., 2012) and indicate that saliency can be uti
message reduced trash collection overall. This unexpected outcome lized in attempts to promote pro-environmental behavior. The orange
disconfirms Hypothesis 2 and highlights the need for testing in bins were best at capturing the pedestrians’ attention and perhaps also
terventions, in field settings, before large-scale implementation (Linder, at reminding people to disperse their trash.
2022; McKenzie-Mohr, 2013; Steg and Vlek, 2009). Without proper More research is needed to untangle the mechanisms underpinning
prior testing, well-intended interventions may end up worsening a sit the poor performance of the explicitly normative bin and the potential
uation instead of solving the problem they sought to solve. success of the implicitly normative orange bin, to adjudicate these po
One possible explanation for why the bins using an explicit norma tential explanations. From the current study, it is impossible to draw
tive appeal reduced rather than increased bin use is because they strong conclusions about the use of the two different norms. The results
invoked a reactance effect toward the normative messages. Some people do, however, give some promising indications that signaling implicit
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N. Linder et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 19 (2023) 200186
social norms through changes in the physical landscape could be a tool inclusion of more bins, would paint a different picture, and differences
that can be both effective and help avoid potential reactance effects. We between bins would be more noticeable. The fact that the largest dif
encourage more research exploring similar interventions. ferences between bins were found at times of high bin usage points in
The differences between bins were greatest at the end of the week. this direction. Furthermore, there is a multitude of potential con
This most likely reflects the fact that more people moved around in the founding variables that could have influenced the different areas on the
town center during the weekends. This also aligns with the baseline street disproportionately. These limitations are common in field- and
measure, demonstrating a similar trend of more bin use towards the quasi-experimental designs (Campbell and Stanley, 2015), and are hard
weekend. It could be the case that differences between bins—in terms of to avoid. However, since the conditions were counterbalanced, the effect
their capacity to attract bin use — are only noticeable during periods of of uncontrolled variables should be limited.
high usage. The reason the bins did not differ substantially during the
weekdays could hence partly stem from a floor effect, as some bins
5.4. Conclusions
collected very little trash during the weekdays. Of course, there is also a
possibility that different days of the week are associated with a different
The results reported in this study highlight how seemingly small
type of behavior. For example, trash collection during the weekend
changes in the urban environment can have disproportional effects on
could be influenced by more food consumption or increased rates of
citizens’ behaviors. Considering both the surprising backlash effect from
intoxicated people moving around within the city center.
the explicitly normative bin, and the promising effect of the implicitly
normative bin, this study provides some valuable lessons on what not to
5.1. Practical implications
do and creates concrete suggestions for how to improve the design of
urban trash bins with the goal of mitigating littering.
The result of this study mainly underscores the significance of con
ducting field testing before implementing interventions on a large scale.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
It showcases how even well-intentioned interventions can inadvertently
worsen a situation if not rigorously evaluated in real-world settings. The
Noah Linder: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Vali
study makes it clear that waste managers and city planners should pay
close attention to the external design of trash bins if their goal is to dation, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Writing – review &
editing. Patrik Sörqvist: Formal analysis, Software, Writing – original
maximize bin effectiveness, and especially consider designs that make
street bins stand out from the surrounding context rather than blending draft, Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Resources. Therese
in — contrary to the standard praxis of today. The study also indicates Lindahl: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Concep
that street bins with designs containing explicitly normative messages tualization. Robert Ljung: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft,
should perhaps be avoided, or their effects should at least be extensively Methodology, Supervision.
tested before large-scale implementation, as they might be more prone
to backfire. More research exploring when and why explicitly stated Declaration of Competing Interest
norms work (and don’t work) to manage waste behavior is advised.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
5.2. Theoretical implications interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
The study contributes to the understanding of social norm theory by
showcasing the differential impact of explicit and implicit normative Data availability
appeals in influencing behavior. It supports previous research suggest
ing that implicit social norms prompted by the environment can be more Data will be made available on request.
effective than explicit messages in certain situations (Bergquist et al.,
2019). When the bins were orange, this circumstance might have
created an urban environment that more clearly conveyed behavioral Acknowledgments
expectancies, which could influence behavior through implicit social
norms without risking an adverse reaction towards the We would like to acknowledge “Gästrike återvinnare" (the municipal
pro-environmental message (as well as better prompting bin use). body responsible for collection, treatment, planning, and information
Furthermore, these findings indicate that reactance theory may play a regarding household waste in Gävle) for making this study possible,
role in how individuals respond to explicit normative appeals. For taking this project on board and providing us with the tools we needed to
example, it is possible that normative environmental messages on bins realize this study. Linder’s work is enabled by the University of Gävle
could trigger a reactance effect among individuals who do not strongly and with support from FAIRTRANS, a program that aims to promote a
identify with environmental concerns, which would underscore the need fair transformation to a fossil-free future, which is financed by FORMAS
to consider individual differences and potential reactance effects when and MISTRA.
designing interventions. More research is needed to confirm this po
tential explanation of the backlash effect. Finally, the study aligns with References
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