INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

PHYSICAL MODELLING OF
RIVERS & HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Prof. Z. Ahmad, Civil Eng. Dept.

 Definition

• A physical model is a scale representation of a hydraulic

flow situation.

• Both the boundary conditions, i.e. channel bed and side

walls, the upstream flow conditions and the flow field
must be scaled in an approximate manner.

• In civil engineering applications, a physical hydraulic

model is usually a smaller size representation of
prototype.
 Basic Principles
• In a physical model, the flow conditions are said to be
similar to those in prototype if the model displays
similarity of form (geometric similarity), similarity of
motion (kinematic similarity) and similarity of forces
(dynamic similarity).

Basic-scale ratios

• Geometric similarity: It implies that the ratios of

model characteristic lengths to prototype lengths are
equal. Numerically
lm d m H m
Lr = = =
lp d p H p
 Basic-scale ratios (contd...)

• Kinematic similarity: It implies that the ratios of

model characteristic velocities to the prototype
velocities are the same. Numerically
Vm (V1 ) m (V2 ) m
Vr = = =
V p (V1 ) p (V2 ) p

• Dynamic similarity: It implies that the ratios of

model forces to prototype forces are equal.
Numerically
( F1 ) m ( F2 ) m
Fr = =
( F1 ) p ( F2 ) p
 Dimensional Analysis

Basic parameters
a) Fluid properties and physical constants
b) Channel (or flow) geometry
c) Flow properties

Buckingham π theorem
• Any physically meaningful relation ϕ(R1, . . . , Rn) =
0, with Rj ≠ 0, is equivalent to a relation of the form
ψ(π1, . . . , πn−r ) = 0 involving a maximal set of
independent dimensionless combinations.
 Dimensional Analysis
• Taking into account all the basic parameters,
dimensional analysis yields:

f1(ρ,µ,σ,Eb, g, L,V,∆P) = 0

Applying Buckingham π-theorem, the above quantities

can be grouped into five (5=8-3) independent
dimensionless parameters.
 
 2 
 V P ρVL ρV L V 
f2 ; ; ; ; 0
 gL ρV 2
μ σ Eb 
 
 ρ 
f3( Fr; Eu; Re; We; Ma ) = 0
• Froude number: is defined as the ratio of a
characteristic velocity to a gravity wave velocity.
V
Fr 
gD
• Reynolds number: is defined as the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently
quantifies the relative importance of these two
types of forces for given flow conditions.
VD
Re 

• Euler number: expresses the relationship
between a local pressure drop and is used to
characterize losses in the flow, where a perfect
frictionless flow corresponds to an Euler number of
1.
P
Eu 
V 2
• Weber number: is a dimensionless number that is
often useful in analyzing fluid flows where there is
an interface between two different fluids, especially
for multiphase flows with strongly curved surfaces.
V 2 L
We 

• Mach number: is a dimensionless quantity
representing the ratio of speed of an object moving
through a fluid and the local speed of sound.
Vobject
Ma 
Vsound
 Scale Effects
• Defined as the distortions induced by effects (i.e.
viscosity and surface tension) other that the dominant
one (i.e. gravity in free surface flows).
• They are often small but not always negligible.
• If scale effect would become significant in a model, a
large scale ratio Lr, should be considered to minimize
the scale effects.
• For example, in a 1:100 scale model of an open
channel, the gravity effect is predominant but viscous
effects might be significant.
• A geometric scale ratio of 1:50 or 1:25 may be
considered to reduce or eliminate viscous scale
effects.
 Scale Ratios for Models Governed by Reynolds
Law and Froude Law

Quantity Reynolds Law Froude Law

Velocity 1/ Lr Lr1/2

Acceleration 1/ Lr 3 1

Time Lr 2 Lr1/2

Discharge Lr Lr 5/2

Force 1 Lr 3

Pressure 1/ Lr 2 Lr
Intensity
 Distorted Models
• A physical model in which geometric scale is different between each
main direction.
• For example, river models are usually designed with a larger scaling
ratio in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction: Xr>Zr
• Flow pattern does not get affected seriously due to distortion and
gives good results.
• A distorted model of rivers is designed with a Froude similitude,
where the Froude number scaling ratio is related to the vertical-scale
ratio:

Vr
Frr 
Zr
Modelling of Hydraulic Structures

• In hydraulic structure studies, the gravity effect is

usually predominant in prototype.
• The flow is turbulent, and hence viscous and surface
tension effects are negligible in prototype if the flow
velocity is reasonably small. In such cases, a Froude
similitude must be selected.
• In these scenario, the most economical strategy is:
a) to choose a geometric scale ratio Lr such as to
keep the model dimensions small,
b) to ensure that the model Reynolds number (Rem)
is large enough to make the flow turbulent at the
smallest test flows.
Modelling of Rivers and Flood Plains
• In river modelling, gravity effects and viscous effects
are basically of the same order of magnitude.
• For example, in uniform equilibrium flows (i.e.
normal flows), the gravity force component
counter-balances exactly the flow resistance and
the flow conditions are deduced from the
continuity and momentum equations.
• In practice, river models are scaled with a Froude
similitude and viscous scale must be minimized.
• The model flows must be turbulent, and possibly
fully rough turbulent with the same relative
roughness as for the prototype.

Rem > 5000 ; (ks)r = Lr

 Movable-bed Models
• They are some of the most difficult types of
models and often give unsatisfactory results.
• The primary difficulty is to scale both the
sediment movement and the fluid motion.
• The bed roughness becomes a function of bed
geometry and of the sediment transport.
• The most important point is the need to verify
and to calibrate a movable-bed model for
using it as a prediction tool.
 Resistance Scaling
• Two aspects:
i. Scaling of Geometric dissimilarity
ii. Scaling of Roughness coefficient

Scaling of Geometric dissimilarity

• Sometimes the model does not reproduce the flow
pattern in the prototype because the model is too
‘smooth’ or too ‘rough’ due to geometric
dissimilarity of roughness height and spacing.
• In order to make the model flow as turbulent as
prototype flow, it is required to use roughness
elements to enhance the model flow turbulence,
hence to simulate more satisfactorily the prototype
flow pattern.
 Resistance Scaling (contd…)
Scaling of Roughness coefficient
• For an undistorted model, a Froude similitude
implies that the model flow resistance will be
similar to that in prototype.
fr = 1
• Most prototype flows are fully turbulent and the
Darcy friction factor is primarily a function of the
relative roughness.
• A physical model has proportionally more
resistance than the prototype. If the resistance
losses are small (e.g. at a weir crest), the resistance-
scale are not considered. In the cases of river and
harbour modelling, resistance is significant.
 Design of Physical Models
• The selection procedure for choosing a proper geometric
scale is an iterative process:
1. Select the largest geometric scale ratio Lr to fit within the
constraints of the laboratory.
2. For Lr, and for the similitude criterion (e.g. Froude or
Reynolds), check if the discharge can be scaled properly
in model, based upon the maximum model discharge
(Qm)max.
3. Check if the flow resistance scaling is achievable in the
model.
4. Check the model Reynolds number Rem for the smallest
test flow rate.
5. Choose the convenient scale.
When a simple physical model is not feasible, more
advanced modelling techniques [e.g. 2D model (e.g. spillway
flow) and a distorted-scale model (e.g. river flow)].
 PUMP SUMP MODELING
• Flow in the pump sump is mainly governed
by gravitational and inertial forces.
• Hence necessary to preserve the ratio of
these forces both in model and prototype by
adopting Froude similarity law.
• To minimize scale effects, the model scale
shall be chosen so that the model bell
entrance Reynolds number and Weber
Number are above 6x105 & 240. respectively.
Physical Model Study of Raw Water Intake Pump Sump of Water Supply Project
for Power Plant Under Bihar State Electricity Board, Barauni, Bihar
SIMILITUTE LAW
Flow in the pump sump is mainly governed by gravitational and inertial forces. Therefore,
it is necessary to preserve the ratio of these forces both in model and prototype by
adopting Froude number similarity law.

Lr  Lm / Lp

Where Lr = length scale, Lm = length of model, and Lp = length of prototype.

Froude number similarity law requires equal Froude number F both in model and
prototype.
Fr =V gL
For the scale ratio Lr = 1/7

Vm 1
Vr   Lr 
Vp 2.646
1
Q r  L2r  Vr  L2r.5 
129.642

Lr 1
Tr   Lr 
Vr 2.646
Design discharge of each pump = 0.002732 m3/s

Check for adequacy of Reynolds number Re & Weber number W

Diameter of suction pipe of pumps = 700 mm

Diameter of modeled bell mouth Dm = 670/7= 95.57 mm

Qm = 2.732 L/s

Vm = 0.38 m/s

Re = VmDm106= 36359 < 60000

W = Vm2 Dm/  = 0.3820.09557/0.073 = 189 < 240

 HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES OF SPILLWAY AND WATER INTAKE
OF NAFRA H.E. PROJECT, WEST KAMENG, ARUNACHAL
PRADESH

Scale: 1/60; Froude number similarity

 PHYSICAL MODELING OF DESILTING CHAMBER NAFRA HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
.

KEY PLAN OF NAFRA HE PROJECT

 .
PLAN AND L-SECTION OF DESILTING CHAMBER
 .
CROSS SECTION OF DESILTING CHAMBER
 .
DETAILS OF SILT FLUSHING DUCT
 .

View of desilting chamber

 Scale = 1:20, Froude number similarity

 .

Silt feeding chamber Feeder tunnel

Head Race Tunnel

 .

Valve to control HRT discharge Silt flushing duct

Arrangement for the measurement of velocity in three ducts

.
INSIDE VIEW

Upper part without slab

Upper part with slab

U/s transition
 .

SEDIMENTS MODELING

S.NO. Sediments Size Percentage

1 Coarse > 0.20 mm 32.63 %
2 Medium 0.075-0.20 mm 27.43 %
3 Fine < 0.075 mm 39.94 %

Maximum sediment concentration = 2000 ppm

 Modeling of .Sediments
% of Fall Corresponding Particle
Particle size in Fall velocity in
S. finer particle size size as fed
Prototype velocity model
No. sedimen required to feed in model
(mm) ‘’ (cm/s)
t / Lr in model (mm) (mm)
1 0.02 0 0.04 0.009 0.015 0.020
2 0.04 15 0.15 0.034 0.03 0.035
3 0.1 47 0.8 0.179 0.05 0.055
4 0.15 55 1.5 0.336 0.06 0.065
5 0.2 67 2.3 0.450 0.07 0.080
6 0.25 72 2.7 0.600 0.085 0.095
7 0.30 77 3.2 0.720 0.090 0.10
8 0.35 80 4.0 0.900 0.120 0.11
9 0.40 83 6.0 1.340 0.150 0.12
10 0.45 85 7.0 1.600 0.170 0.15
11 0.50 88 8.0 1.800 0.190 0.170
12 0.80 93 13.0 2.900 0.250 0.20
13 1.0 95 16.0 3.600 0.280 0.23
14 3.0 98 35.0 7.800 0.500 0.5
15 5.0 100 50.0 11.200 0.700 0.7
 .
100

80
Percentage finer

Prototype sediment
60 Modelled sediment
Sediment fed in model

40

20

0
0.01 0.1 1 10

Sediment size (mm)

Particles size gradation of curves of suspended sediments

 .
SEDIMENT PROFILING IN THE CHAMBER

Upstream view of the

desilting chamber
.

View of the desilting

chamber in upper part

Downstream view of
the desilting chamber
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

PHYSICAL MODEL STUDY OF PROPOSED

6 LANE EXTRADOSED BRIDGE OVER RIVER
GANGA NEAR KACCHI DARGAH, PATNA

Prof. Z. Ahmad
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE-247667
 MODEL SCALES

Maximum water level recorded at Gandhighat in 2016 = 50.52 m

Maximum water level recorded at Bridge site in year 2016 = 49.5 m

Distance from bridge site to Gandhighat = 13 km

Water level slope S = (50.52-49.50)/13 = 0.078 m/km

Design discharge Qp= 1,06,000 m3/s

Design Highest flood level at the bridge site = 50.0 m

Model scale: Horizontal scale lr = 1/700

Vertical scale yr= 1/70

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 49
 MODEL SCALES

Adopting the Froude number similarity

V  V 
  
gy  prototype gy  mod el

Velocity scale Vr = yr

= 0.1195

Discharge scale Qr = lrVr yr  2.4392×10-6

Discharge in model Qm= 1,06,000×2.4392×10-6 m3/s

= 0.2586 m3/s

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 50
 Prototype

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 51
 Model

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 52
 MODELING OF SEDIMENT & DISTORTION IN SLOPE

From Manning equation V  1 R 2 3 S 1 2

n

1 2 3 12
For wide channel V y S
n
d r  yr S r3
In terms of scale 1/ 6 1 1
dr  yr S r 2
6

1 2 3 12
Vr  yr S r
nr
S r3
dr 
Vr  yr 70
1 1
nr  yr S r 26 Let consider native sediment
in the model, thus dr =1
1
d 6
From Stricker equation n 
25.6
S r3 =70

where d = sediment size in m n  d1/6 Sr = 4.12

Sm = 4.12×0.078 = 0.32 m/km
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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 53
 SEDIMENT MOVEMENT

Prototype

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 54
 4/17/2024 DEPT OF CIVIL ENG., IIT ROORKEE 55
Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 55
 Model

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 56
 4/17/2024 DEPT OF CIVIL ENG., IIT ROORKEE 57
Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 57
 Particle Size Gradation of Bed Material

100
Sample-1

Sample-2
80

60
% finer

40

20

0
0.1 1 10
Sediment size (mm)

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 58
 Cross-section of Ganga river at Bridge Site
(results of mathematical model)

.015 .01
52 Legend

EG PF 1
WS PF 1
50
Ground

Bank Sta
48

46
Elevation (m)

44

42

40

38

36

34
-2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Station (m)

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 59
 PHOTOGRAPH OF MODEL

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 60
 STATUS OF MODEL (As on 24 Oct. 2017)

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Z Ahmad, Dept. of Civil Eng., IIT Roorkee Physical model study …. Ganga River 61
THANK YOU