Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Chapter 7 – Transform Theory

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Analyze a function in terms of Laplace Transform.
 Determine the Z-Transform of a discrete function.
 Determine Fourier Transform of a continuous function.
Introduction
The Transforms are used to transform the complicated differential or difference equation
into a simple algebraic equation. This is called as Operational Calculus. In case of Laplace and
Z-Transforms especially we have the advantage that we can consider initial conditions
directly without too much of an effort. Fourier Transform is a special case of Laplace
Transform and it converts a function from time domain to frequency domain. It is helpful in
analyzing the frequency spectrum of a function i.e. the strength of different frequency
components in a function.

Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform is more general as compared to Fourier Transform. The Laplace Transform
of a function f(t) can be computed as,

F  s   f  t  estdt


Where, s    i 
This is called as Bilateral Laplace Transform as the integral goes from  to 

This Transform fails for exponential and sinusoidal functions and hence we define Unilateral
Laplace Transform.

F s   f  t  estdt
0

The Laplace Transform of a function x(t) is,

 it
X    i    x  t  e

 
dt



X s   x  t  eteitdt


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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

If real part of s,   0

X  j   x  t  eitdt  Fourier Transform





So, for imaginary values of ‘s’ Laplace Transform converges to Fourier Transform.

Region of convergence (ROC)

ROC is range of values of s for which Laplace Transform converges is known as region of
convergence.
Region of Convergence makes the Laplace Transform of a signal unique.


 f t e dt is convergent if the integration is finite.

 st
Laplace of f(t) exists if
0

Solved Examples

Problem: Find Laplace transform of given signal & indicate region of convergence for the
following signals.


1. x t  e u t
at

Solution: X  s    eatu  t  est dt   esat dt
 

 0


Region of convergence Re s  a  0 => Re s  a  

1 sat
X s  e
  s  a
0

1
X s 
 s  a


2. x t  e u t
at
 
Solution: X  s     eatu  t est dt    e   dt
 0  sa t
 

Region of convergence

Re s  a  0 =>Re s  a

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

0
1 sat
X s  e
 s  a 

1
X s 
 s  a
Note: For the above two signals the expression for the Laplace Transform is same but their
ROCs are different. So ROC makes the Laplace Transform of a signal unique.

Poles & Zeroes

 If the Laplace Transform of a signal can be expressed in rational form as shown below
k  s  s1  s  s2  ......  s  sn 
G(s) 
 s  s  s  s  ...... s  s 
a b m

Where k is constant
 If in the Laplace Transform we put s  sa ,sb .......,sm the value of Laplace Transform
becomes infinity & thus these are called as poles of Laplace Transform.
 If in Laplace Transform we put s  s1 ,s2 .......,sn , the value of Laplace Transform is zero &
these are called as zeroes of Laplace Transform.

Gamma Function

 n!
 n1 ; n  Z


s
 
L tn  s>0
 n  1 ; n  Z
 sn1

Gamma Function n  1, use only when n > 1

n  1  n n  n n  1n  2  ......... for +ve values of n.

n  1  n! , n  Z

1
1 1 &  
2

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Some common Laplace Transform with ROC

Signal Laplace Transform ROC

 t 1 Entire s-plane

ut 1 Re  s   0
s
tu  t  1 Re  s   0
s2
tnu  t  n! Re  s   0
sn1
u  t  1 Re  s   0
s
tu  t  1 Re  s   0
s2
tnu t  n! Re  s   0
sn1
eatu  t  1 Re s  a
sa
teatu t  1 Re s  a
 s  a
2

tneatu  t  n! Re s  a
 s  a
n1

eatu  t  1 Re s  a
sa
tneatu  t  n! Re s  a
 s  a
n1

cos(at) u t  2
s Re  s   0
s  a2
sin(at) u  t  a Re  s   0
s2  a2
cosh(at) u t  s Re  s   a
s2  a2
sinh(at) u t  a Re  s   a
s2  a2
eat cos(bt) u  t  sa Re s  a
 s  a
2 2
b

eat sin(bt) u  t  b Re s  a

 s  a   b2
2

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Properties of Laplace Transform

1. Linearity
If x1  t  
L.T.
 X1 s
If x2  t  
L.T.
 X2 s


Then ax1 t  bx2 t  
aX1 s  bX2 s L.T.
 
2. Time scaling
If x  t  
L.T.
 X s
1 s
Then x  at  
L.T.
 X 
a  a

3. Time shifting
If x  t  
L.T.
 X s

 L.T.
Then x t  t0  
e
st0
X s

4. Shifting in s-domain
If x  t  
L.T.
 X s
e 0 x  t    X s  s0 
st L.T.

5. Differentiation in time domain

If x  t  
L.T.
 X s

dn
x  t  
L.T.
 snX  s   sn1x 0   sn2x' 0  ......
dtn

6. Integration in time
If x  t  
L.T.
 X s
X s
x    d   
t
 s
 x 0

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

7. Differentiation in s-domain
If x  t  
L.T.
 X s
d
t x t   X s
ds

8. Integration in s-domain
x t
If x  t    X s . Then,    X  s  ds

L.T.
t s

Unit Step Function / Heaviside Step Function

When there is a finite jump in the signal value instantaneously then it is modeled as Step
Function and there is a change of ‘1’ then it is called as Unit Step Function.

1 ; t  a
u  t  a or ua  t  or H t  a  
0 ; t  a

eas
 
L u  t  a 
s

1
 
L u t  
s

 
L f  t  a u  t  a   eas F(s)

Unit Impulse / Dirac’s Delta Function

If we apply large forces in a short time, then the product of force and time is called unit
Impulse and the limiting form of force is known as impulse function.

1
 , a  t  a 
0

  t  a  lim e  t  a   lim 
0
 0 , otherwise


 ; t  a
  t  a  
0 ; t  a

 
L   t  a  eas

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

 
L  t  1

 
L f(t)  t  a  eas f  a

  
L u'  t  a  L   t  a  eas 
 

 f  t    t  a dt   f  t    t  adt  f a
0 

Initial value theorem

 
x 0  lim sX  s 
s

Final value theorem

x     limsX  s 
s0

 To find final value, all pole must lie on left side of s-plane, if at least one pole on right side
of s-plane, the system becomes unstable, for unstable system final value cannot be
determined.

Solved Examples

Problem: Determine the Laplace Transform of at ; a  0

1
Solution: Laplace Transform of e will be
at
sa

F(s)  L e   L e   s  loga
loga t 1
t loga

Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of t 7/2

 t1/2  t3 
7 1
1  1
3!

Solution: F(s) = L t7/2  t1/2  t3   27  21  4
1  1 s
s2 s 2

7/2 . 5/2 . 3/2 . 1/2 . 1/ 2 1/ 2 6 105   6

F(s)   1/2  4   1/2  4
s 9/2
s s 16s 9/2
s s

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of sin t .

  
Solution: F(s) = L sin t  L t1/2 

t3/2 t5/2 t7/2
3!

5!

7!

 ............ 


1 3 5
1 1 1
2 2 2 1/2  3/2 . 1/2  5/2 . 3/2 . 1/2 . 
F(s)  3/2   .........  3/2    .....
s 3! s5/2
5! s7/2
s 3! s5/2 5! s7/2

 
  1 1 1    e1/ 4s  s  0 
F(s)  1     ........
2s  4s 2!  4s  3!  4s 
3/2 2 3
 2s3/2
 

2
Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of e t .

 
Solution: F(s) = L et
2  t 4 t6 
 L 1  t2    ........... 
 2! 3! 

Does not exist or integral is not absolutely converging

1 2! 4! 6! 
2n!  Divergent series
F(s)   3 
s s 2! s5 3! s7
 ........  
n0 n!s
2n1

Since all are increasing terms. These transformations does not exist.

Problem: Determine the Laplace Transform of sin3t  cos 4t

1

Solution: F(s) = L sin3t cos 4t   2

L sin7t + sin  t  
1 7 1  1  6s2  42 
 3s2  21
F(s)   2     2
2  S  49 S2  1  2  s2  49 s2  1
     
s  49 s2  1 
 

Problem: Determine the Laplace Transform of cost cos2t cos8t  


Solution: F(s) = L cost cos2t cos8t   1
2

L cos3t  cos  t  cos3t 
1 1
F(s) 
2
  
L cos2 3t  cost cos3t  L 1  cos6t  cos 4t  cos  2t 
4

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

1 1 s s S 
F(s)   2  2  2
4  s s  36 s  16 s  4 


 t

    e S
1/s
Problem: If L f t then L e3t  f 3t  dt   _______?
 0 

1  s  3e3/s e3/s
  
Solution: L f 3t  F  
3 3 3s

s

 t  1 e3/S e3/s
L   f 3t  dt    2
 0  s s s


 3t
t

 e3/s + 3
L e  f 3t  dt  
  s  3
2

 0 

 t  2 
 2
; t2
Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of f  t    ?
 0
 ; t2

    
2
Solution: f t  t  2 u t  2

2
 
L t2 
s3


L  t  2
2
e 2s

2
s3

Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of given wave.

   
Solution: f t  u t  3 u t  1    u  t  3  u  t  4   2u  t  5 
1
F  s   1  3es  e3s  e4s  2e5s 
s

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Staircase / Step / Integral Function

x   n ; n  x<n+1

n Z
f  t   u  t  1  u  t  2  u  t  3  ..........

es e2s e3s

 
L f t 
s

s

s
 ......................

e s
F(s)  1  es  e2s  e3s  ......... 
s  

e s e s
 
1
F(S)  1  e s 
s 
s 1  e s 

Laplace Transform of periodic signals

 Bilateral LT doesn’t exist for periodic signals rather Unilateral LT exits as there is no
common ROC between poles.
X s
 F s  Where X(s) is Laplace transform of one period of signal.
1  esT
Where T represents time period of the signal

Solved Examples

Problem: Determine Laplace Transform of the following function

 
sin t ; 0  t 
 
f t  
 0  2
; t

  
2
Solution: Since this function is periodic with a period of

 2 
f t    f t V t
 
1       
 
L f t 
 s2 
L
 
sin t  u(t)  u  t   
    
 
1  e 

 
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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

1      
 
L f t 
   
s2 
L sin t  u(t)  sin   t    u  t   
     
1  e 

 
1 
    
s
1 
    
s
   
 
L f t 
 s2 


s2
 

2 
1  e 
  
  
s s 
  s  
2 
2 
1  e  
 
   
 1 e  1 e    
1  e    
 
    
1   
 
L f t 
 
s  2
  s  2 

1  e 

 

 cos t 
Problem: If L sin t   e1/ 4 S
2S  /2
find L 
 t 



Solution: f t  sin t  f 0  0  
cos t
f 't 
2 t

   
L f '  t   sL f  t   f  0 

 cos t  s e1/ 4s  1/ 4s

L   e
 2 t  2s3/2 s

Inverse Laplace Transform

To recover a signal from its Laplace Transform we have to use the following synthesis
equation which is also called as Inverse Laplace Transform.
 j
x(t)  X(s)e stds

 j

Solved Examples
1
Problem: Determine Inverse Laplace Transform of
4s  3

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

 
  3   3
1
1
3
t
 1  1  1  1 t  1  1 t t2 e 4
Solution: L 
1
 L 
1
1/2 
 e L  1 e
4 1 4

 4s  3  4  3  4  s 2  2 1/ 2 2 t
 s  4  
  
  b
 1  1  at tn1
Therefore, L1  n
 e

  aS  b  

an n

1 1
Problem: Determine the Inverse Laplace Transform of cot  s 
s


Solution: Let F s  cot 1 s 
d 1
F S   2
ds S 1

d 
 ds 
 
L1  F  s    t L1 F  s 

 1 

L1  2   t L1 cot 1  s 
 s  1

sint 1
i.e.
t

 L cot 1  s  
1  t sint
 L1  cot 1 S    dt
s  0 t

Problem: L f t    s 2s 2s 3 2 . Then determine

2
Lt f  t   ?
t 

Solution: Final value theorem is not applicable as poles are on right side. So the system is
unstable. Hence, final value is undefined.

Problem: Determine the solution of following differential equation using Laplace Transform.

d2 y dy dy dy
 3  2y  8t; y(0)  0,  1. Then t0 =?
dt2 dt dt t0 dx

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Solution: Take Laplace Transform on both sides

s2 Y  s   sy  0   y '  0   3 sY  s   y  0   2Y s   1

s2

 3s  2 Y  s   1  y '  0   1  1  2

 2  1  2 2 
y  t   L1  2  L 
 s  3s  2 

s 1 s  2 
t 2t

  2e  2e u  t  
dy
 2et  4e2t
dt

dy
 2  4  2
dt t 0

Fourier Transform

For Continuous time signals, Fourier Transform is called as Continuous Time Fourier
Transform (CTFT) and for discrete signals it is called as Discrete Time Fourier Transform
(DTFT).

Continuous Fourier Transform

These equations are used to find Fourier Transform of a signals and analyse the frequency
components of a signals and hence these are termed as Analysis Equation.

 x t e
 jt
X()  dt


 x  t  e
 j2 ft
X(f)  dt

Inverse Fourier Transform

These equations are used to derive signal in time domain from frequency domain and hence
these are termed as Synthesis Equation.


1
x(t)   X    e j t d 
2 

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Drichlet’s Conditions

These conditions must be satisfied for Fourier Transform to converge.

x  t  dt  

1) x(t) must be absolutely integrable 


2) x(t) must have finite number of discontinuities.

3) X(t) must have finite number of maxima and minima.

Fourier Sine and Cosine Transformations


2
 
Fs f  t   Fs   
 0
f  t  sin t dt (Fourier Sine Transformation)


2
f  t   Fs 1
F   
s
F   sin t d
 0 s
(Inverse Fourier Sine Transformation)


2
 
Fc f  t   Fc   
 0
f  t  cos tdt (Fourier Cosine Transformation)


2

f  t   Fc 1 Fc       F   cos td
c
(Inverse Cosine Transformation)
0

Solved Examples


1 ; t a
Problem: Find Fourier Transform of f(t)  
0 ;
 t a

a a
1  eit 

1 1
Solution: F f t      
2 
f t e dt it
 
2 a
1 e dt   
2  i. a
it

1 eia  eia 1 2sina

 
2 i. 2 


1  t
2
; t 1
Problem: Find Fourier Transform of f t   
 0
 ; t 1

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

1   it  
1 1  eit e  eit 
   
Solution: F f t  
1  t e dt 
2 it

2  i
1  t   2t 
2
 
  2  3
2 1
   
 i 2 
  i   

1  2ei 2ei ei 2ei  1  2 2ei ei 2ei 

  2  2  1       2  1  
2   i i3  2   i 2 i3 
2
2 2 3

1  2 i 2 

2  

 2 e e
 i

 3 ei  ei 
i 
 
1  2 2  1 4
  2  2cos   3  2isin    sin    cos 
3 
2   i  2 

; a  0
a t
Problem: Find Fourier Transform of e

0 
e    e   a  i  t 
  a  i t

Solution: F    1  e e dt   e e dt 
at it  at it
  
 0  a  i  
 a  a  i  0

1 1 2a
   2
a  i a  i a  2

Problem: Find Fourier Sine Transform of e-ax?

 
2 ax 2 ax eix  eix
Solution: Fs   
 0  0
e sin xdx  e dx
2


2 e(ai)x  e(ai)x
Fs   
 0
dx
2

1  e(ai)x e(ai)x  1  1 1 
Fs        
2  a  i  a  i  0 2  a  i a  i 


2  i 
Fs   
  a2  2 

Problem: Find Fourier Sine Transform of xe ax

 eax  2

Solution: Fs    Fs    xeax sin xdx
 x  0

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Integrate w.r.t ω


2   cos x 
 F  d  0 xeax 
 x
 dx


2 ax
 Fs   d    0
e cos x dx


2 ax eix  eix
 Fs   d   0
e
2
dx


2 e(ai)x  e(ai)x
 F    d 
s
 0 2
dx

1  e(ai)x e(ai)x  1  1 1 
 Fs   d  2  a  i  a  i   2  a  i  a  i 
0

2 a 
 F    d 
s
  a2  2 

Diff. w.r.t ω

 
2  2a
fs  s   
  2  a2 2
  

Self-Reciprocal Functions

If the transformation of a function is the function itself then it is called self reciprocal.

 1  1
Fs  
 x 
 1  1
Fc  
 x 

Gauss Function is also self reciprocal.

  x2  
2
Fe 2 e 2
 
 

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Solved Examples


1 ; 0  t  1

Problem: If  f  x  sintxdx  2 ; 1  t  2 Then find f(x)?
0 0 ; t  2




Solution: f x  Fs 1 Fs t     2  F  t  sintxdt
s
0

2 
1 2 
  1sintxdt   2sintxdx   0dt 
  0 1 2 

2   cos tx   2cos tx  
1 2

     
  x  t  0  x 1 
 

2   cos x 1 2cos2x 2cos x  2  cos x 1 2cos2x 

      
  x x x x    x x x 


Properties of Fourier Transform

1. Symmetry or duality
if x  t  
F.T.
 X  


Then x t 
F.T.
2X  or x t   
 X f  F.T.
 
2. Linearity
if x1  t  
F.T.
 X1  

if x2  t  
F.T.
 X2  


Then ax1 t  bx2 t   F.T.
aX1   bX1     
Solved Examples

Problem: Find Fourier Transform of signal x(t) = 1


Solution:  t 
1 F.T.

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

F.T.
1  2    2      f 

3. Time shifting
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  
 jt0
Then x  t  t0  
F.T.
e X  

4. Time scaling
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  

1  
Then x  at  
F.T.
 X 
a a

5. Time Reversal
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  j

Then x  t  
F.T.
 X   j

6. Conjugation
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  j

Then x *  t  
F.T.
 X *   j

7. Shifting in frequency
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  

x  t    X    0 
j0t F.T.
Then e

Solved Examples
Problem: Find Transfer Function of the system described by the following equation
y  t   x  t  2  x  t  2 

Solution: Y   e   j2
X    e j2X  

Y  
 e j2  e j2  2 jsin  2
X  

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Problem: Find Fourier Transform of the signal x  t   cos 0t

j0t  j0t
Solution: x t  cos 0t  e
 e
2
F.T.
1   2  


X         0       0  
8. Differentiation in time
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  

d
Then x  t  
F.T.
 jX  
dt
dn
x  t     j X  
F.T. n

dtn

9. Integration in time
If x  t  
F.T.
 X  

t
X  
 x    d 
F.T.
Then + X(0)()

j

Solved Examples
Problem: Find Transfer Function of the system described by the following equation
d2
y t  x  t  3
dt2

Solution: y  t   d 2 x  t  3  e3 j  j X  

2 2

dt

Y  
X  

 2e3 j 
10. Differentiation in frequency
F.T.
If x(t)   X()

F.T. d
Then  jtx(t)   X()
d
F.T.
(  jt)n x(t)  
dnX() F.T.
tneat x(t)  n!
dn (a  j)n1

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

11. Convolution
In Time:

x1 (t) * x2 (t)  X1 ()X 0 ( )

x1 (t) * x2 (t)  X1 (f)X 2 (f)

In Frequency:

1
x1 (t)x2 (t)  (X () * X 2 ())
2 1
x1 (t)x2 (t)  (X1 (f) * X2 (f))

Some common Fourier Transform Pairs

Signal Fourier Transform

 
ak    k0 
jkw0 t

K 
ak e 2 
k 

e
jkw0t
2    0 

cos w 0 t      0       0 

sin w 0 t               
j 0 0 

1 2  
 
2  2k 
   t  nT 
n
  
T K   T 


1, t  T1 2 sin T1

x t  
0, t  T1 

(sin wt)/πt 1,   w

x    
0,   w
 t 1
u(t) 1
   
j
  t  t0  e
 jt0

eatu  t  ,Re a  0 1

a  j

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Fourier Transform of periodic signal


f t 
jn0t
 Cne
n


F     2Cn    n0 
n


F    2  Cn    n0 
n

The z-Transform
Z Transform also has similar properties of Laplace Transform but the main difference is that
it operates only on discrete functions but not on continuous functions
If H(z) is z-Transform of discrete function h[n].

H z    h n z n
n

Let z  re j

  x n re j  x n re j  

 n  n
X re j    
n n

 

X re j  
n
x n r ne jn

If r=1, which means |z| = 1

 

X e j  
n
x n e jn = Fourier Transform for discrete functions.

 So, for all ‘z’ lying on the unit circle z-Transform converges to Fourier Transform.

Inverse z-Transform

To recover a discrete time signal from its Z-Transform the following Synthesis Equation must
be used which is also called as Inverse z-Transform.

Inverse ZT X  z   x n 
1
X  z  zn1dz
2 C
x n 

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Region of convergence (ROC)

ROC is range of values of ‘z’ for which z-Transform converges is known as region of
convergence.

Region of Convergence makes the z-Transform of a signal unique.

Solved Examples

Problem: Find Z-transform & ROC of x n  a u n

n

 
anz nu n    az 1 
n
Solution: X  z   
n n0

1
X z  ; az 1  1 => z  a
1 a
z

Problem: Find Z-transform & ROC of x n  a u n  1

n

 1 1 
anz n     az 1   
n n
Solution: X  z    anu  n  1z n     az 1
n n n n1


 a1 z 
n
X z   
n1
; a1 z  1 => z  a

z
a  z 
X z    
1 z  z  a
a
Note: For the signals mentioned in above examples the z-Transform turns out to be same
but their ROCs are different. So, ROC makes a z-Transform unique.

Domain Transform ROC

z a u n 
n n0 z z a
za
z anu n  1   n0 a z a
za
z anu  n  n0 a za
az
z anu  n  1   n0 z za
az

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

1
Problem: Determine Z-Transform of the following signal
n!

 1   1 n 1 1 1 1
Solution: Z   
 Z  1     e z
; z  0 or z  0
n!
  n 0 n! z 2!z 2
3!z 3


 1    1 1 1
Similarly, Z   z n  1    ..................

  n  1 ! 
 n 0  n  1 ! 2!z 2
3!z 3


 1   1 1 1 
Z   Z    ..................
 n  1 !   z 2!z 3!z
2 3
  


 1    1 1 1 
Z   Z 1     
 .........................1  z e1/z  1 for Z  0
 n  1 !   z 2!z 3!z
2 3
  


 1    1 1
Similarly Z   z n  e1/z
 n  1 ! 
  n1 n  1 ! z

1
Problem: Determine Z-Transform of
n 1

 1   1 n 1 1 1
Solution: Z   z  2  3  4  ......................
 n  1 n2 n  1 3z 4z 5z

 1  1 1 1 1   z 
Z     2  3  ............   z log 
1

 n  1 z  3z 4z 5z   z  1

Z-Transform of Trigonometric Functions

Z cosn  ?

Z sinn  ?

Combining Trigonometric Function into a complex exponential

Z cosn  isinn  Z ein  

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

     z  e   z  e z  e
n z z z  e  i
Z e i
for z  ei  1
i i  i

z2  z  cos   isin   z 2  z cos   iz sin 
  z
Z e in

2

 z ei  ei   eiei  1 z 2  2z cos   1

Comparing Real and Imaginary parts.

z2  z cos 
z cosn  2
z  2z cos   1

z sin 
z sinn 
z  2z cos   1
2

z sinh 

Similarly z sinhn   z  2z cos   1
2

z sinh 

Similarly z sinhn   z  2z cosh 1
2

z 2  z cosh 
z coshn 
z 2  2z cosh   1

Solved Examples

Problem: Determine Z-Transform of sinn cosn .

1 1 z sin2 

Solution: Z sinn cosn   2
 
Z sinn  2    2 
2  z  2z cos2  1

Problem: Determine ROC for Z-Transform of the following function

n n
 1  1
f(n)       u n
3 2

 1 n  1 n
     n  0
 3   2 
Solution: f(n)   n
  1
 3 n0
  

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

z z z
F(z)   
1 1 3z
z z
3 2
The ROC for each term in above expression is,
1 1
z  & z  and z  3
3 2
1
The intersection of these regions is,  z 3
2

Some Common Z-Transform Pairs

Signal z-Transform ROC

Unit Impulse,  n 1 Entire z-plane

Unit step, u n z z 1

z 1
u n  1 z z 1
z 1
nu n z z 1
 z  1
2

nu n  1 z z 1

 z  1
2

anu n z z a
za
anu n  1 z z a
za
nanu n az z a
 z  a
2

nanu n  1 az z a

 z  a
2

n
a ,0  n  N  1 1  aNz N z 0
1  az 1
cos 0nu n 
z z  cos 0  z 1
z  2z cos 0  1
2

sin 0nu n z sin 0 z 1

z  2z cos 0  1
2

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Properties of Z-transform

1. Linearity
Z.T.
x1 n   X1 z  ; ROC : R1
Z.T.
x2 n   X2 z ; ROC : R2
Z.T.
ax1 n  bx2 n  aX1 z   bX2 z 

ROC, R1  R 2

2. Accumulation
If x n 
X z Z.T.
 ; ROC : R
n X z
Then  x k  
k 
Z.T.

1z 1

n
1
u n  
k 
 k  
Z.T.

1  z 1

3. First Difference
If x n 
Z.T.
X z  ; ROC : R
Z.T.
Then x n  x n  1  (1  z 1)X  z  ; ROC: At least intersection of R and |z|>0

4. Time reversal
If x n 
Z.T.
X z  ; ROC : R
Z.T.
Then x n   X z 1   : ROC: z 1  R

5. Conjugate property
If x n 
X z  ; ROC : R
Z.T.

Then x n  X  z  ; ROC: z

* * 1 1
R

6. Multiplication with an exponential

Z.T.
If x n 
 X z

Z.T. z
Then a x n 
n
 X a1 z   X  
a  

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

 z 
 X  e jn   z   X  jn 
1
e jnx n 
Z.T.
  e 
ROC : z  R; z  aR
a

7. Time shifting
If x n 
Z.T.
 X z ; ROC : R 
X  z  ; ROC : R except deletion or addition of origin
Z.T. n0
Then x n  n0   z

8. Differentiation in z-domain
Z.T.
If x n  X z ; ROC : R 
d
Z.T.
Then nx n   z X  z  ; ROC : R
dz

Solved Examples

 4n ; n0
Problem: Find z-Transform of the function f n   n
5 ; n0

Solution: The ROC for the first part of signal i.e. defined for n<0 is z  4

The ROC for second part of the signal i.e. defined for n>0 is z  5

The intersection of these two sets is a null set and thus Z-Transform does not converge for
any value of z.

Problem: Determine Z-Transform of n Ck where k is a scalar.


Solution: Z-Transform of given function can be determined from the equation, 
nk
n
Ck z n

Since, Cr  Cnr
n n


F(z)   n C nk z n k C0 z k   C1z     C2 z    ..........
k 1  k 1 k 2  k 2

nk
k 1 
 
F(z)  z k
Ck
0
 k 1
C1z 
1 k  2  2
 
1
C2z  ...............  z  1  
k

z
 for z  1


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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Note:

n n  1  n n  1 n  2 
1  x 
n
 1  nx  x2  x3  .............
2! 3!

k  1k  2 x  k  1k  2 k  2  x

1  x  
 k 1 
 1  k  1  x  2 3
 ..........
2! 3!

Problem: Find Z transform of annu n 

Solution: z u n      z z 1
Then by differentiation in z-domain property

d  z  z

Z nu n  z   
dz   z  1   z  12

By Scaling Property,

z
a az
z annu n   
 z  a
2 2
z 
 a  1
 

z z
Problem: If Z x(n)     2 then Z  x(n  2)  ?
z 1 z 1

 z z 

Solution: Z x(n  2)  z X z  z 
2 2
    2 
 z  1 z  1

z 2  3z  4
Problem: If Z x(n)    ; for z  3 then x(3)  ?
 z  3
3

z 2  3z  4 3
Solution: X(z)  1
 z  3 z
2

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

3
z 2  3z  4
z 2  3z  4  3 
X(z)   1  z 
 3 
3
z 3
 
z3 1  
 z

z 2  3z  4  
2 3
3 3 3
X(z)   1  3   6     10    ................ 
z3  z 2 2 

x(1) x(2) x(3)

X  z   x(0)   2  3  ........................
z z z

1
x(3)  coefficient of  54  27  4  21
z3
Convolution
Z.T.
x1 n   X1  z 
Z.T.
x2 n   X2  z 
Z.T.
x1 n * x2 n   X1  z  X2  z 

Initial and Final Value Theorem

x  0   lim X  z  ---- Initial Value Theorem

z 

x     lim  z  1 X  z  ---- Final Value Theorem

z 1

Note:

1. The z-transform X(z) must be a proper order i.e. order of numerator less than or equal to
order of denominator.
2. For system response H(z) to be stable all the poles must lie inside unit circle & a simple
pole is acceptable on unit circle, then final value theorem can be applied.

Solved Examples
Problem: Let X(z) be the z-transform of a DT signal x[n] given as
0.5z2
X(z) 
(z  1)(z  0.5)
The initial value of x[n] is ______________

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Solution: From initial value theorem

x[0]  lim X(z)

z 

0.5z 2
 lim
z  (z  1)(z  0.5)

0.5
 lim  0.5
z   1  0.5 
1   1  
 z  z 

Inverse Z-transform by Partial Function Method

To find inverse z-Transform by Partial Fraction Method we first break the term in terms of
Partial Fraction and then find Inverse z-Transform of each term. This can be seen in the
example below:

5
3  z 1
6 2 1
x n   
 1 1   1 1   1 1   1 1 
1  z   1  z  1  z  1  z 
 3   4   3   4 

n n
1 1 1
Solution: x n  2   u n    u n ; z 
3 4 3

n n
1 1 1 1
x n  2   u n  1    u n ;  z 
3
  4
  4 3

n n
1 1 1
x n  2   u  n  1    u  n  1 ; z 
3
  4
  4

Inverse Z-Transform by Cauchy Residue Method

1
X n   X  z  zn1dz
2j C

x n  residue

For a pole at z   of order ‘m’

1 dm1 
Residue of X  z   m1   
X z zn1  z   
m
lim
m  1! z  dz  

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

Solved Examples

Problem: Find inverse transform of X  z   z

 z  2
3

Solution: Pole at z=2, order=3

1 d2 1
lim 2 zn   lim n n  1  zn2  n n  1 2 u n
n3
x n  ; z 2
 
3  1 ! z2 dz 2! z 2

If z  2 ; x n  n n  1 2 u  n  1
n3

Problem: Find Inverse Z-Transform of e3/z

 3 1  3 2 1  3 3 
Solution: Z
1
e 
3/z
 Z 1        
1

 z 2!  z  3!  z  

 
3n n  n 1
x(n)  Z 1  z   3 n!
n0 n! 

z
Problem: Determine Inverse Z-Transform of
 z  5 z  4 
X z  4  u n
n
1 1/9 1/9 1 n
Solution:      5  u n  
Z  z  5 z  4  z  5 z  4 9 9
This can also be solved by Residue Theorem
We have to calculate the residue of the function
 z.zn1  zn
 
  z  5 z  4    z  5 z  4 
Residue at z = 5
zn 5n
lim  z  5 
z 5
 z  5 z  4  9
Residue at z=-4
zn ( 4)n
lim  z  4  
z 4
 z  5 z  4  9
Thus, the signal is,
 n  4 n 
5  u  n
x(n)   
9 9 
 

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 Engineering Maths (Transform Theory)

z
Problem: Determine the Inverse Z-Transform of
 z  2  z  2
2

Solution: By Residue Method,

The function whose residue is to be calculated is,

z  zn1 zn

 z  2  z  2  z  2  z  2
2 2

Residue at z=2
zn ( 2)n
lim  z  2  
 z  2  z  2 16
z 2 2

    z  2  zn1  zn 1 
d  zn 2n1  2n
 
2
lim z  2   lim   
z 2 dz 
 z  2  z  2  z2   z  2  16
2 2

 
2n1  2n  2 
n

x(n)  
16 16

z
Problem: If z f n      1

in z  1 then f 2  _________ ?
 z  2   z  8  z  2 
 

Solution: By Residue Method,

The function whose residue is to be calculated is,
z  zn1 zn

 1  1
 z  2   z  3 z  2   z  2   z  3 z  2 
   
Since, ROC: z  1
Only z = ½ lies inside ROC so residue will only be computed at this pole

z
n n
 1 4  1 
x(n)  lim  z     
1
z  2 1 21  2 
2
 z 
2 
 3  z  z  2 

2
4  1  1
f 2    
21  2  21

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