ZOOLOGY : CHAPTER 1
Zoology
➢ comes from the Greek words zōion,
meaning “animal”, and logos, meaning “the
study of” which makes Zoology the study of
animals. It is one of the broadest fields in
all of science because of the immense
variety of animals and the complexity of the
processes occurring within animals.
SPECIALIZATIONS IN ZOOLOGY:
∙ ANATOMY -Study of the structure of
entire organisms and their parts
∙ CYTOLOGY -Study of the structure
and function of cells
∙ COMPARATIVE GENOMICS AND
BIOINFORMATICS - Study of the
structure, function, and evolution of
the genetic composition of groups of
animals using computer-based
computational methods
∙ ECOLOGY -Study of the interaction of
organisms with their environment ∙
EMBRYOLOGY - Study of the
development of an animal from the
fertilized egg to birth or hatching
∙ GENETICS - Study of the
mechanisms of transmission of
traits from parents to offspring
∙ HISTOLOGY - Study of tissues ∙
Molecular biology - Study of
subcellular details of structure and
function
∙ PARASITOLOGY - Study of animals
that live in or on other organisms at
the expense of the host
∙ PHYSIOLOGY- Study of the function of
organisms and their parts
∙ SYSTEMATICS - Study of the
classification of, and the
evolutionary interrelationships
among,
SPECIALIZATIONS IN ZOOLOGY BY
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
∙ ENTOMOLOGY - Study of insects ∙
HERPETOLOGY - Study of
amphibians and reptiles
∙ ICHTHYOLOGY - Study of fishes ∙
MAMMALOGY -Study of mammals ∙
ORNITHOLOGY - Study of birds ∙
PROTOZOOLOGY -Study of protozoa
Cichlids
∙ Cichlids of Africa exist in an
amazing variety of color patterns,
habitats, and body forms. (a) This
dogtooth cichlid (Cynotilapia afra) is
native to Lake Malawi in Africa. The
female of the species broods,
developing eggs in her mouth to
protect them from predators. (b) The
fontosa (Cyphontilapia fontosa) is
native to Lake Tanganyika in Africa.
A Scale-Eating Cichlid. Scale-eaters
(Perissodus microlepis)
∙ attack from behind as they feed on
scales of prey fish. Two body forms
are maintained in the population. In
one form, the mouth is
asymmetrically curved to the right
and attacks the prey’s left side. The
second form has the mouth curved
to the left and attacks the prey’s
right side. Both right- and left-jawed
forms are maintained in the
population and prey do not become
wary of being attacked from one
side. Perissodus microlepis is
endemic (found only in) to Lake
Tanganyika. A male with its brood of
young is shown here Lakes Victoria,
Kivu Tanganyika, and Malawi
∙ These lakes have cichlid populations
that have been traced by zoologists
to an ancestry that is approximately
200,000 years old. Cichlid
populations originated in Lake Kivu
and Lake Tanganyika and then
spread to the other lakes.
ZOOLOGY: AN EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS - the process
that produces common or rare
characteristics among species that result in
the diversity of life.
∙ Animals share a common
evolutionary past and evolutionary
forces that influenced their history.
ORGANIC EVOLUTION
∙ is change in the genetic makeup of
populations of organisms over time. ∙
the source of animal diversity, and it
explains family relationships within
animal groups.
Charles Darwin published a book entitled,
"On the Origin of Species" in 1859, stating
a convincing evidence of evolution. He
proposed a mechanism that could explain
evolutionary change: NATURAL
SELECTION.
NATURAL SELECTION
∙ the process by which organisms better
suited for adaptation to their
environment survive, while those
that are poorly suited to their
environment do not.
∙ Selection may occur as a result of
differences in survival, in fertility, in
rate of development, in mating
success, or in any other aspect of
the life cycle.
TYPES OF EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES
∙ GENETIC DRIFT - change in
frequency of an existing gene variant
in the population due to random
chance.
∙ GENETIC MUTATION - alteration in
the sequence of the genome of DNA. ∙
GENE FLOW - transfer of genetic
material from one population to
another population.
Other proponents of evolutionary
perspective before Charles Darwin ∙
The idea of evolution did not
originate with Charles Darwin.
1. -EMPEDOCLES
∙ He believed that all organisms,
including humans, went through
the same evolutionary process
∙ For him, past natural selection is
responsible for what we are today. all
living organisms, including
humans, went through the same
evolutionary process
2. ARISTOTLE
∙ He describe evolution as a“ladder of
life,” where simple organisms
gradually change to more elaborate
forms
3. GEORGES-LOUIS BUFFON
∙ He observed structural variations in
particular organs of related
animals.
∙ He attributed change in organisms to
the action of the environment.
∙ He believed in a special creation of - ex. panthera
species and considered change as
being degenerate—for example, he
described apes as degenerate -
humans
4. ERASMUS -DARWIN
∙ A physician and the grandfather of
Charles Darwin
∙ He was interested in questions of
origin and change.
∙ He -believed in the common
ancestry of all organisms.
5. JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK
∙ His theory was based on a widely
accepted theory of inheritance that
organisms develop new organs, or
modify existing organs, as needs
arise.
∙ Similarly, he believed that disuse
resulted in the degeneration of
organs. The “need” was dictated by
environmental change and that
change involved movement toward
perfection.
∙ The idea that change in a species is
directed by need logically led
Lamarck to the conclusion that
species could not become extinct—
they simply evolved into different
species.
ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY,
AND FUNCTION
∙ Understanding how the diversity of
animal structure and function
arose is one of the many challenges
faced by zoologists.
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS ∙ Are
relationships between two different
organisms that are related through the
global process of
evolution.
∙ Evolution not only explains why
animals appear and function as they
do, but also explains family
relationships within the animal
kingdom.
ANIMAL NAME CLASSIFICATION ∙
Binomial Nomenclature - a system of
classifying and naming animals into
two parts:
a. genus name - origin
b. species epithet - name
tigris ( adopted from the
plant naming system proposed by Carl Von
Linnae)
ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Population
∙ Global overpopulation is at the root of
 virtually all other environmental
problems.
∙ As the human population grows, the
disparity between the wealthiest and
poorest nations is likely to increase. ● World
resources
∙ Human overpopulation is stressing
world resources.
∙ new technologies continue to
increase food production, most food
is produced in industrialized
countries that already have a high
per-capita food consumption.
∙ Deforestation of large areas of the
world results from continued
demand for forest products, fuel,
and agricultural land.
∙ This trend contributes to climate
change by increasing atmospheric
carbon dioxide from burning forests
and impairing the ability of the
earth to return carbon to organic
matter through photosynthesis.
∙ Forest preservation would result in
the identification of new species of
plants and animals that could be
important human resources.
WILD LIFE ALERT
∙ Extinction has been the fate of most
plant and animal species. It is a
natural process that will continue.
The threat to the welfare of wild
plants and animals has increased
dramatically—mostly as a result of
habitat destruction
∙ An endangered species is in
imminent danger of extinction
throughout its range (where it lives).
∙ A threatened species is likely to
become endangered in the near
future.
CHAPTER 2: CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS,
AND ORGAN SYSTEMS OF ANIMALS
WHAT ARE CELLS?
∙ Cell is the basic unit of life.
∙ All living things are made up of
cells.
There are two types of cells: prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells.
∙ Prokaryotic cells (before nucleus) are
single-celled organisms that don't have
a nucleus and membrane
bound organelles.
Under prokaryotes, there are 3 domains of
life which are Arachea, Eubacteria and
Eukaryota.
∙ Eukaryotic cells (true nucleus). This
type of cell on the other hand has a
nucleus that contains DNA and
membrane bound organelles.
Additionally, the difference of
prokaryotic to eukaryotic is that the
latter has microfilaments and
microtubules in the cytoskeleton
whose function is to give shape and
allows the cell to move.
WHY ARE MOST CELLS SMALL? DUE
TO SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
RATIO.
∙ Balloon Analogy
∙ Carnival Analogy
CELL MEMBRANES STRUCTURE OF
CELL MEMBRANES
∙ Functions of Cell Membranes ∙ Cell
membranes are composed of a double
layer of proteins and
phospholipids which are fluid.
∙ To protect the machineries inside ∙
Helps the cell to maintain its shape ∙
Regulates the entering and leaving of
materials
STRUCTURES
PHOSPHOLIPIDS - has two ends
which are polar and nonpolar ends.
Comparing it to a sandwich, the
fillings will be the phospholipid tail
(polar) which attracts each other
and is hydrophobic. While the
nonpolar ends attracts water
CHOLESTEROL - embedded along
with phospholipid tails. Helps the
membrane to be less permeable to
water soluble substances. Prevents
phospholipids from sticking to each
other to stabilize the figure.
PROTEINS - has two types of
associated proteins which are
peripheral (external)whose function
is to interact with other proteins
and integral (internal) membrane
proteins are inserted into the
 membrane and most pass through
the membrane.
Other types of proteins and their
function as follows: according to
Bailey (2019)
1.Structural proteins - gives the cell
shape and support
2. Receptor proteins- communicates
with external environment
3. Transport proteins- transport
molecules across membranes by
diffusion (ex. Globular proteins)
4. Glycoproteins - paired with a
carbohydrate. It also has glycocalyx
which is the cell coat made up of
surface carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids.
MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES 2
Major ways of cell membrane transport
Active transport- requires energy.
Passive transport- use no energy.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
No cell energy is needed. Molecules move
“down” a concentration gradient. Molecules
spread out randomly from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower
concentration until they are distributed
evenly in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Carrier (transport) proteins in a plasma
membrane temporarily bind with molecules
and help them pass across the membrane.
Other proteins form channels through
which molecules move across the
membrane.
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
Molecules can move into and out of cells
through integrated protein channels in the
plasma membrane without using energy.
OSMOSIS
Water molecules diffuse across selectively
permeable membranes from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower
concentration.
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
A solution that has a higher solute
concentration than another solution.
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
A solution that has a lower solute
concentration than another solution.
FILTRATION
Essentially protein-free plasma moves
across capillary walls due to a pressure
gradient across the wall.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: ENERGY
REQUIRED
Specific carrier proteins in the plasma
membrane bind with molecules or ions to
help them cross the membrane against a
concentration gradient. Cellular energy is
required.
CARRIER PROTEINS FOR ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
Uniporters- if they transport a single type of
molecule or ion
Symporters- if they transport two molecules
or ions in the same direction
Antiporters- if they transport two molecules
or ions in the opposite direction
BULK TRANSPORT
Large molecules cannot be transported
through the plasma membrane by the
processes described in the previous
sections. Endocytosis and exocytosis
together provide bulk transport into and
out of the cell, respectively. (The term
“bulk” is used because many molecules are
moved at the same time.)
ENDOCYTOSIS
The bulk movement of material into a cell
by the formation of a vesicle.
PINOCYTOSIS
The plasma membrane encloses small
amounts of fluid droplets (in a vesicle) and
takes them into the cell.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
The plasma membrane forms a vesicle
around a solid particle or other cell and
draws it into the phagocytic cell.
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Extracellular molecules bind with specific
receptor proteins on a plasma membrane,
causing the membrane to invaginate and
draw molecules into the cell.
EXOCYTOSIS
The bulk movement of material out of a cell.
A vesicle (with particles) fuses with the
plasma membrane and expels particles or
fluids from the cell across the plasma
membrane. The reverse of endocytosis.
CYTOPLASM, ORGANELLES, AND
CELLULAR COMPONENTS
Organelles effectively compartmentalize a
cell’s activities, improving efficiency and
protecting cell contents from harsh
chemicals. It also enable cells to secrete
various substances, derive energy from
nutrients, degrade debris and waste
materials, and reproduce.
Cytoplasm of a cell has two distinct parts:
(1) The cytomembrane (or endomembrane)
system consists of well-defined structures,
such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, vacuoles, and vesicles. (2) The
fluid cytosol suspends the structures of the
cytomembrane system and contains various
dissolved molecules.
Ribosomes: Protein Workbenches
Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound
structures that are the sites for protein
synthesis. They contain almost equal
amounts of protein and a special kind of
ribonucleic acid called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
– ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the molecule in
the cells that forms part of the protein
synthesizing organelle known as a ribosome
and that is exported to the cytoplasm to
help translate the information in messenger
RNA (mRNA) into protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Production and
Transport
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
complex, membrane-bound labyrinth of
flattened sheets, sacs, and tubules that
branches and spreads throughout the
cytoplasm. The ER is continuous from the
nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane
and is a series of channels that helps
various materials to circulate throughout
the cytoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus: Packaging, Sorting, and
Export
The Golgi apparatus or complex (named for
Camillo Golgi, who discovered it in 1898) is
a collection of membranes associated
physically and functionally with the ER in
the cytoplasm. It is composed of flattened
stacks of membrane-bound cisternae
- The Golgi apparatus sorts packages,
and secretes proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes: Digestion and Degradation
Lysosomes (Gr. lyso, dissolving 1 soma,
body) are membrane-bound spherical
organelles that contain enzymes called acid
hydrolases, which are capable of digesting
organic molecules
Microbodies: A Diverse Category of
Organelles
Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of
enzyme-bearing, membrane enclosed
vesicles called microbodies. The
distribution of enzymes into microbodies is
one main way eukaryotic cells organize
their metabolism.
- One specific type of microbody is the
peroxisome. Peroxisomes contain
enzymes that catalyze the removal of
electrons and associated hydrogen
atoms from hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria: Power Generators
Mitochondria are double-membrane bound
organelles that are spherical to elongated in
shape. A small space separates the outer
membrane from the inner membrane. The
inner membrane folds and doubles in on
itself to form incomplete partitions called
cristae. And cristae increase the surface
area available for the chemical reactions
that trap usable energy for the cell.
The space between the cristae is the matrix.
The matrix contains ribosomes, circular
DNA, and other material.
Because they convert energy to a usable
form, mitochondria are frequently called the
“power generators” of the cell. Mitochondria
usually multiply when a cell needs
additional high-energy molecules.
Cytoskeleton: Microtubules,
Intermediate Filaments,
and Microfilaments
In most cells, the microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
form the flexible cellular framework called
the cytoskeleton (“cell skeleton”). Three
Major Classes of Protein Fibers Making
Up the Cytoskeleton of Eukaryotic Cell
● Microtubules - are hollow, slender,
cylindrical structures in animal
cells. Each microtubule is made of
spiraling subunits of globular
proteins called tubulin subunits.
● Intermediate filaments - are a
chemically heterogeneous group of
protein fibers, the specific proteins of
which can vary with cell type.
● Microfilaments (actin filaments) -
are solid strings of protein (actin)
molecules.
Cilia and Flagella: Movement
Cilia (sing., cilium; L. eyelashes) and
flagella (sing., flagellum; L. small whips)
are elongated appendages on the surface of
some cells by which the cells, including
many unicellular organisms, propel
themselves. In stationary cells, cilia or
flagella move material over the cell’s
surface.
● Axoneme or Axial filament
- Consists of nine pairs of
microtubules arranged in a
circle around two central
tubules. This is called a 9 1
2 pattern of microtubules.
- Each microtubule pair (a
doublet) also has pairs of
dynein (protein) arms
projecting toward a
neighboring doublet and
spokes extending toward the
central pair of microtubules.
● Basal body
- Made up of microtubules
and structurally identical to
the centriole.
- controls the growth of
microtubules in cilia or
flagella. The microtubules in
the basal body form a 9 1 0
pattern: nine sets of three
with none in the middle.
Internal Structure of Cilia and Flagella -
In cross section, the arms extend from each
microtubule doublet toward a neighboring
doublet, and spokes extend toward the
central paired microtubules. The dynein
arms push against the adjacent
microtubule doublet to bring about
movement.
Centrioles and Microtubule-Organizing
Centers microtubule-organizing centers
- The specialized nonmembranous
regions of cytoplasm near the
nucleus.
- These centers of dense material give
rise to a large number of
microtubules with different
functions in the cytoskeleton.
Centrioles
- is composed of nine triplet
microtubules that radiate from the
center like the spokes of a wheel. - are
duplicated before cell division, are
involved with chromosome
movement, and help organize the
cytoskeleton.
Vacuoles: Cell Maintenance
Vacuoles (L. vaccus, empty space) are
membranous sacs that are part of the
cytomembrane system.
Vaults: Mysterious Symmetrical Shells
Vaults are cytoplasmic ribonucleoproteins
shaped like octagonal barrels. Their name
is derived from their multiple arches that
look like vaulted cathedral ceilings.
Exosome: Signaling Structures
Exosomes
- contain cell-specific payloads of
proteins, lipids, and genetic material
that are transported to other cells
and tissues, where they alter many
cellular functions.
THE NUCLEUS: INFORMATION CENTER
Nucleus
- When viewing a cell image, the
nucleus is one of the most visible
elements.
- a nucleus is a membrane-enclosed
organelle within a cell that holds the
chromosomes.
- An array of holes, or pores, in the
nuclear membrane allow for the
selective passage of particular
molecules (such as proteins and
nucleic acids) into and out of the
nucleus.
- It houses all of the eukaryotic cell's
genome and acts as a center for
controlling cellular activities
Nuclear Envelope
- The nuclear envelope separates the
nucleus' contents from the
cytoplasm and serves as the
nucleus' structural framework.
- The nuclear membranes, acting as
barriers that prevent the free
passage of molecules between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm,
maintain the nucleus as a distinct
biochemical compartment.
● The nuclear membrane consist of: -
Outer nuclear membrane
- Inner nuclear membrane
- Perinuclear membrane
- Nuclear Pores
- Nuclear Lamina
- Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs)
serve as the gateway of the cell
 nucleus. These macromolecular
assemblies form selective aqueous
translocation channels permitting
the free diffusion of small molecules,
as well as receptor-mediated
transport of large cargoes
Chromosomes: Genetic Containers (kahit
elements na lang na may chromosomes
sa ppt)
- DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is
located in the nucleus of almost
every cell in the human body
- Histones serve to bundle
chromosomal DNA inside tiny
nuclei. These are positively charged
proteins that bind to negatively
charged DNA to form complexes
known as nucleosomes.
Nucleolus: Pre Assembly Point for
Ribosomes
- The formation of ribosomes involves
the assembly of the ribosomal
precursor RNA with both ribosomal
proteins and 5S rRNA
- RNA polymerase II transcribes the
genes that encode ribosomal
proteins outside of the nucleolus,
producing mRNAs that are
translated on cytoplasmic
ribosomes. Ribosomal proteins are
then transported from the cytoplasm
to the nucleolus and combined with
rRNAs to produce pre ribosomal
particles. Although 5S rRNA genes
are also transcribed outside of the
nucleolus, this time by RNA
polymerase III, 5S rRNAs are
assembled into pre ribosomal
particles within the nucleolus.
Levels of Organization in Animals - A
cell is the primary unit of life and the
fundamental unit of the animal. - A sort of
tissue is formed when a large number of
cells (of the same type) congregate in one
location.
- Tissues join together to produce
organs
- Organ systems emerge later on. - To body. They cover all body surfaces, line
function properly, many organs
collaborate.
Cellular Level of Organizations
- The cell is the most basic unit of life. - secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration,
The cell contains all of the cell
organelles that are required to
complete all of the basic processes
necessary for survival and
regeneration. Animals with cell-level
organization have a loose
arrangement of cells.
What is Structural Organization in a
Cell?
- The cell contains all the organelles
which are required for a cell to
survive. All the organelles are placed
and form a structural organization
in the cell.
Cell Organelles and their Functions 1.
Nucleus: Storage of genetic material i.e
DNA.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum: They help
in the synthesis of protein and
lipids.
3. Golgi Apparatus: It mainly helps in
tagging and transportation.
4. Ribosome: They synthesize the
protein with the help of mRNA.
5. Mitochondria: Mitochondria
generate ATP, and because of that
mitochondria are known as the
Powerhouse of cells.
6. Lysosome: Helps in digestion within
the cell via decomposing.
7. Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a thick
substance in which all the cell
organelles are embedded.
8. Plasma Membrane: It is the outer
layer of the cell, and helps in
maintaining the equilibrium of the
cell
Tissue Level of Organizations
- Tissue is the most critical layer in
the protection of the organ, and
tissues let only the necessary one
into the organ while keeping it safe. -
Tissues are collections of
comparable cells from the same
origin that collaborate to carry out a
defined function.
Human basic tissues are classed as follows:
Epithelial Tissue - it is found all over the
body cavities and hollow organs, and make
up the majority of gland tissue. They serve
a number of purposes, including defense,
diffusion, and sensory reception.
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple squamous - Transport by
diffusion and where minimal
protection is required
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium -
Absorption and secretion
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium -
Protection, absorption, mucus
secretion and movement in a
specific direction
4. Stratified Squamous Epithelium -
Protection
5. Stratified Cuboidal - Protection of
ducts of various glands
6. Stratified Columnar - Protection
and secretion
7. Pseudostratified Columnar -
Protection, secretion and movement
of mucous
8. Transitional epithelia or
urothelium - Stretch readily to
accommodate the different volume
of liquids
9. Keratinised - Protection against
abrasion
Connective Tissue - As the name implies,
connective tissues support and link various
tissues and organs of the body. They are
abundantly spread throughout the body.
They are derived from the mesoderm.
- Connective tissues contain three
types of fibers: collagen, elastic
and reticular
● Collagen fibers are the most
common and are formed of the
fibrous protein collagen. Collagen
fibers are strong and flexible, with
tensile strengths comparable to
steel.
● Elastic fibers can be stretched like
a rubber band to form a network.
They are composed of the protein
elastin. When the force is
withdrawn, they return to their
normal shape and size.
● Reticulate fibers consist of collagen
and glycoproteins. They are thin and
form a delicate network. They join
connective tissues to neighboring
tissues.
Types of Connective Tissues
1. Loose Connective Tissue - Loose
connective tissues can be found all
across the body, where both support
and suppleness are required. Blood
vessels, nerves, and muscles are all
wrapped in loose connective tissue.
They, along with adipose tissues, create
the layer of fat beneath the skin, linking
muscles and other
structures to the skin.
● Adipose Tissue
● Areolar Tissue
● Reticular Connective Tissue
2. Dense Connective Tissue -
Fibroblast cells and fibers are
densely packed in dense connective
tissue. Their primary role is to
transfer and support mechanical
forces. They are less pliable than
loose connective
● Dense regular tissue
● Tendons and Ligaments
● Dense irregular tissue
3. Specialized Connective Tissue -
Aside from these, there are
supportive connective tissues, such
as cartilage and bone, that aid in
maintaining proper posture and
supporting internal organs. Blood
and lymph are fluid connective
tissues that circulate throughout
the body and aid in organ
interaction and communication.
● Cartilage - Cartilage is largely
present throughout embryonic
development and serves as a
supporting skeleton.
● Bones - Bone is the hardest
connective tissue and aids in the
maintenance of the body's structure
and posture, as well as the
protection of interior organs.
● Blood - Blood is made up of various
cells present in the plasma. The
blood contains red blood cells
(RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs)
and platelets.
● Lymph - it drains into the
bloodstream and carries absorbed
fat that cannot reach the
bloodstream directly
Nervous Tissues
Consists of diverse cells such as red blood
cells, white blood cells, and neurons.
Specific cells are for protection, support
and nourishment such as:
1. Blood - consists of RBC, WBC, and
platelets that are suspended in
plasma in blood vessels. Main
function is to carry oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, minerals, etc. 2.
Nervous Tissue- where neurons can be
found more specifically in the
brain and spinal cord whose
function is to transfer electrical
signals from senses.
3. Skeletal muscle tissue - made up
of striated muscle cells that have
striped appearance, long and
cylindrical. Can be found in bones
that are connected to skeletal
muscle. Responsible for movements
and locomotions.
4. Smooth muscle tissue - non striated
muscle and cells are closed to each
other to form a sheet.
Spindle shaped cells and each
contains a nucleus.
Muscle Tissue
responsible for movement and there are 3
classifications of muscle tissue which are
cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and
smooth muscle. The contraction of muscle
tissue allows different body parts and
organs to move.
Cardiac muscle- keeps the heart from
pumping with involuntary movement
Skeletal muscle- for joints, movement of
bones, chewing, swallowing, urination and
even maintaining body temperature Smooth
Muscle - can be found throughout the body
except heart and bones.
ORGANS & ORGAN SYSTEMS
Organs
(an independent part of the body) are the
functional units of an animal’s body that
are made up of more than one type of
tissue. Examples include the heart, lungs,
liver, spleen, and kidneys.
Organ system
is an association of organs that together
performs an overall function
EVOLUTIONARY INSIGHTS
Endosymbiont theory
∙ was first proposed by Lynn
Margulis (1938–2011), a biologist INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
who worked at the University of
Massachusetts at Amherst. She body that forms a physical barrier between
proposed that eukaryotes formed
when large, non nucleated cells
engulfed smaller and simpler cells. ∙
Endosymbiont is an organism that can
live only inside another
organism, forming a relationship
that benefits both partners.
∙ Symbiosis is an intimate
association between two organisms
of different species. The merging of
these different species to produce
evolutionarily new forms is called
symbiogenesis
∙ More recently, DNA evidence
indicates that both Archaea and
Eubacteria contributed to the origin
of eukaryotic cells. About 2.5 billion
years ago, bacteria and
cyanobacteria occurred together in
water environments. Over millions
of years, the cyanobacteria pumped
oxygen into the primitive
atmosphere as a by-product of
photosynthesis. As a result, those
cellular organisms that could
tolerate free oxygen began to
flourish.
● One way for a large cell, such as an
archaeon, to survive in an oxygen rich
environment would be to engulf an
aerobic (oxygen-utilizing)
bacterium in an inward-budding
vesicle of its plasma membrane.
● The membrane of the enveloped
vesicle became the outer membrane
of the mitochondrion.
● Archaean cells that picked up
cyanobacteria or a photosynthetic
bacterium obtained the forerunners
of chloroplasts and became the
ancestors of the green plants.
● The exact mechanism for the
evolution of the eukaryotic cell will
never be known with certainty.
● Some probably evolved into
multicellular organisms in which
various cells become specialized into
tissues, which in turn led to the
potential for many different
functions.
- It is the largest organ (skin) of the
the external environment and the internal
environment that it serves to protect and
maintain.
THREE LAYERS OF THE SKIN
EPIDERMIS
- It is the most superficial layer of
the skin and provides the first barrier of
protection from the invasion of substances
into the body.
DERMIS
- It is the connective tissue
meshwork of collagenous, reticular, and
elastic fibers beneath the epidermis.
HYPODERMIS
- It consists of loose connective
tissue, adipose tissue, and nerve endings,
which separate the skin from deeper
tissues.
THE SYSTEM HAS FOUR MAJOR
FUNCTIONS:
1. Regulation of body temperature
2. Excretion of waste materials
3. Vitamin D3 formation by the action
of ultraviolet radiation from sunlight on
a cholesterol derivative in the
skin.
4. Reception of environmental stimuli,
such as pain, temperature, and
pressure.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- an extensive network of specialized
cells that carry information to and from all
parts of the body
NEURONS
- Neurons are specialized to produce signals
that can be communicated over short to
relatively long distances, from one part of
an animal’s body to another.
Neurons have two important properties: (1)
excitability, the ability to respond to
stimuli, and (2) conductivity, the ability
to conduct a signal.
PARTS OF NEURONS
- Soma: the cell body of the neuron,
responsible for maintaining the life of the
cell
- Dendrites: branch-like structures
that receive messages from other neurons -
Axon: a long, tube-like structure that
carries the neural message to other cells
- Myelin: fatty substances produced
by certain glial cells that coat the axons of
neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up
the neural impulse
THREE TYPES OF VERTEBRATE
NEURONS
- Sensory neurons: act as receptors of
stimuli or are activated by receptors. -
Interneurons: receive signals from the
sensory neurons and transmit them to
motor neurons. Interneurons are located
entirely within the central nervous system. -
Motor neurons: send the
processed information via a signal to the
body’s effectors (e.g., muscles), causing
them to contract, or to glands, causing
them to secrete.
TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The central nervous system is
composed of the brain and spinal cord and
is the site of information processing.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The peripheral nervous system is
composed of all the nerves of the body
outside the brain and spinal cord. These
nerves are commonly divided into two
groups: sensory (afferent) nerves, which
transmit information to the central nervous
system; and motor (efferent) nerves, which
carry commands away from the central
nervous system.
THREE AREAS OF THE BRAIN
HIND BRAIN
- The hindbrain is continuous with
the spinal cord and includes the medulla
oblongata, cerebellum, and pons.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
- The medulla oblongata is the
enlargement where the spinal cord enters
the brain. It contains reflex centers for
breathing, swallowing, cardiovascular
function, and gastric secretion.
CEREBELLUM
- The cerebellum is an outgrowth of the
medulla oblongata. It coordinates motor
activity associated with limb movement,
maintaining posture, and spatial
orientation.
PONS
- The pons is a bridge of transverse
nerve tracts from the cerebrum of the
forebrain to both sides of the cerebellum. It
also contains tracts that connect the
forebrain and spinal cord in all vertebrates
and functions in the regulation of
breathing.
MIDBRAIN
- The midbrain was originally a
center for coordinating reflex responses to
visual input. As the brain evolved, it took
on added functions relating to tactile
(touch) and auditory (hearing) input, but it
did not change in size. The roof of the mid
brain, called the optic tectum, is a
thickened region of gray matter that
integrates visual and auditory signals.
FOREBRAIN
- The vertebrate forebrain has
changed a great deal during vertebrate
evolution. The forebrain has two main
parts: the diencephalon and telencephalon.
The diencephalon lies just in front of the
midbrain and contains the pineal gland,
pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and
thalamus.
- The thalamus relays all sensory
information to higher brain centers. - The
hypothalamus lies below the thalamus
and regulates many functions, such as
body temperature, sexual drive,
carbohydrate metabolism, hunger, and
thirst.
- The pineal gland controls some
body rhythms. The pituitary is a major
endocrine gland
Endocrine System
A hormone (Gr. hormaein, to set in motion
or to spur on) is a specialized chemical
messenger that an endocrine gland or
tissue produces and secretes. Hormones
circulate through body fluids and affect the
metabolic activity of a target cell or tissue
in a specific way.
3 Major Regions that secrete neuropeptides
1. Pineal Gland (Epithalamus) - secrete
hormones for pigmentation and
hormones that inhibit reproductive
development (both are stimulated by
light)
2. Preoptic Nuclei (Hypothalamus) -
secretes neuropeptides that control
different functions such as growth,
sleep, locomotion
3. Urophysis (oura - tail + physis -
growth) - produces neuropeptides
that help control water and ion
balance, balance and smooth
muscle contractions
2. Certain hormones are species-specific
with respect to their function; conversely,
some hormones produced in one species
may be completely functional in another
species.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophisis)
● located directly below the
hypothalamus
● has two lobes
∙ Adenohypophisis (Anterior
lobe)
∙ Neurohypophisis (Posterior
lobe)
● the pituitary in many vertebrates
(except humans, birds and
cetaceans) also has a functional
intermediate lobes (pars intermedia)
that is responsible for the coloration
of their body surface
Neurohypophysis
● does not manufacture any
hormones
● neurosecretory cells of the
hypothalamus synthesize and
secretes 2 hormones
Adenohypophysis
● the true endocrine portion of the
pituitary
● it synthesizes 6 polypeptide
hormones
Thyroid Gland
● Is located in the neck, anterior to
the trachea
● secretes thyroxine and
triiodothyronine - which are
responsible for the overall growth,
development and metabolic rate of
the organism
● also secretes calcitonin - which
controls the extracellular levels of
calcium ions
Parathyroid Gland
● tiny, pea-sized glands embedded in
the thyroid lobes
● secrete parathormone - which
regulates the concentrations of
calcium and phosphate ions in the
blood
Thymus Gland
● located near the heart
● secretes peptide hormones:
∙ Thymopoietin
 ∙ Alpha1
∙ Beta4
∙ Thymosin
all of which are essential for normal
development of the immune system
Adrenal Glands
● located on top of the kidneys
● each gland consists of the:
∙ medulla (inner portion)
∙ cortex (outer portion that
surrounds the medulla)
Adrenal Cortex
secretes 3 classes of steroid hormones: ●
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)- regulate
metabolism and concentration of
blood sugar
● Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) -
maintains concentration of solutes
entering the blood stream and plays
major role in maintaining
homeostasis of extracellular solutes
● Sex Hormones (Androgens and
Estrogens)
Adrenal Medulla
● under neutral control
● secretes epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) ∙
helps control heart rate and
carbohydrate metabolism
∙ has a major role in the fight - protists
flight reaction
Pancreas
● functions as an exocrine gland to
secrete digestive enzymes and an 3 Types of Skeleton
endocrine gland
● The endocrine portion of the
pancreas makes up only about 1%
of the gland. This portion
synthesizes, stores, and secretes
hormones from 200,000 - 2,000,00
clusters of cells called pancreatic
islets.
● these islets contains 4 special
groups of cells called:
∙ Alpha - produces glucagon
∙ Beta - produces insulin
∙ Delta - somatostin
(hypothalamic growth
hormone inhibiting factor
that also inhibits glucagon Exoskeletons, however, limit an animal's
and insulin secretion)
∙ F cells - secrete a pancreatic
polypeptide that is released shed, as arthropods do when they molt.
into the bloodstream after a
meal and inhibits
somatostatin secretion,
gallbladder contraction, and
the secretion of pancreatic
digestive enzymes.
Gonads
● ovaries and testes secrete hormones
that help regulate reproductive
functions
Testes
● secretes testosterone
∙ necessary for the growth and
maintenance of the male sex
organs
∙ It promotes the development
and maintenance of sexual
behavior, and in humans, it
stimulates the growth of
facial and pubic hair, as well
as the enlargement of the
larynx, which deepens the
voice.
Ovary
● secrets 4 major classes of ovarian
hormones that help regulate female
reproductive functions.
Skeletal system
As organisms evolved from the ancestral
to the multicellular animals, body
size increased dramatically and systems
involved in movement and support evolved
as well.
1. Rigid Endoskeleton
2. Rigid Exoskeleton
3. Hydrostatic Skeleton
These skeletal systems also function in
animal movement that requires muscles
working in opposition (antagonism) to each
other.
Exoskeleton
● exo - outside + skeleton
● This type of skeleton also have
locomotor functions because they
provide sites for muscle attachment
and counterforces for muscle
movements.
● It also supports and protects the
body.
growth, hence, these animals occasionally
Endoskeleton
● endo - within + skeleton
● This type of skeleton is enclosed by
other body tissues and is used for
protection and support.
Cartilage
● It is a specialized type of connective
tissue that provides a site for
muscular attachment, aids in
movement at joints, provides
support, and transmits the force of
muscular contraction from one part
of the body to another during
movement.
● It consists of cells (chondrocytes),
fibers and a cellular matrix.
Bone
● Or osseous tissue is a connective
tissue that provides a point of
attachment for muscles and
transmits the force of muscular
contraction form one part of the
body to another during movement.
● Bones of the skeleton support the
internal organs of many animals,
store reserve calcium and phosphate
and manufacture red blood
cells.skeleton
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscular tissue is the driving force, the
power behind movement in most
invertebrates and vertebrates.
The ability to move—one of the most
defining properties of animals—often has
life-and-death significance.
Animals may have one or more of the
following types of muscle tissue: Smooth,
Cardiac, and Skeletal muscles. The
contractile cells of these tissues are called
muscle fibers.
Smooth muscle is also called involuntary
muscle because higher brain centers do not
control its contractions. Smooth muscle
fibers have a single nucleus, are spindle
shaped, and are arranged in a parallel
pattern to form sheets
Cardiac muscle fibers are involuntary,
have a single nucleus, are striated (have
dark and light bands), and are branched
Skeletal muscle, also a striated muscle, is
a voluntary muscle because the nervous
system consciously controls its
contractions.
A few functional differences among
invertebrate
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
∙ A circulatory or cardiovascular
system is a specialized system in
which a muscular, pumping heart
moves the fluid medium called
either hemolymph or blood in a
specific direction determined by the
presence of unidirectional blood
vessels.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- The lymphatic system, or lymphoid
system, is an organ system in vertebrates
that is part of the immune system, and
complementary to the circulatory system. It
consists of a large network of lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid organs,
lymphoid tissues and lymph.
LYMPHATICS: are thin-walled vessels with
valves that ensure the one-way flow of
lymph.
LYMPH- is the extracellular fluid that
accumulates in the lymph vessels.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- the system in living organisms that takes
up oxygen and discharges carbon dioxide in
order to satisfy energy requirements.
Respiratory Surfaces
Protists and animals have five main types of
respiratory systems (surfaces):
(1) simple diffusion across plasma
membranes,
(2) tracheae,
(3) cutaneous (integument or body
surface),exchange,
(4) gills, and
(5) lungs.
Bimodal breathing is the ability of an
organism to exchange respiratory gases
simultaneously with both air and water.
Cutaneous Exchange
Some vertebrates that have lungs or gills,
such as some aquatic turtles, salamanders
with lungs, snakes, fishes, and
mammals,use cutaneous respiration or
integumentary exchange to supplement gas
exchange. However, cutaneous exchange is
most highly developed in frogs, toads,
lungless salamanders, and newts. Gills
Gills are respiratory organs that have either
a thin, moist, vascularized layer of
epidermis to permit gas exchange across
thin gill membranes, or a very thin layer of
epidermis over highly vascularized dermis.
Larval forms of a few fishes and amphibians
have external gills projecting from their
bodies. Adult fishes have internal gills.
Lungs
A lung is an internal sac-shaped respiratory
organ. The typical lung of a terrestrial
vertebrate comprises one or more internal
blind pouches into which air is either drawn
or forced.
Lung Ventilation
Ventilation is based on several physiological
principles that
apply to all air-breathing animals with
lungs:
Gas-Exchange Portion
Small tubes called alveolar ducts connect
the respiratory bronchioles to grapelike
outpouchings called alveoli.
Gas Transport
As animals became larger and acquired
higher metabolic rates, simple diffusion
became increasingly inadequate as a means
of delivering oxygen to the tissues.
Respiratory pigments help the various
transport systems satisfy this increased
oxygen demand. In addition to oxygen
transport, respiratory pigments may also
function in short-term oxygen storage.
DIVERSITY IN DIGESTIVE STRUCTURES:
VERTEBRATES
- The complete vertebrate digestive tract
(gut tube) is highly specialized in both
structure and function for the digestion of a
wide variety of foods. The basic structures of
the gut tube include the oral cavity (buccal
cavity or mouth), pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, and anus/cloaca. In addition, three
important glandular systems are associated
with the digestive tract: (1) the salivary
glands; (2) the liver, gallbladder, and bile
duct; and (3) the pancreas and pancreatic
duct
TONGUES (“Specialized Mouthparts”) (
TYPES OF TONGUE )
- A tongue or tonguelike structure
develops in the floor of the oral cavity in
many vertebrates.
TEETH (“Reflect the Nature of the Diet”)
- Teeth are specialized, depending on
whether an animal feeds on plants
(herbivore) or animals (carnivore), or both
(omnivore), and on how it obtains its food.
SALIVARY GLANDS (“Specialized
Exocrine Glands”)
- any of the organs that secrete saliva, a
substance that moistens and softens food,
into the oral cavity of vertebrates. Salivary
glands may be predominantly serous,
mucous, or mixed in secretion. Mucus is a
thick, clear, and somewhat slimy
substance.
ESOPHAGI (“Moving Food to the
Stomach”) ( LONG OR SHORT )
- Storing food in the crop ensures an
almost continuous supply of food to the
stomach and intestine for digestion. This
structure allows these to reduce the
frequency of feeding and still maintain a
high metabolic rate.
STOMACHS (“Holding Stations”)
- The stomach is an ancestral
vertebrate structure that evolved as
vertebrates began to feed on larger
organisms that were caught at less frequent
intervals and required storage.
GIZZARDS (“Mechanical Grinders”)
- The gizzard has a number of
important functions, such as aiding
digestion by particle size reduction,
chemical degradation of nutrients and
regulation of feed flow, and responds
rapidly to changes in the coarseness of the
diet.
RUMENS (“Eat Now, Digest Later”) - This
method of digestion has evolved in animals
that need to eat large amounts of food
relatively quickly, but can chew the food at
a more comfortable or safer location. CECA
(“Blind Pouches”)
- cecum, also spelled caecum, pouch or
large tubelike structure in the lower
abdominal cavity that receives undigested
food material from the small intestine and
is considered the first region of the large
intestine.
LIVERS AND GALLBLADDERS
(“Accessory Organs”)
- In those vertebrates with a
gallbladder, it is closely associated with the
liver. The liver manufactures bile, which the
gallbladder then stores. Bile is a fluid
containing bile salts and bile pigments. Bile
salts play an important role in the digestion common bile duct that enters the
of fats, although they are not digestive duodenum. Pancreatic enzymes complete
enzymes. They emulsify dietary fat, the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins
breaking it into small globules and initiate the digestion of lipids. Role of
(emulsification) on the surface of which the the Liver and Gallbladder in Digestion
fat-digesting enzyme lipase can function. - The liver, the largest internal organ in
PANCREATA (“Specialized Exocrine and the mammalian body, the liver, millions of
Endocrine Glands”) specialized cells called hepatocytes take up
- As an endocrine gland, it functions nutrients absorbed from the intestines and
mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, release them into the bloodstream.
secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, Hepatocytes also manufacture the blood
somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. proteins prothrombin and albumin.
As a part of the digestive system, it Reproductive System
functions as an exocrine gland secreting A reproductive system is a biological system
pancreatic juice into the duodenum that allows an organism to produce
through the pancreatic duct. offspring. It consists of organs, glands, and
INTESTINES (“Breakdown and structures that are involved in the process
Absorption”) of sexual reproduction. The reproductive
- The configuration and divisions of the system is essential for the survival and
small and large intestines vary greatly evolution of a species, as it allows for the
among vertebrates. Intestines are closely creation of genetic diversity and adaptation
related to the animal’s type of food, body to changing environments. The
size, and levels of activity. reproductive system is also a source of
ORAL CAVITY pleasure, intimacy, and identity for many
- A pair of lips protects the oral cavity organisms, especially humans.
(mouth). The lips are highly vascularized, Asexual Reproduction in Invertebrates Is
skeletal muscle tissue with an abundance reproduction without the union of gametes
of sensory nerve endings. Lips help retain or sex cells. Asexual reproduction is
food as it is being chewed and play a role in common among the protozoa, as well as
phonation (the modification of sound). among invertebrates, such as sponges,
- The oral cavity contains the tongue jellyfishes, flatworms, and many annelids.
and teeth Asexual reproduction is rare among the
PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS other invertebrates.
- The epiglottis temporarily seals off the FISSION
opening (glottis) to the trachea so that Fission is the division of one cell, body, or
swallowed food does not enter the trachea. body part into two
Initiation of the swallowing reflex can be In this process, the cell pinches in two by
voluntary, but most of the time it is an inward furrowing of the plasma
involuntary. When swallowing begins, membrane.
sequential, involuntary contractions of Protists and some animals (cnidarians and
smooth muscles in the walls of the annelids) may reproduce by fission.
esophagus (Gr. oisophagos, to carry food) BINARY FISSION
propel the bolus or liquid to the stomach. Binary fission occurs when the division is
Neither the pharynx nor the esophagus equal; each offspring contains
contributes to digestion. approximately equal amounts of protoplasm
Role of the Pancreas in Digestion - The and associated structures. Binary fission is
pancreas (Gr. pan, all 1 kreas, flesh) is an common in protozoa; for some, it is their
organ that lies just ventral to the stomach only means of reproduction.
and has both endocrine and exocrine It can be longitudinal, transverse,
functions. Exocrine cells in the pancreas asymmetrical, oblique
secrete digestive enzymes into the MULTIPLE FISSION
pancreatic duct, which merges with the Some flatworms and annelids reproduce by
hepatic duct from the liver to form a forming numerous constrictions along the
length of the body; a chain of daughter nourished by an organ called the
individuals results. placenta.
BUDDING
The bud cells proliferate and form a
cylindrical structure, which develops into a
new animal, usually breaking away from
the parent. If the buds remain attached to
the parent, they form a colony.
FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is a type of asexual
reproduction whereby a body part is lost
and then regenerates into a new organism.
PARTHENOGENESIS
Parthenogenesis is a spontaneous
activation of a mature egg, followed by
normal egg divisions and subsequent
embryonic development. In fact, mature
eggs of species that do not undergo
parthenogenesis can sometimes be
activated to develop without fertilization by
pricking them with a needle, by exposing
them to high concentrations of calcium, or
by altering their temperature.
parthenogenetic eggs are not fertilized, they
do not receive male chromosomes. The
offspring would thus be expected to have
only a haploid set of chromosomes. In some
animals, however, meiotic division is
suppressed, so the diploid number is
conserved. In other animals, meiosis
occurs, but an unusual mitotic division
restores the embryo to the diploid state.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Many invertebrates (e.g., sponges and
corals) simply release their gametes into the
water in which they live (broadcast
spawning), allowing external fertilization to
occur.
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Other invertebrates (from flatworms to
insects) utilize internal fertilization to
transfer sperm from male to female and
have structures that facilitate such transfer
The monotremes are a group of highly
specialized egg-laying predatory mammals,
containing the platypus and echidnas.
Marsupial
A marsupial is a mammal that raises its
newborn offspring inside an external pouch
at the front or underside of their bodies.
Placental
A placental is a mammal that completes
embryo development inside the mother,