EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
structures of different organisms in order to
1.Paleontology
-the study of fossils
-they show that life that existed on Earth in the past
are different from what exists today.
-they show evidence of change.
-fossils are trapped in sediments that have layered
overtime and we can know how old these fossils are
through carbon dating.
2.Biogeography
-the study of the distribution of animal fossils in
different places on Earth.
-shows evidence of continental drift.
-example, fossils of Cynognathus were found on
South America, Africa, India, and Australia. This
shows that these continents were once connected.
-animals that are closely related are found on the
same regions.
-example, 76% of non-flying animals in the
Philippines are found on Luzon and exist nowhere
else since they were unable to cross when the islands
separated.
-Fun Fact: Palawan was not connected to the PH.
-the marsupials are one of the most primitive
mammals that are only abundant in Australia.
3.Comparative Anatomy
-is the study of the differences and similarities of the
understand how they adapted.
-Quadrupedals – use four limbs for locomotion such
as dogs, cats, and zebras.
-Pentadactyls – also known as five-fingered limbs.
Examples are human arms, wings of bats, and
flippers of whales. Although these organisms are
different, in the end, they have similar pentadactyl
structures.
-These are called homologous organs. They may be
different organisms, but they have the same counterparts.
-Imperfect adaptation – some parts are not perfectly
adapted. Not needed before and not needed until now.
Example: human’s blind spot because the retina is
behind the optic nerves.
-Vestigial structure – parts that are needed before but not
needed anymore. Example: human tailbones.
4.Embryology
- the study of the development pf embryo.
“Embryology recapitulates evolution.”
-this is because the development of an embryo is like a
mini-sized evolution.
-first, it’s the zygote then the rest of the organs.
5.Physiology and Biochemistry
-have similar DNA and RNA structures.
-have similar macro and micro molecules.
-Example of this are proteins called cytochrome c which
are shown to exist in almost all living cells.
THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
 Mutation
 Change in the genetic material of a
cell (leads to new alleles in a
population)   Natural Selection
 Essential for evolution to work
 Were a source of variation in
living things and it was the source
of variation that natural selection
acted on
 Gene Flow
 The movement of genes between
populations, by the way of
migration
 Migrating individuals that breed
in a new location   Unless there is some type of
 If ever a few are transported to
another place, the gene will flow to
another place, thus there's more
genes.  key point for evolution to happen.
 Ex panther from texas breeds with
panther from florida, the gene flow
will change in florida
 Recombination
 is a process by which pieces of
DNA are broken and recombined
to produce new combinations of
alleles. 
 This recombination process
creates genetic diversity at the
level of genes that reflects
differences in the DNA sequences
of different organisms.
 Genetic Drift  *A planetary body called Theia, collided with Earth and
 The idea that the frequency at
which certain genes appear will
sometimes change totally by
chance and randomly 
 Important to know that past
organisms existed
 The change in allele variation in a
random sampling, reduce genetic
diversity 
 Rabbit nga white na ang daghan
run instead na ang wild type
(brown) moy pinakadaghan 
 Opposition to gene flow
 Natural Selection and Artificial Selection
Traits that give individuals an
advantage in an environment will
get passed more often thus,
showing up more in a population 
 Artificial Selection is fake,
controlled, not natural
Blue rose, breeding dogs 
 The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 
 A population’s allele and genotype
frequencies are constant
evolutionary force acting upon
them
 not favouring evolution but one
 If a population has a constant
genetic pool
 Allele and genotype population
doesn't change from generation to
generation
 Needs a very large size, no
selection, no migration, no
mutation, random mating,
environment should be uniformed
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
4.6 – 3.8 BYA
* The sun and its family of planets were formed.
*Earth was also formed.
formed the moon.
3.5 BYA
*The earliest known fossils were found during this  Some planet must have collided with
period. earth and seeded it with life. 

*Prokaryotes existed during this time. Variations of Panspermia Theory

*Life was established already. a. Radiopanspermia 
 the radiation pressure
from stars propelled
microorganisms
3.0 BYA through space 
b. Lithopanspermia (Interstellar
*The earth may have been a “waterworld.”
panspermia)
*This suggests that early life existed in water.  microorganisms were
present on or in
*Viruses also existed during this period. asteroids comets and
other planetoids 
2.0 BYA  From one solar system
*Eukaryotic cells came into being. to another
c. Ballistic Panspermia
*The Great Oxidation Event took place. This is when (Interplanetary Panspermia)
oxygen gradually replace methane, becoming one of the  Rocks from planet’s
most abundant components in the atmosphere. surface where transfer
vehicles from on
*Due to this, a mass extinction occurred. planet to another
within the same solar
1.2 BYA system
*The microbes prospered during this period. d. Directed panspermia 
 life was intentionally
*Eukaryotes invented sexual reproduction. implanted on earth by
an advanced
500 MYA extraterrestrial
civilization 
*The Big Five Mass Extinctions took place.
 Or the intentional
*During this time, the life that existed were largely spreading of life from
worm-like and jellyfish-like creatures. earth to other planets
by humans 
*The Cambrian Explosion took place wherein
biodiversity prospered.
 Spontaneous Generation Theory 
2000 Years Ago  the notion that life can arise from
*The primitive humans slowly evolved into the Homo nonliving matter
Sapiens or humans that we know of today.
Believed in the Theory: 
 Aristotle was one of the earliest to
articulate this
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION His evidence: fish appearing in a new
puddle of water
 Panspermia or Cosmozoic Theory
 Nonliving material has pneuma (spirit
 Richer developed this
or soul)
 Life originated from other planets
 Jan Baptista van Helmont also
where life existed previously 
proposed that mice could arise from
 Micro-organisms came from space
rags and wheat kernels left in an open
and came on Earth along with the
container for 3 weeks. 
meteorites and comets and then
evolved to higher organisms in water. 
 All organisms have molybdenum and
Refuted the Theory: 
it is required in nitrogen metabolism. 
  Francesco Redi was the first to refute A mass of tiny spaces which
that maggots spontaneously generate soak up other minerals,
on meat chemicals and tiny molecules
 Maggots are formed when flies lay from its surrounding area.
eggs on the meat  Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith
 Louis Pasteur irrefutably disproved believed that the first molecules of life
the theory of spontaneous generation met on clay
through his set of experiments 
 The exposure of a broth to air was not
introducing a “life force” to the broth  Deep Hot Biosphere Hypothesis 
but rather airborne microorganisms.   Thomas Gold developed the
hypothesis 25 years ago. 
 Microbial life is likely widespread
 Primordial Soup Theory  throughout Earth’s subsurface,
 States that when energy is added to residing in the pore spaces between
these gases in the form of heat, grains in rocks.
lighting or UV rays, monomers are  This life likely exists to a depth of
formed (amino acids) multiple kilometers, until elevated
 Theory was generated by Alexander temperature becomes the constraining
Oparin and John Haldane.  factor.
 Monomers are building blocks of  Life is chemosynthetic (from chemical
more complex organic molecules reactions)
called polymers
 Monomer comes from two greek
roots:  DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF THEORY ON
Monos meaning one EVOLUTION
Meros meaning part
 Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
Polymer comes from the greek polus
meaning many (Jean Baptiste Lamarck)
 Monomer: one part and Polymer:
chain of monomers -his theory of evolution had 2 important points.
 Alexander Oparin in 1922: 
He believed that organic *Law of Use and Disuse
molecules had developed from *Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
the gases of Earth's early
atmosphere. However, he
wasn't able to perform
experiments. Law of Use and Disuse
 Miller and Urey in the 50s
-states that parts of the body are often used to cope with
Conducted the series of
the environment while unused ones deteriorate.
experiments on the same
hypothesis Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Proved that amino acids can
be formed during early earth -traits acquired or inherited are passed down from
in their experiment  generation to generation.

 "The Clay" Theory 

 Over billions of years, chemicals
confined in those spaces could have  Natural Selection
carried out the complex reactions that
formed proteins, DNA and eventually (Charles Darwin)
all the machinery that makes a living
-organisms who have favorable traits and are better
cell work.
adapted to their environment are more likely to survive
 In seawater, clay forms a hydrogel. 
and produce more offspring.
Principles of Evolution: -in a diploid organism, maternal and paternal inherited
factors or alleles are distributed randomly to its
1. Inheritance – traits and characteristic are
offspring.
inherited from one generation to another.
2. Selective Pressure – occurs when population
exceeds sources and organisms have to fight for
Law of Independent Assortment
said sources.
3. Survival of the Fittest – organisms who have -inherited variants affecting different traits are inherited
strength and intelligence are more likely to differently from one another.
survive.
4. Variation – organisms have different traits. (Genes in the eyes are different from genes in the nose.)

 Alfred Roswell Wallace’s Thoughts

(Alfred Roswell Wallace)
-together with Henry Bates, he travelled to Amazon to
investigate the origin of species.
-Galapagos island.
-the organisms they managed to save are Pipra Manakis
(birds) and Amazonian Fishes.
-Proposed the Wallace line.
-Even though the islands were only separated by narrows
straits, the change in animal life wasn’t gradual and
subtle, it was sudden and distinct. The animal life in the
Western side or Asia consisted of rhinos, tigers,
elephants and woodpeckers. But the Eastern side
consisted of Comodo dragons, cockatoos, and
honeyeaters.

 Mendel’s Key on the Missing Link

(Johann Gregor Mendel)
-Theory of blending inheritance – states that offspring
are exactly the same as parents.
-Mendel found the missing link to this theory by
proposing the 3 laws of inheritance:

Law of Complete Dominance

-in an individual carrying both a dominant and recessive
trait, only the dominant trait will show up.

Law of Segregation