20932065

Annushca Grimsdell
ASA 1501 > Assignment 1
Unique nr. 768261

Question 1

1.1 Which other layers of squamous epithelium tissue do you know?

• Simple squamous epithelium contains platelike cells. They are quite big but isn’t very
thick. They look like mosaic tile covering when the edges are joined. These epithelia
are not very tensile strong, they are mostly used to cover the strong layer tissues. It
reduces friction therefore is mostly found on smooth surfaces. Covers of the viscera,
body cavities and blood vessels are all simple squamous epithelium.
• Cuboidal epithelial cells are moreover equal in all dimensions. They are abundant in
ducts and kidney passageways. As well as tissue that are active in many glands are
composed of cuboidal epithelium.
• Columnar epithelial are in the form of a cylinder. It looks like in the arrangement of a
honeycomb. Some contain cilia extensions from being free.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium made up of columnar cells. These differ in
length; this gives of an appearance of these epithelia containing more than one layer.
This can be found in upper respiratory tract; the lining is ciliated.
• Stratified epithelium has more than one-layer epithelial cells, includes stratified
squamous, stratified columnar, and transitional epithelia.
• Stratified squamous epithelium is part of the outermost layer of skin and lines the
first part of the digestive tract to the stomach. In ruminants it lines the forestomach
(rumen, reticulum and omasum). These cells are the toughest and thickest. It consists
of many layers. It goes from deep to superficial. Stratum basal, the deepest layer
actively grows and multiplies. They are relatively cuboidal then pushed to the surface.
They are pushed away from the blood supply of underlying tissues. They become flat,
tough and dead. Now they start to peel off. This layer is keratinized (cornified dead
cells) and they become very thick where needed to. This is how calluses are formed.
• Stratified columnar epithelium is made up of more than one layer composed of
columnar cells. It forms part of the lining of the pharynx as well as salivary ducts.
• Transitional epithelium forms part of the urinary system, the bladder must be able to
stretch. These include urinary bladder and ureters. These can also pile up when
bladder is empty.
• Glandular epithelial cells specialize in secretion/ excretion. Secretion is when
something is released from the cell. Excretion is when waste products are expelled.
1.2 Where in the body of cattle is the transitional epithelium located?
• Transitional epithelia are in the urinary bladder. Respectively the pelvis, ureter,
bladder and urethra are lined with transitional epithelium. In male cattle.

1.3 List reflexes based on the segment of the central nervous system that is involved and
discuss the purpose of each.
1. Spinal Reflexes: The withdrawal reflex is a spinal reaction that, in response to a painful
stimulation, causes a rapid withdrawal of the injured body part. It assists in defending the
body against potential injury.
- The stretch reflex, also referred to as the "myotatic reflex," is a spinal cord reaction that
reacts to muscle stretching. Both posture and muscle tone are maintained.
- Crossed Extensor Reflex: When a painful stimulus is met, this reflex, which includes the
spinal cord, causes the opposite reaction on the other side of the body. For instance, the
reflex causes the lifted leg to retain balance while the other leg pulls back when you walk
on a sharp object.
2. Reflexes in the brainstem
- The brainstem is involved in the pupillary reflex, specifically the cranial nerves that
govern the pupils. It facilitates visual concentration and regulates pupil dilatation and
constriction in response to variations in light.
- The stimulation of the back of the throat causes the gag reflex, which is controlled by
the brainstem, to occur. It assists in defending the airway by inducing a rapid reflexive
reaction to stop choking.
3. Cranial Reflexes: - Blink Reflex: This reflex, which is controlled by the cranial nerves,
forces both eyes to quickly close in response to an abrupt brightness or an impending
threat. It assists in shielding the eyes from potential harm.
- Sucking Reflex: When an infant's lips or mouth are stimulated, this reflex, which involves
the cranial nerves, causes them to automatically suck. Early in life, it aids with feeding and
nutrition.
1.4 What is the significance of bones in the body of cattle?
• Bones protect organs in the body. Organs such as central nervous system by
vertebral column. The brain is protected by the skull. The heart and lungs are
protected by the ribs. Internal parts of Urinary system are protected by pelvis.
• Posture and movements are maintained by bones where soft tissue can’t provide
this rigidity and form.
• Bones act as levers. They provide as the site of attachment to muscles. The
muscles conclude to movement, defence, grabbing and other similar actions.
• The bone in the body is used a storage area. It stores minerals (calcium and
phosphorus), these are deposited and taken when needed. This is the process of
homeokinetic.
• It forms part of cellular components of blood; the marrow in the cavities of long
and spongy bones substance in all young bones is part of blood formation.
1.5 What is the purpose of cardiac muscle?
• Cardiac muscle contains cross-striations.
• Cardiac muscle is in the heart.
• Purkinje fibres are modified to be able to conduct impulses in the heart, they work
a lot like nerve fibres that work in other parts of the body.
• It constitutes most of the thickness of the wall (Myocardium)
• These rhythmic contractions are responsible for blood circulation throughout the
body.
• Cardiac muscles have a tendency for muscle fibres to branch and join, forms a
network.
• Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are both plentiful in cardiac muscle.
• Individual cardiac muscle cells do not require nerve stimulation to contract, but
action potentials must occur on the cell membrane. Action potentials first occur
spontaneously in specialised myocardial pacemaker cells within the heart, and
these are propagated throughout the heart by a specialised conduction system and
from cell to cell via the gap junctions (at intercalated disks)

1.6 Describe how an impulse is conducted.

• Neurons consist of axons and dendrites.
• Axons conduct impulses away from the cell body of the nervous tissue.
• Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body.
• Tracts are bundles of axons.
• Nerve fibres are covered in myelin sheaths that are supported by Schwann Cells in
nerves.
• Special connective tissue is called neuroglia and is only found in the central nervous
system.
• Now we have a good understanding of how a nerve looks like, let’s look at how it is
conducted.
• Nerve impulses are like lightning strikes. It works with action potentials. Impulses
occur when different electrical charges are present across the plasma membranes
of neurons.
• Resting potentials are when neurons are not actively transmitting nerve impulses.
Sodium potassium pumps move ions across membranes.
• Action Potentials are nerve impulses (electrical charges) that travel along a
membrane of a neuron. It is generated when a neuron’s potential is changed by
chemical signals from nearby cells. The cell membrane changes from a negative
potential to a positive potential as sodium ions go into cell via ion channels.
Potassium floes out of the cell.
• Depolarization occurs when all-or-nothing basis is set. Thus, a certain threshold
must be met before the action potential can start. Firstly, sodium flows into the
cell. This results in positive increase (+40mV). The end of the potential channel is
when potassium starts to flow out. Exhibiting Repolarization. After this both
channels close and restores to a resting potential. However, the action potential
moves down the axon toward a synapse. Imagine like a wave on the surface of
water. A refractory period exists where another action potential can’t be generated
at same time.
• Myelinated neurons only encounter ion flow at nodes of Ranvier. This results in
the action potential signals “jump” along axons from node to node (it doesn’t
spread smooth along membranes) like axons without myelin sheaths. This happens
as result of potassium and sodium ion channels at nodes of Ranvier.
 • Synapses are where axon terminals meet other cells. The cell that sends the
impulse is the presynaptic cell. The cell that receives the impulse is the
postsynaptic cell. Electrical synapses are direct electric connections, whereas
chemical synapses are complex.
• Chemical Synapses use neurotransmitters (synaptic vesicles packed with
chemicals). In the synaptic cleft these chemicals are released and travel between
pre and post synaptic membranes. They bind to receptors of membrane. This way
target cells are excited, making impulses through the body.

1.7 In our own words, describe cranial nerves.

Cranial nerves originate from midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.

Cranial nerves look like spinal nerves. Though they have strict motor and sensor nerves
and don’t have discernible dorsal and ventral roots.

Question 2

2.1 What are reflexes and reflex arcs?

• Reflexes are actions that are done unconsciously, they are responses to
appropriate stimulus/responses.
• Afferent and Efferent neurons are used in the simplest reflex.
• Afferent neurons detect stimulus and transmits the information with action
potentials to the central nervous system.
• In the central nervous system afferent neuron synapse and stimulates action
potential in efferent neurons. Efferent neurons leave the central nervous system
and results in muscle movement.
• A reflex arc is the entire neural circuit from a stimulus being detected to a
response of the body via muscle contraction.
• Here are examples of different types of reflex arcs.
▪ Spinal reflexes (spinal cord segments)
▪ Tonic neck reflexes (raising your head)
▪ Corneal reflex (eyelids that close)
▪ Palpebral reflex (tapping of the eyes)
2.2 Discuss the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous system.

• Somatic nervous system – Nerves part of the peripheral nervous system and of
central nervous system. These activate voluntary muscles (skeletal muscles).
Sensory nerve impulses are part of the somatic nervous system. The somatic
system is done under voluntary control.
• Autonomic Nervous system – Visceral organs (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and
glands) are part of the autonomic system. Also uses both central and peripheral
nervous system. As well as contain sensory and motor components. Major
activities of the autonomic nervous system are based on homeokinesis.
Homeokinesis is the process of internal environment being regulated. The
autonomic system can be further divided into two parts.
▪ Sympathetic division – also known as thoracolumbar division (arise from
thoracic and lumbar part of spine). Body must prepare for a fight or flight
reaction.
▪ Parasympathetic division - also known as craniosacral division (arise from
cranial nerves and sacral part of spine). It reacts opposite to sympathetic
division. This division leads to storage and acts as a state of rest. Rest and
digest phase.
2.3 Explain in your own words the differences between arteries, capillaries, and veins.

• Arteries – Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Blood can be loaded
with oxygen or not. Arteries are large vessels that grow into smaller vessels.
Smallest vessels are called arterioles, these continue into capillaries. They are
composed of endothelium cells and walls are thick and elastic (these factors
maintain blood pressure). Smooth muscles in walls of smaller arteries control
diameter of vessels.
• Capillaries – Small tubes made up of only endothelium, continue simple squamous
epithelium which lines the heart and blood vessels. The wall acts as membrane that
is permeable and selective to permit water, oxygen and nutrients to leave blood for
tissue cells to enter blood. A lot of the blood returns to the capillaries. Capillaries
meet again to form veins; these veins grow into bigger veins.
• Veins – Blood is carried toward the heart. Veins come together to from larger
veins. The largest veins connect to the heart and empty into the atria. Veins are
thinner than arteries. Veins have a lower pressure to maintain than arteries.
Movement of body parts assist the flow of blood towards the heart. The venous
and lymphatic system contain valves (2 cusps) which are irregularly space in veins. A
valve can pump blood in opposite directions of gravity, for instance blood that
needs to travel back to the heart from your foot.
2.4 Identify the location of the following blood vessels and valves and explain their roles:
• Cranial and caudal venae cavae – The caudal vena cava is located at the right atrium of
the heart. This is a large vein that brings blood to the heart from the lower body. The
caudal vena cava begins where two common iliac veins join in the caudal abdominal region.
The cranial vena cava is above the heart. It forms convergence of the left and right
brachiocephalic veins, contain blood from the head and arms. The role is to transport all
blood from cranial to diaphragm back to the right atrium of the heart.
• Conus arteriosus – also known as infundibulum forms part of the right ventricle, it is
between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk (smooth walls and don’t have
trabeculae). It acts as a support structure for the pulmonary valve.
• Pulmonary arteries – It is a large blood vessel that connects right ventricle of the heart
and lungs. Located more to the front of the heart, above ascending aorta, splits into two
branches (right and left arteries). The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the
lungs for gas exchange.
• Pulmonary veins – It is located at the left atrium of the heart. Once blood has been
oxygenated it returns via the pulmonary veins.

2.5 Using prescribed book, describe the different structures of the ruminant digestive
system.

• The rumen (left side of the animal) is the largest stomach cavity and consists of
many sacs. It can hold 25 gallons or more depending on the size of the cow. Due to
its size, the rumen serves as a place to store or store food. In addition to
preservation, the rumen is also a fermentation tank. The rumen environment is
favourable for the growth of bacteria. These specific bacteria digest or can ferment
food via rumen and make volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The rumen absorbs most of
the VFA from fermentation. A good blood supply to the rumen wall improves the
absorption of VFAs and other digestive products. Small projections (papillary)
along the rumen, increasing the surface area of the rumen and the amount that can
be absorbed.
• The reticulum is a sac-like structure located in the anterior part of the body, near
the heart. Tissues of the reticulum form a pattern that look like a honeycomb. A
small fold of tissue lies between the reticulum and the rumen, but the two are not
separate compartments. Together they are called ruminal grills. Heavy, solid food
and metal objects eaten by cows will fall into this compartment. Fingernails and
other sharp objects can penetrate tissues and cause “physical ailments.” You can
use magnets to prevent disease or solve surgical problems. If left untreated, it can
lead to infection and even death.
• Omasum is a globe-shaped structure containing sheets of cloth (like the pages of a
book). It absorbs water and other substances from the digestive contents. The food
(food) in the middle of the plates will be drier than the food in the other
compartments. star fruit stomach. The stomach is the only cavity lined with glands.
These glands release hydrochloric acid and the digestive enzymes needed to break
down food. Abomasum resembles the stomach of a non-ruminant.
Question 3

3.1 Explain the concept of panting.

Panting is a way/system for heat dissipation. Panting is characterized by increased
respiratory rate but decreased tidal volume (the volume of air that moves with each
breath). Alveolar ventilation is slightly increased in panting animals because the increased
air movement mainly occurs in the upper respiratory tract which is not the site of gas
exchange. These airways are considered anatomically dead space.
3.2 Based on your answer in 3.1, why would you say that panting is different from
ventilation?
Ventilation is the process by which air moves in and out by mean of inhalation and
exhalation of the lungs. Alveolar ventilation is a more specific term that refers to the
movement of air in and out of the alveoli. The alveoli are the main site of gas exchange in
the lungs, so alveolar ventilation is necessary for this function.
Ventilation is used by body when in a normal state where air doesn’t have to let go out of
the body so quickly nut rather at a normal state, whereas when panting the body needs to
get rid of a lot of air quickly from the body to let it cool down in way more rapid state.
3.3 List the functions of the kidneys.

• remove waste from the bodies blood.

• helps regulate plasma composition.
• regulate the body's balance of water, electrolytes, acids and bases.
• urinary excretion of metabolic waste, including nitrogenous waste, urea and a by-
product of skeletal muscle metabolism called creatinine.
• perform certain hormonal functions.
3.4 Describe the control of urine.
The body continuously controls the concentration, composition and volume of urine you
secret. The kidneys release very dilute (hypotonic) urine during excess water (when the
body has a high-water content) and concentrated urine (hypertonic) when the body is
dehydrated (when the body has a reduced water content). The kidney's ability to excrete
hypertonic or hypotonic urine depends on: Functional and anatomical characteristics of
Henle loops and collections channel. The hormones involved in the regulation of urine
output are antidiuretic drugs hormones (ADH) and aldosterone. Anti-diuretic hormone is
produced by the pituitary gland and increases reabsorption to retain more water.
Aldosterone is produced by the adrenal cortex and its production stimulates sodium
reabsorption and increases water reabsorption. The result is more salt retention and
therefore more water retention.
3.5 Discuss conception and prenatal development.

• When a father's sperm cell fertilizes a mother's egg cell, conception takes place.
Usually, this happens during sexual activity.
• The foetal development process starts with fertilization. After fertilization, a
process known as cleavage causes the fertilized egg, now known as a zygote, to
begin quickly dividing and multiplying.
• After fertilization, the zygote transforms into a blastocyst, a hollow ball of cells,
around three to four days later.
• The blastocyst inserts itself into the uterine lining about five to six days following
conception. Implantation is the term for this action. The components that will
subsequently develop into the placenta and the embryo are formed by the
blastocyst once it has been implanted.
• The growing organism is now referred to as an embryo.
• The embryonic stage, which lasts from around week 2 to week 8 of pregnancy, is
when the fundamental organs and structures start to take shape. Major
developmental milestones include the formation of the heart, central nervous
system, limbs, and organs take place during this critical time period.
• A foetus is the term used to describe the growing organism after the embryonic
stage.
• The focus of the foetal stage, which starts around week 9 and lasts until birth, is on
the continuation of organ and system growth and maturation.