Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environmental Science Working With The Earth
Environmental Science Working With The Earth
Environmental Science
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Environmental Science
Working with the Earth
ELEVENTH EDITION
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Europe/Middle East/Africa
ExamView® and ExamView Pro® are registered trademarks of Thomson Learning
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Latin America
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Student Edition (softcover): ISBN 0-534-42250-0 Paraninfo Thomson Learning
Calle/Magallanes, 25
Student Edition (hardcover): ISBN 0-495-01475-3 28015 Madrid
Annotated Instuctor’s Edition: ISBN: 0-534-42251-9 Spain
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Brief Contents
SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY
8 Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem
Approach 154
9 Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species
Approach 183
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Detailed Contents
NASA
Learning Skills 1
1 Environmental Problems,
Their Causes, and
1-5 Environmental Problems: Causes and
Sustainability 5
Connections 13
Case Study: Living in an Exponential
1-6 Cultural Changes and Sustainability 16
Age 5
1-7 Is Our Present Course Sustainable? 17
1-1 Living More Sustainably 6
1-2 Population Growth. Economic Growth
and Economic Development 8
1-3 Resources 10 ECOLOGY AND
Economics Case Study: The Tragedy SUSTAINABILITY
of the Commons 10
1-4 Pollution 12 2 Science, Matter, and
Energy 19
Case Study: An Environmental Lesson
from Easter Island 19
2-1 The Nature of Science 20
Science Spotlight: What Is Harming
the Robins? 21
2-2 Matter 22
2-3 Energy 29
2-4 Matter and Energy Change Laws and
Sustainability 32
Work? 35
Case Study: Have You Thanked the Insects
Today? 35
3-1 The Nature of Ecology 36
Science Spotlight: Which Species Rules
the World? 36
Point-source air pollution from a pulp mill in New York State 3-2 The Earth’s Life-Support Systems 38
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6 Community Ecology,
Population Ecology, and
Sustainability 108
Case Study: Why Should We Care
about the American Alligator? 108
6-1 Community Structure and Species
Diversity 109
6-2 Types of Species 111
Case Study: Why Are Amphibians
Vanishing? 111
Case Study: Why Are Sharks
Important Species? 113
6-3 Species Interactions 114
Roland Seitre/Peter Arnold, Inc.
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Movement 172
8-6 National Parks 172
Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National
Parks 172
8-7 Nature Reserves 173
Science Case Study: Costa Rica—A Global
Comeback of the endangered American alligator Conservation Leader 174
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13 Energy 285
Women carrying firewood in India
Case Study: The Coming Energy-Efficiency
and Renewable-Energy Revolution 285
13-1 Evaluating Energy Resources 286
13-2 Nonrenewable Fossil Fuels 290
11 Water and Water
Science, Economics, and Politics Case
Pollution 236
Study: How Much Oil Does the United States
Case Study: Water Conflicts in the Middle Have? 291
East 236
13-3 Nonrenewable Nuclear Energy 298
11-1 Water’s Importance, Use, and
Renewal 237 Science Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant Accident 300
Science Case Study: Freshwater Resources
in the United States 239 Science and Politics Case Study:
High-Level Radioactive Wastes in the
11-2 Supplying More Water 240
United States 303
Politics and Ethics Case Study: Who 13-4 Improving Energy Efficiency 306
Should Own and Manage Freshwater
Resources? 241
Science Case Study: The Aral Sea
Disaster 244
11-3 Reducing Water Waste 248
11-4 Too Much Water 251
Science and Poverty Case Study: Living
on Floodplains in Bangladesh 252
11-5 Water Pollution: Types, Effects, and
Sources 254
11-6 Pollution of Freshwater Streams, Lakes,
and Aquifers 255
11-7 Ocean Pollution 259
Science Case Study: The Chesapeake
Bay 261
11-8 Preventing and Reducing Surface Water
© Bryan Peterson
Pollution 263
Science Case Study: Using Wetlands
to Treat Sewage 265
11-9 Drinking Water Quality 266 Creek in Montana polluted by acidic mining wastes
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18 Environmental Economics,
Politics, and Worldviews 412
Case Study: Biosphere 2: A Lesson
in Humility 412
18-1 Economic Systems and Sustainability 413
18-2 Using Economics to Improve Environmental
Quality 416
18-3 Reducing Poverty to Improve Environmental
Quality and Human Well-Being 421
Solutions: Global Outlook: Microloans
for the Poor 423
Ted Spiegel/CORBIS
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SCIENCE SUPPLEMENTS
1 Units of Measurement S1
2 Ecological Footprints S2
3 Major Events in U.S. Environmental
History S9
4 Balancing Chemical Equations S15
5 Classifying and Naming Species S17
6 Weather Basics S19
7 Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanic
Eruptions S23
Glossary G1
The earth flag, a symbol of commitment to promoting environ-
mental sustainability Index I1
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P R E F A C E
For Instructors
This book is an interdisciplinary study of how nature ■ Trade-Offs. The search for solutions involves trade-
works, how we interact with nature, and how we can offs—the fourth subtheme—because any solution has
live more sustainably. Throughout all editions of advantages and disadvantages that must be evaluated.
this and my other textbooks, I have sought to tell a There are 35 Trade-Offs diagrams giving the advan-
story of how human societies can traverse a path to tages and disadvantages of various environmental
sustainability. technologies and solutions to environmental prob-
lems. Examples are Figures 7-21 and 7-22 (p. 149), 8-12
Sustainability as the Central Theme (p. 163), and 17-12 (p. 401). The caption in each of these
with Five Major Subthemes diagrams has a Critical Thinking question asking read-
ers to pick the single advantage and the single disad-
In this edition, I hope to make the story of a path to
vantage they think are most important. Also see the
sustainability even clearer to students. Sustainability is
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of
the central theme of this book as shown in the Brief
pesticides on pp. 228–331.
Contents on p. v.
Five major subthemes—natural capital, natural ■ Individuals matter. In the quest for finding and
capital degradation, solutions, trade-offs, and indi- implementing solutions, I present many examples that
viduals matter—guide the way to sustainability. Fig- illustrate the important contributions that individuals
ure 1-2 (p. 7) shows a path to sustainability based on have made. I avoid gloom-and-doom and use uplift-
these subthemes. ing stories to show how individuals working alone
and together have changed the world. And I try to
■ Natural capital. Sustainability requires a focus on balance bad environmental news with good environ-
preserving natural capital—the natural resources and mental news. Throughout the book Individuals Matter
natural services that support all life and economies boxes describe what various scientists and concerned
(Figure 1-3, p. 7). Logos based on this figure appear citizens have done to help us achieve sustainability.
near many chapter titles to show the components of (pp. 172, 229, 386, 394). Also, 12 What Can You Do?
natural capital being discussed in those chapters. boxes describe how readers can deal with various
Some 90 diagrams illustrate natural capital. Examples environmental problems. Examples are Figures 8-27
are Figures 3-14 (p. 45), 3-25 (p. 56), 5-25 (p. 97), and (p. 177), 11-21 (p. 251), and 13-48 (p. 326).
Figure 8-7 (p. 160).
■ Natural capital degradation. Certain human A Sound Science Basis
activities lead to natural capital degradation—the sec- The path to sustainability is supported throughout this
ond subtheme. I describe how human activities can text by sound science—concepts and explanations
degrade natural capital, and some 124 diagrams illus- widely accepted by scientists. Chapters 2–9 present the
trate this. Examples are Figures 5-33 (p. 103), 10-9 scientific principles of ecology and biodiversity (see
(p. 212), and 11-14 (p. 246). Brief Contents, p. v) needed to understand how the
■ Solutions. The next step is a search for solutions to earth works and to evaluate proposed solutions to the
natural capital degradation and other environmental environmental problems. Science is then integrated
problems. I present solutions to environmental prob- throughout the book in text (pp. 220, 271, 315, 392), sci-
lems in a balanced manner and have students use ence spotlights (pp. 69, 204, 323, 408), science case stud-
critical thinking to evaluate proposed solutions. Some ies (pp. 178, 244, 282), and figures (pp. 232, 289, 372, 385).
95 diagrams and subsections present environmental Environmental ScienceNow, a new feature of this
solutions as strategies for prevention or control. edition, allows students to enhance their scientific
Examples are Figures 8-21 (p. 171), 11-16 (p. 247), understanding by viewing animations available on the
15-17 (p. 363), and 17-23 (p. 409). website for this book. There are 92 Environmental
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ScienceNow items, some of them related to figures 44 others appear throughout the book (see Detailed
(pp. 40, 353, 414) and others to text (pp. 118, 221, 392) Contents, p. vii). These 62 case studies provide a more
in-depth look at specific environmental problems and
Science, Economics, Politics, and Ethics their possible solutions.
from a Global Perspective
Material from science, economics, political science, Critical Thinking
and environmental ethics is integrated throughout The introduction on Learning Skills describes critical
this text. Subsection labels, such as Science and thinking skills (pp. 3–4). And critical thinking exercises
Economics, Economics and Politics, and Science and are used throughout the book in several ways:
Ethics (pp. 188, 226, 241, 288) show this integration.
Chapter 18 ties much of this material together with its ■ In all boxes (except Individuals Matter)
focus on environmental economics, politics, and ethics. ■ In the captions of the book’s 35 Trade-Offs figures
It can be used anytime after Chapter 1. ■ As 68 How Would You Vote? exercises (see pp. 221,
This book assumes a global perspective on two
298, and 398) —a new feature of this edition
levels. First, ecological principles reveal how all the
world’s life is connected and sustained within the bio- ■ As end-of-chapter questions
sphere (Chapter 3). Second, the book integrates infor-
mation and images from around the world by present- Visual Learning
ing scientific, economic, political, and ethical issues. To This book has 471 illustrations and photos (130 of them
emphasize this feature I have added the label Global new to this edition) designed to present complex ideas
Outlook to many of the book’s figures (pp. 146, 351, and in understandable ways relating to the real world.
395) and subsections (pp. 163, 259, 286–87). There are To enhance learning and increase interest, I have
also numerous global maps (pp. 96, 116, 241). put potentially boring tables and lists into a colorful
visual format. This includes diagrams illustrating nat-
Flexibility ural capital (p. 104), natural capital degradation (pp. 95,
There are hundreds of ways to organize the chapters in 103) trade-offs (pp. 231, 322), and solutions (pp. 307, 382).
this book to fit the needs of different instructors. Since I have also carefully selected 113 photographs—97
the publication of the first edition in 1975, my solution of them new to this edition—to illustrate key ideas.
to this problem has been to design a highly flexible I have avoided the common practice of including
book that allows instructors to vary the order of chap- numerous “filler” photographs that are not very effec-
ters and sections within chapters. tive or that show the obvious. When I cannot find a
I recommend that instructors start with Chapter 1 high-quality photograph, to illustrate an idea, I substi-
because it defines basic terms and gives an overview of tute a high-quality diagram.
sustainability, population, pollution, resources, and Finally, to enhance visual learning, 92 Environ-
economic development issues that are treated through- mental ScienceNow interactive animations, referenced
out the book. This provides a springboard for instruc- to the text and diagrams, are available online. This
tors to use other chapters in almost any order. For learning tool helps students assess their unique study
example, Chapter 18 on Environmental Economics, needs through pretests, posttests, and personalized
Politics, and Worldviews could follow Chapter 1. learning plans. It is FREE with every new copy of the
One often-used strategy is to follow Chapter 1 book and can be purchased for used titles. Another
with Chapters 2–7, introducing basic science and eco- feature of this learning tool is How Do I Prepare? It
logical concepts. Instructors can then use the remain- allows students to review basic math, chemistry, and
ing chapters in any order desired. other refresher skills.
In this edition, I have followed Chapter 7 with two
chapters on the important topic of biodiversity. Thus, The Most Significant Revision Ever
Chapters 2–9 include all of the basic biology (ecology In preparing this new edition, I have consulted more
and biodiversity). Many instructors have requested than 10,000 research sources in the professional litera-
this chapter order, but the biodiversity chapters can ture and about the same number of Internet sites. I
easily be covered later. have also benefited from the more than 250 experts and
teachers (see list on pp. xix–xxi) who have provided
Case Studies detailed reviews of this and my other three books in
Each chapter begins with a brief Case Study designed this field. And I benefited from information sent to me
to capture interest and set the stage for the material by instructors and students using this and my other
that follows. In addition to these 18 case studies, environmental science textbooks. This edition contains
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over 4,000 updates based on information and data New learning features for this edition, described
published in 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005. above, include chapter opening summaries of key
This is the most significant revision since the first ideas, critical thinking questions in the captions of
edition of Environmental Science. Major changes include trade-offs diagrams, 92 Environmental ScienceNow ani-
the following: mations keyed to the text, and 68 How Would You Vote?
boxes.
■ Reduction of the book’s length by 2 chapters (from
Qualified users of this textbook have free access to
20 to 18) and by 102 pages.
the Companion Website for this book at
■ Change of chapter order to put all of the biology
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
(ecology and biodiversity) material together (see Brief
Contents, p. v) based on feedback from many instruc- At this website they will find the following mate-
tors. I plan to stick with this chapter order in future rial for each chapter:
editions.
■ Flash Cards, which allow you to test your mastery
■ Revision of the entire book with help from devel-
of the Terms and Concepts to Remember for each
opmental editor Scott Spoolman and three in-depth
chapter
reviews.
■ Chapter Quizzes, which provide a multiple-choice
■ Addition of How Would You Vote? feature, enabling practice quiz
students to vote online on 68 critical environmental
issues and to get national and global tallies of the
■ InfoTrac® College Edition articles are listed by chapter
results (pp. 113, 159, 178). Most of these vote decisions and section online, as well as by relevant region of the
are tied to trade-offs diagrams (pp. 221, 317, 401) or country on InfoTrac® Map. These articles can also sup-
discussions of controversial issues and require stu- port How Would You Vote? exercises.
dents to use critical thinking skills to evaluate solu- ■ References, which lists the major books and articles
tions and make decisions about environmental issues. consulted in writing this chapter
■ Summary of key ideas at the beginning of each ■ A brief What Can You Do? list addressing key envi-
chapter (pp. 36, 155, 286) and at the beginning of each ronmental problems
subsection (pp.10, 40, 175). ■ Weblinks, an extensive list of websites with news,
■ 166 new figures (including 97 new photographs) research, and images related to individual sections of
and 120 improved figures. This means that 80% of the the chapter.
book’s 471 figures are either new or improved. Qualified adopters of this textbook also have
■ 35 Trade-Offs diagrams and 12 What Can You Do? access to WebTutor Advantage on WebCT and Blackboard.
diagrams. The course pack contains our website content,
■ Important new topics include affluenza, future Environmental ScienceNow media and tests, as well as
implications of genetic engineering, reconciliation other useful material. For more information, visit
ecology, ownership of water resources, nanotech- http://webtutor.thomsonlearning.com
nology, General Motors’ fuel cell car of the future,
bioterrorism, and expanded treatment of the steward- Teachers and students using new copies of this
ship environmental worldview. textbook also have free and unlimited access to
InfoTrac® College Edition. This fully searchable online
library gives users access to complete environmental
In-Text Study Aids
articles from several hundred periodicals dating back
Each chapter begins with a few general questions to over the past 24 years.
reveal how it is organized and what students will be
learning. When a new term is introduced and defined, Other Student Learning Tools
it is printed in boldface type. A glossary of all key
terms is located at the end of the book. ■ Essential Study Skills for Science Students by Daniel
Each chapter ends with a set of Critical Thinking D. Chiras. This book includes chapters on developing
questions to encourage students to think critically and good study habits, sharpening memory, getting the
apply what they have learned to their lives. The web- most out of lectures, labs, and reading assignments,
site for the book also contains a set of Review Questions improving test-taking abilities, and becoming a critical
covering all of the material in the chapter, which can be thinker. Instructors can have this book bundled FREE
used as a study guide for students. Some instructors with the textbook.
download this from the website to give students a list ■ Laboratory Manual by C. Lee Rockett and Kenneth
of questions to answer as a course requirement. J. Van Dellen. This manual includes a variety of
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Cumulative Reviewers
Barbara J. Abraham, Hampton College; Donald D. Council, Inc.; Ray Canterbery, Florida State University;
Adams, State University of New York at Plattsburgh; Ted J. Case, University of San Diego; Ann Causey,
Larry G. Allen, California State University, North- Auburn University; Richard A. Cellarius, Evergreen
ridge; Susan Allen-Gil, Ithaca College; James R. State University; William U. Chandler, Worldwatch
Anderson, U.S. Geological Survey; Mark W. Anderson, Institute; F. Christman, University of North Carolina,
University of Maine; Kenneth B. Armitage, University Chapel Hill; Lu Anne Clark, Lansing Community
of Kansas; Samuel Arthur, Bowling Green State College; Preston Cloud, University of California, Santa
University; Gary J. Atchison, Iowa State University; Barbara; Bernard C. Cohen, University of Pittsburgh;
Marvin W. Baker, Jr., University of Oklahoma; Virgil R. Richard A. Cooley, University of California, Santa
Baker, Arizona State University; Ian G. Barbour, Cruz; Dennis J. Corrigan; George Cox, San Diego State
Carleton College; Albert J. Beck, California State University; John D. Cunningham, Keene State College;
University, Chico; W. Behan, Northern Arizona Herman E. Daly, University of Maryland; Raymond
University; Keith L. Bildstein, Winthrop College; Jeff F. Dasmann, University of California, Santa Cruz;
Bland, University of Puget Sound; Roger G. Bland, Kingsley Davis, Hoover Institution; Edward E.
Central Michigan University; Grady Blount II, Texas DeMartini, University of California, Santa Barbara;
A&M University, Corpus Christi; Georg Borgstrom, Charles E. DePoe, Northeast Louisiana University;
Michigan State University; Arthur C. Borror, Uni- Thomas R. Detwyler, University of Wisconsin; Peter H.
versity of New Hampshire; John H. Bounds, Sam Diage, University of California, Riverside; Lon D.
Houston State University; Leon F. Bouvier, Population Drake, University of Iowa; David DuBose, Shasta
Reference Bureau; Daniel J. Bovin, Université Laval; College; Dietrich Earnhart, University of Kansas; T.
Michael F. Brewer, Resources for the Future, Inc.; Mark Edmonson, University of Washington; Thomas Eisner,
M. Brinson, East Carolina University; Dale Brown, Cornell University; Michael Esler, Southern Illinois
University of Hartford; Patrick E. Brunelle, Contra University; David E. Fairbrothers, Rutgers University;
Costa College; Terrence J. Burgess, Saddleback College Paul P. Feeny, Cornell University; Richard S. Feldman,
North; David Byman, Pennsylvania State University, Marist College; Nancy Field, Bellevue Community
Worthington–Scranton; Michael L. Cain, Bowdoin College; Allan Fitzsimmons, University of Kentucky;
College, Lynton K. Caldwell, Indiana University; Faith Andrew J. Friedland, Dartmouth College; Kenneth O.
Thompson Campbell, Natural Resources Defense Fulgham, Humboldt State University; Lowell L. Getz,
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University; Jennifer Rivers, Northeastern University; Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Frank E. Studnicka, University
Ronald Robberecht, University of Idaho; William Van of Wisconsin, Platteville; Chris Tarp, Contra Costa
B. Robertson, School of Medicine, Stanford University; College; Roger E. Thibault, Bowling Green State Uni-
C. Lee Rockett, Bowling Green State University; Terry versity; William L. Thomas, California State Univer-
D. Roelofs, Humboldt State University; Christopher sity, Hayward; Shari Turney, copyeditor; John D. Usis,
Rose, California Polytechnic State University; Richard Youngstown State University; Tinco E. A. van
G. Rose, West Valley College; Stephen T. Ross, Hylckama, Texas Tech University; Robert R. Van Kirk,
University of Southern Mississippi; Robert E. Roth, Humboldt State University; Donald E. Van Meter, Ball
Ohio State University; Arthur N. Samel, Bowling State University; Gary Varner, Texas A&M University;
Green State University; Floyd Sanford, Coe College; John D. Vitek, Oklahoma State University; Harry A.
David Satterthwaite, I.E.E.D., London; Stephen W. Wagner, Victoria College; Lee B. Waian, Saddleback
Sawyer, University of Maryland; Arnold Schecter, College; Warren C. Walker, Stephen F. Austin State
State University of New York; Frank Schiavo, San Jose University; Thomas D. Warner, South Dakota State
State University; William H. Schlesinger, Ecological University; Kenneth E. F. Watt, University of
Society of America; Stephen H. Schneider, National California, Davis; Alvin M. Weinberg, Institute of
Center for Atmospheric Research; Clarence A. Energy Analysis, Oak Ridge Associated Universities;
Schoenfeld, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Henry Brian Weiss; Margery Weitkamp, James Monroe High
A. Schroeder, Dartmouth Medical School; Lauren A. School (Granada Hills, California); Anthony Weston,
Schroeder, Youngstown State University; Norman B. State University of New York at Stony Brook;
Schwartz, University of Delaware; George Sessions, Raymond White, San Francisco City College; Douglas
Sierra College; David J. Severn, Clement Associates; Wickum, University of Wisconsin, Stout; Charles G.
Paul Shepard, Pitzer College and Claremont Graduate Wilber, Colorado State University; Nancy Lee
School; Michael P. Shields, Southern Illinois University Wilkinson, San Francisco State University; John C.
at Carbondale; Kenneth Shiovitz; F. Siewert, Ball State Williams, College of San Mateo; Ray Williams, Rio
University; E. K. Silbergold, Environmental Defense Hondo College; Roberta Williams, University of
Fund; Joseph L. Simon, University of South Florida; Nevada, Las Vegas; Samuel J. Williamson, New York
William E. Sloey, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh; University; Ted L. Willrich, Oregon State University;
Robert L. Smith, West Virginia University; Val Smith, James Winsor, Pennsylvania State University; Fred
University of Kansas; Howard M. Smolkin, U.S. Witzig, University of Minnesota at Duluth; George M.
Environmental Protection Agency; Patricia M. Sparks, Woodwell, Woods Hole Research Center; Robert
Glassboro State College; John E. Stanley, University of Yoerg, Belmont Hills Hospital; Hideo Yonenaka, San
Virginia; Mel Stanley, California State Polytechnic Francisco State University; Malcolm J. Zwolinski,
University, Pomona; Norman R. Stewart, University of University of Arizona.
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L earning Skills
Students who can begin early in their lives to think of things course in your education. What could be more important
as connected, even if they revise their views every year, have than learning how the earth works, how we are affect-
begun the life of learning. ing its life-support system, and how we can reduce our
MARK VAN DOREN environmental impact?
We live in an incredibly exciting and challenging
Why Is It Important to Study era. There is a growing awareness that during this cen-
Environmental Science? tury we need to make a new cultural transition in
Environmental science may be the most important which we learn how to live more sustainably by not
course you will ever take. degrading our life-support system. I hope this book
will stimulate you to become involved in promoting
Welcome to environmental science—an interdisciplinary this change in the way we view and treat the earth that
study of how nature works and how things in nature sustains other life, all economies, and us.
are interconnected. This book is an integrated and sci-
ence-based study of environmental problems, connec-
tions, and solutions. How Did I Become Involved with
The following themes are interwoven throughout Environmental Problems?
this book: sustainability, natural capital, natural capital I became involved in environmental science and
degredation, solutions to environmental problems, trade- education after hearing a scientific lecture in 1966.
offs in finding acceptable solutions, the importance of In 1966, I heard Dean Cowie, a physicist with the U.S.
individual actions in implementing solutions (individuals Geological Survey, give a lecture on the problems of
matter), and sound science (see Figure 1-2, p. 7). population growth and pollution. Afterward I went to
Here are the key ideas in this book. him and said, “If even a fraction of what you have said
■ We are in the process of degrading the earth's re- is true, I will feel ethically obligated to give up my re-
sources and services—called natural capital—that sup- search on the corrosion of metals and devote the rest of
port all life and economies (see Figures 1-3, p. 7). my life to research and education on environmental
problems and solutions. Frankly, I do not want to be-
■ There are four interconnected principles of sus-
lieve a word you have said, and I am going into the lit-
tainability based on understanding how nature has
erature to try to show that your statements are either
sustained itself for billions of years (see Figure 6-18,
untrue or grossly distorted.”
p. 125).
After six months of study, I was convinced of the
■ We can learn to live more sustainability during this seriousness of these and other environmental prob-
century by applying these four principles to our lems. Since then, I have been studying, teaching, and
lifestyles and economies (see Figure 6-19, 126). writing about them. This book summarizes what I
■ There are always tradeoffs involved in making have learned in more than three decades of trying to
decisions about environmental problems and understand environmental principles, problems, con-
solutions. nections, and solutions.
■ Evaluating our environmental choices requires
critical thinking based on an ecological understanding Improving Your Study and Learning Skills
of how the earth works. Learning how to learn is life’s most important skill.
Environmental issues affect every part of your life Maximizing your ability to learn should be one of
and are an important part of the news stories pre- your most important lifetime educational goals. It in-
sented on television and in newspapers and maga- volves continually trying to improve your study and
zines. The concepts, information, and issues discussed learning skills.
in this book and the course you are taking should be This has a number of payoffs. You can learn more
useful to you both now and in the future. and do so more efficiently. You will also have more
Understandably, I am biased. But I strongly believe time to pursue other interests besides studying with-
that environmental science is the single most important out feeling guilty about always being behind. Learning
-MILR11..2500INTRO.001-004 8/9/05 2:37 PM Page 2
how to learn can also help you get better grades and view what you have learned. Putting them all to-
live a more fruitful and rewarding life. gether gives you a summary of the chapter.
Here are some general study and learning skills. Focus on key terms. Use the glossary in your textbook
Get organized. Becoming more efficient at studying to look up the meaning of terms or words you do not
gives you more time for other interests. understand. Make flash cards for learning key terms
and concepts, and review them frequently. This book
Make daily to-do lists in writing. Put items in order
shows all key terms in boldfaced type and lesser but
of importance, focus on the most important tasks,
still important terms in italicized type. Flash cards for
and assign a time to work on these items. Because
testing your mastery of key terms for each chapter are
life is full of uncertainties, you will be lucky to accom-
available on the website for this book.
plish half of the items on your daily list. Shift your
schedule to accomplish the most important items. Interact with what you read. When I read, I mark key
Otherwise, you will fall behind and become increas- sentences and paragraphs with a highlighter or pen. I
ingly frustrated. put an asterisk in the margin next to an idea I think is
important and double asterisks next to an idea I think
Set up a study routine in a distraction-free environ- is especially important. I write comments in the mar-
ment. Develop a written daily study schedule and gins, such as Beautiful, Confusing, Misleading, or Wrong.
stick to it. Study in a quiet, well-lighted space. Work I fold down the top corner of pages with highlighted
sitting at a desk or table—not lying down on a couch passages and the top and bottom corners of especially
or bed. Take breaks every hour or so. During each important pages. This way, I can flip through a chap-
break, take several deep breaths and move around to ter or book and quickly review the key ideas.
help you stay more alert and focused.
Review to reinforce learning. Before each class, review
Avoid procrastination—putting work off until an- the material you learned in the previous class and
other time. Do not fall behind on your reading and read the assigned material. Review, fill in, and orga-
other assignments. Set aside a particular time for nize your notes as soon as possible after each class.
studying each day and make it a part of your daily
Become a better note taker. Do not try to take down
routine.
everything your instructor says. Instead, jot down
Do not eat dessert first. Otherwise, you may never get main points and key facts using your own shorthand
to the main meal (studying). When you have accom- system. Fill in and organize your notes after class.
plished your study goals, reward yourself with play Write out answers to questions to focus and reinforce
(dessert). learning. Answer questions at the end of each chapter
Make hills out of mountains. It is psychologically dif- or those assigned to you. Put your answers down in
ficult to climb a mountain such as reading an entire writing as if you were turning them in for a grade. Save
book, reading a chapter in a book, writing a paper, or your answers for review and preparation for tests.
cramming to study for a test. Instead, break these Use the buddy system. Study with a friend or become
large tasks (mountains) down into a series of small a member of a study group to compare notes, review
tasks (hills). Each day read a few pages of a book or material, and prepare for tests. Explaining
chapter, write a few paragraphs of a paper, and re- something to someone else is a great way to focus
view what you have studied and learned. As Henry your thoughts and reinforce your learning. If avail-
Ford put it, “Nothing is particularly hard if you divide able, attend review sessions offered by instructors or
it into small jobs.” teaching assistants.
Look at the big picture first. Get an overview of an as- Learn your instructor’s test style. Does your instruc-
signed reading by looking at the main headings or tor emphasize multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, true-
chapter outline. This textbook includes a list of the or-false, factual, thought, or essay questions? How
main questions that are the focus of each chapter. much of the test will come from the textbook and how
Ask and answer questions as you read. For example, much from lecture material? Adapt your learning and
what is the main point of this section or paragraph? studying methods to this style. You may disagree with
Each subsection in this book starts with a question it and feel that it does not adequately reflect what you
that the material is designed to answer. This question know. But the reality is that your instructor is in
is followed by a one-sentence summary of the key ma- charge and your grade (but not always your learning)
terial in the subsection. I find this type of running usually depends heavily on going along with the in-
summary to be more helpful than a harder-to-digest structor’s system.
summary at the end of each chapter. My goal is to pre- Become a better test taker. Avoid cramming. Eat well
sent the material in more manageable bites. You can and get plenty of sleep before a test. Arrive on time or
also use the one-sentence summaries as a way to re- early. Calm yourself and increase your oxygen intake
2 LEARNING SKILLS
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by taking several deep breaths. Do this about every Do not believe everything you read on the Internet.
10–15 minutes. Look over the test and answer the The Internet is a wonderful and easily accessible
questions you know well first. Then work on the source of information. It is also a useful way to find
harder ones. Use the process of elimination to narrow alternative information and opinions on almost any
down the choices for multiple-choice questions. Par- subject or issue—much of it not available in the
ing them down to two choices gives you a 50% chance mainstream media and scholarly articles. However,
of guessing the right answer. For essay questions, or- because the Internet is so open, anyone can write
ganize your thoughts before you start writing. If you anything they want with no editorial control or peer
have no idea what a question means, make an edu- evaluation—the method in which scientific or other
cated guess—you might get some partial credit. An- experts in an area review and comment on an article
other strategy for getting some credit is to show your before it is accepted for publication in a scholarly jour-
knowledge and reasoning by writing something like nal. As a result, evaluating information on the Internet
this: “If this question means so and so, then my an- is one of the best ways to put into practice the princi-
swer is ________.” ples of critical thinking. Use and enjoy the Internet,
Develop an optimistic outlook. Try to be a “glass is but be skeptical and proceed with caution.
half-full” rather than a “glass is half-empty” person. Identify and evaluate your personal biases and be-
Pessimism, fear, anxiety, and excessive worrying liefs. Every person has biases and beliefs taught to us
(especially over things you cannot control) are de- by our parents, teachers, friends, role models, and ex-
structive, they feed on themselves, and they lead to perience. What are your basic beliefs and biases?
inaction. Try to keep your energizing feelings of opti- Where did they come from? What assumptions are
mism slightly ahead of your immobilizing feelings of they based on? How sure are you that your beliefs and
pessimism. Then you will always be moving forward. assumptions are right and why? According to William
James, “A great many people think they are thinking
Take time to enjoy life. Every day take time to laugh
when they are merely rearranging their prejudices.”
and enjoy nature, beauty, and friendship. Becoming
an effective and efficient learner is the best way to do Be open-minded, flexible, and humble. Consider dif-
this without falling behind and living under a cloud ferent points of view, suspend judgment until you
of guilt and anxiety. gather more evidence, and change your mind when
necessary. Recognize that many useful and acceptable
solutions to a problem may exist and that very few is-
Critical Thinking Skills: Detecting Baloney
sues are black or white. There are usually valid points
Learning how to think critically is a skill you will need on both (or many) sides of an issue. One way to evalu-
throughout your life. ate divergent views is to get into another person’s
Every day we are exposed to a sea of information, ideas, head. How do other people see or view the world?
and opinions. How do we know what to believe and What are their basic assumptions and beliefs? Is their
why? Do the claims seem reasonable or exaggerated? position logically consistent with their assumptions
Critical thinking involves developing skills to help and beliefs? And always be humble about what you
you analyze and evaluate the validity of information know. According to Will Durant, “Education is a pro-
and ideas you are exposed to and to make decisions. gressive discovery of our own ignorance.”
Critical thinking skills help you decide rationally what Evaluate how the information related to an issue
to believe or what to do. They involve examining in- was obtained. Are the statements made based on first-
formation and conclusions or beliefs in terms of the ev- hand knowledge or research or on hearsay? Are un-
idence and chain of logical reasoning that supports named sources used? Is the information based on
them. Critical thinking helps you distinguish between reproducible and widely accepted scientific studies
facts and opinions, evaluate evidence and arguments, (sound or consensus science, p. 22) or on preliminary sci-
take and defend an informed position on issues, inte- entific results that may be valid but need further test-
grate information and see relationships, and apply ing (frontier science, p. 22)? Is it based on a few isolated
your knowledge to dealing with new and different stories or experiences (anecdotal information) or on care-
problems. Here are some basic skills for learning how fully controlled studies? Is it based on unsubstantiated
to think more critically. and widely doubted scientific information or beliefs
Question everything and everybody. Be skeptical, as (junk science or pseudoscience)? You need to know how
any good scientist is. Do not believe everything you to detect junk science, as discussed on p. 22.
hear or read, including the content of this textbook. Question the evidence and conclusions presented.
Evaluate all information you receive. Seek other What are the conclusions or claims? What evidence
sources and opinions. As Albert Einstein put it, “The is presented to support them? Does the evidence sup-
important thing is not to stop questioning.” port them? Is there a need to gather more evidence to
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test the conclusions? Are there other, more reasonable take knowledge for wisdom. One helps you make a
conclusions? living; the other helps you make a life.”
Try to identify and assess the assumptions and beliefs
of those presenting evidence and drawing conclusions. Trade-Offs
What is their expertise in this area? Do they have any There are no simple answers to the environmental
unstated assumptions, beliefs, biases, or values? Do problems we face.
they have a personal agenda? Can they benefit finan- There are always trade-offs involved in making and im-
cially or politically from acceptance of their evidence plementing environmental decisions. My challenge is
and conclusions? Would investigators with different to give a fair and balanced presentation of different
basic assumptions or beliefs take the same data and viewpoints, advantages and disadvantages of various
come to different conclusions? technologies and proposed solutions to environmental
Do the arguments used involve logical fallacies or de- problems, and good and bad news about environmen-
bating tricks? Here are six examples. First, attack the tal problems without injecting personal bias.
presenter of an argument rather than the argument it- Studying a subject as important as environmental
self. Second, appeal to emotion rather than facts and science and ending up with no conclusions, opinions,
logic. Third, claim that if one piece of evidence or one and beliefs means that both teacher and student have
conclusion is false, then all other pieces of evidence failed. However, such conclusions should be based on
and conclusions are false. Fourth, say that a conclusion using critical thinking to evaluate different ideas and
is false because it has not been scientifically proven understand the trade-offs involved.
(scientists can never prove anything absolutely, but
they can establish degrees of reliability, as discussed Help Me Improve This Book
on p. 22). Fifth, inject irrelevant or misleading infor-
I welcome your help in improving this book.
mation to divert attention from important points.
Sixth, present only either/or alternatives when a num- Researching and writing a book that covers and con-
ber of options may exist. nects ideas in such a wide variety of disciplines is a
challenging and exciting task. Almost every day I learn
Become a seeker of wisdom, not a vessel of informa- about some new connection in nature.
tion. Develop a written list of principles, concepts, In a book this complex, some errors are bound to
and rules to serve as guidelines in evaluating evi- arise—typographical mistakes that slip through or
dence and claims and making decisions. Continually statements that you might question based on your
evaluate and modify this list based on your experi- knowledge and research. My goal is to provide an in-
ences. Many people believe that the main goal of edu- teresting, accurate, balanced, and challenging book
cation is to learn as much as you can by concentrating that furthers your understanding of this vital subject. I
on gathering more and more information—much of it have also attempted to balance the arguments offered
useless or misleading. I believe that the primary goal on various sides of key environmental issues.
is to know as little as possible. That is, you need to I invite you to contact me and point out any re-
learn how to sift through mountains of facts and ideas maining bias, correct any errors you find, and suggest
to find the few nuggets of wisdom that are the most use- ways to improve this book. Over decades of teaching,
ful in understanding the world and in making deci- some of my best teachers have been students taking my
sions. This takes a firm commitment to learning how classes and reading my textbooks. Please e-mail your
to think logically and critically, and continually flush- suggestions to me at
ing less valuable and thought-clogging information
from your mind. This book is full of facts and num- mtg89@hotmail.com
bers, but they are useful only to the extent that they Now start your journey into this fascinating and
lead to an understanding of key and useful ideas, sci- important study of how the earth works and how we
entific laws, concepts, principles, and connections. can leave the planet in at least as good a shape as we
The major goals of the study of environmental science found it. Have fun.
are to find out how nature works and sustains itself
(environmental wisdom) and to use principles of environ- Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never
mental wisdom to help make human societies and fail you.
economies more sustainable and thus more beneficial FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
and enjoyable. As Sandra Carey put it, “Never mis-
4 LEARNING SKILLS
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1 Environmental Problems,
Their Causes, and Sustainability
? 8
7
6 Figure 1-1 The J-shaped curve
5 of past exponential world popu-
lation growth, with projections to
4 2100. Exponential growth starts
3 off slowly, but as time passes the
curve becomes increasingly
2
steep. Unless death rates rise,
Black Death—the Plague 1 the current world population of
0 6.5 billion people is projected to
reach 8–10 billion people some-
2–5 million 8000 6000 4000 2000 2000 2100
years time this century. (This figure is
Time B.C. A.D.
not to scale.) (Data from the
Hunting and Agricultural revolution Industrial World Bank and United Nations;
gathering revolution photo courtesy of NASA)
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Alone in space, alone in its life-supporting systems, powered 1-1 LIVING MORE SUSTAINABLY
by inconceivable energies, mediating them to us through the
most delicate adjustments, wayward, unlikely, unpredictable, Environmental Science and
but nourishing, enlivening, and enriching in the largest de-
Environmentalism
gree—is this not a precious home for all of us? Is it not worth
our love? Environmental science is a study of how the earth
BARBARA WARD AND RENÉ DUBOS works, how we interact with the earth, and how to
deal with environmental problems.
Environment is everything that affects a living organ-
This chapter presents an overview of environmental
ism (any unique form of life). Ecology is a biological
problems, their causes, and ways we can live more
science that studies the relationships between living
sustainably. It discusses these questions:
organisms and their environment.
■ What are the six major themes of this book? This textbook is an introduction to environmental
science, an interdisciplinary study that uses informa-
■ What keeps us alive? What is an environmentally tion from the physical sciences (such as biology, chem-
sustainable society? istry, and geology) and social sciences (such as eco-
■ How fast is the human population increasing? nomics, politics, and ethics) to learn how the earth
■ What is the difference between economic growth works, how humans interact with the earth, and how
and economic development? to deal with the environmental problems we face. En-
vironmentalism is a social movement dedicated to
■ What are the earth’s main types of resources? How protecting the earth’s life support systems for us and
can they be depleted or degraded? other species.
■ What are the principal types of pollution, and
what can we do about pollution?
A Path to Sustainability: Major Themes
■ What are the basic causes of today’s environ-
of This Book
mental problems, and how are these causes
connected? The central theme of this book is sustainability.
It is built on the subthemes of natural capital,
■ What are the harmful environmental effects of natural capital degradation, solutions, trade-offs,
poverty and affluence? and individuals matter and is supported by sound
■ What major cultural changes have taken place science.
since humans arrived? Sustainability is the ability of the earth’s various sys-
■ Is our current course sustainable? What is environ- tems, including human cultural systems and econo-
mentally sustainable development? mies, to survive and adapt to changing environmental
conditions. Figure 1-2 shows the steps along a path to
sustainability, based on the subthemes for this book.
The first step is to sustain the earth’s natural capi-
KEY IDEAS
tal—the natural resources and natural services that
■ Our lives and economies depend on energy from keep us and other species alive and support our
the sun and the earth’s natural resources and natural economies (Figure 1-3).
services (natural capital) that nature provides for us at The first step toward sustainability is to under-
no cost. stand the components and importance of natural capi-
■ Today we are living unsustainably by depleting and tal and the natural or biological income it provides
degrading the earth’s natural capital that supports us (Figure 1-2, Step 1). To economists, capital is wealth
and our economies. used to sustain a business and to generate more
wealth. Invested financial capital can provide us with
■ The major causes of our environmental problems financial income. For example, suppose you invest
are population growth, wasteful resource use, pov- $100,000 of capital and get a 10% return on your
erty, failure to appreciate the value of the earth’s money. In one year you will get $10,000 in income
natural capital, and ignorance about how the earth from interest and increase your wealth to $110,000.
works. By analogy, the renewable resources that make up
■ We have 50–100 years to make a transition to part of the earth’s natural capital (Figure 1-3, left) can
more sustainable human societies that mimic how provide us with renewable biological income indefi-
the earth has sustained itself for billions of years. nitely as long as we do not use these resources faster
than they are renewed by nature. For example, natural
A Path to Sustainability
Natural Capital Natural Capital Solutions Trade-Offs Individuals
Degradation Matter
Sound Science
Figure 1-2 A path to sustainability. Five subthemes are used throughout this book to illustrate how we can make
the transition to more environmentally sustainable societies and economies. Sound science is used to help us
understand and implement this transition to sustainability.
Water purification
Water
Soil renewal
Soil
Nutrient recycling
Grassland renewal
Figure 1-3 Natural capital: the natural resources (left) and natural services (right) provided by the earth’s
natural capital support and sustain the earth’s life and economies. For example, nutrients, or chemicals such as
carbon and nitrogen that plants and animals need as resources, are recycled through the air, water, soil, and
organisms by the natural process of nutrient cycling. And the interactions and competition of different types of
plants and animals (species) for resources (nutrients) keeps any single species from taking over through the nat-
ural service of population control. Colored wedges will be shown at the beginning of most chapters in this book
to show the natural resources (blue wedges) and natural services (orange wedges) discussed in these chapters.
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services such as nutrient recycling and climate control headings throughout this book are tagged with the
(including precipitation) renew natural resources such terms science, economics, politics, and ethics, or some
as topsoil and underground deposits of water (aqui- combination of these words.
fers). Sustainability means living off such biological
income without depleting or degrading the natural
Environmentally Sustainable Societies
capital that provides this income.
The second step toward sustainability is to recog- An environmentally sustainable society meets
nize that many human activities degrade natural capital the basic resource needs of its people indefinitely
by using normally renewable resources faster than na- without degrading or depleting the natural capital
ture can renew them (Figure 1-2, Step 2). For example, that supplies these resources.
in many areas our activities erode essential topsoil An environmentally sustainable society meets the
faster than it can be renewed. And we withdraw water current needs of its people for food, clean water, clean
from some underground deposits (aquifers) faster air, shelter, and other basic resources without com-
than they are renewed by precipitation from nature’s promising the ability of future generations to meet
climate system. We also cut down (clear-cut) or burn their needs. Living sustainably means living off natural
diverse natural forests to grow crops, graze cattle, and income replenished by soils, plants, air, and water
supply us with wood and paper. and not depleting or degrading the earth’s endow-
This leads us to search for solutions to these and ment of natural capital that supplies this biological
other environmental problems (Figure 1-2, Step 3). For income.
example, a solution might be to stop clear-cutting di- Imagine you win $1 million in a lottery. If you in-
verse mature forests. vest this money and earn 10% interest per year, you
The search for solutions often involves conflicts, will have a sustainable annual income of $100,000
and resolving these conflicts requires us to make trade- without depleting your capital. If you spend $200,000
offs, or compromises (Figure 1-2, Step 4). To provide per year, your $1 million will be gone early in the sev-
wood and paper and crops such as coffee, for exam- enth year. Even if you spend only $110,000 per year,
ple, we can promote the planting of tree and coffee you will be bankrupt early in the eighteenth year.
plantations in areas that have already been cleared or The lesson here is an old one: Protect your capital
degraded. and live off the income it provides. Deplete, waste, or
In the search for solutions, individuals matter. squander your capital, and you will move from a sus-
Sometimes one individual comes up with an idea for tainable to an unsustainable lifestyle.
bringing about a solution. In other cases, individuals The same lesson applies to our use of the earth’s
work together to bring about the political or social natural capital. According to many environmental sci-
changes necessary for solving the problem (Figure 1-2, entists, we are living unsustainably by wasting, de-
Step 5). Some individuals have found ways to elimi- pleting, and degrading the earth’s natural capital at an
nate the need to use trees to produce paper by using accelerating rate.
residues from crops (such as rice) and by planting Some people disagree. They contend that the seri-
rapidly growing plants and using their fiber to make ousness of human population, resource, and en-
paper. Other individuals are working politically to vironmental problems has been exaggerated. They
persuade elected officials to ban the clear-cutting of also believe we can overcome these problems by
ancient forests while encouraging the planting of tree human ingenuity, economic growth, and technological
and crop plantations in areas that have already been advances.
cleared or degraded.
The five steps to sustainability must be supported
by sound science—the concepts and ideas that are
1-2 POPULATION GROWTH,
widely accepted by experts in a particular field of the
ECONOMIC GROWTH, AND
natural or social sciences. For example, sound science
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
tells us that we need to protect and sustain the many
natural services provided by diverse mature forests. It
Human Population Growth
also guides us in the design and management of tree
and coffee plantations. The rate at which world’s population is growing has
Moving toward sustainability also involves inte- slowed but is still increasing rapidly.
grating information and ideas from the physical sci- Currently, the world’s population is growing expo-
ences (such as chemistry, biology, and geology) with nentially at a rate of about 1.2% per year—down from
those from the social sciences (such as economics, poli- 2.2% in 1963. This may not seem like a very fast rate,
tics, and ethics). To show this integration, most sub- but it added about 78 million people (6.5 billion
Resource 88
Economics: Economic Growth use
and Economic Development 12
Economic growth provides people with
more goods and services, and economic
Pollution 75
development uses economic growth to improve and waste
living standards. 25
Economic growth is an increase in the capacity of a
country to provide people with goods and services. Ac- Developed countries Developing countries
complishing this increase requires population growth
(more producers and consumers), more production Figure 1-4 Global outlook: comparison of developed and
and consumption per person, or both. developing countries, 2005. (Data from the United Nations and
Economic growth is usually measured by the per- the World Bank)
centage change in a country’s gross domestic product
(GDP): the annual market value of all goods and ser-
vices produced by all firms and organizations, foreign 12
and domestic, operating within a country. Changes in 11
a country’s economic growth per person are measured 10
Population (billions)
World total
9
by per capita GDP: the GDP divided by the total pop-
8
ulation at midyear. 7 Developing
Economic development is the improvement of 6 countries
human living standards by economic growth. The 5
United Nations (UN) classifies the world’s countries 4
3 Developed
as economically developed or developing based pri- countries
marily on their degree of industrialization and their 2
1
per capita GDP.
The developed countries (with 1.2 billion people) 1950 2000 2050 2100
include the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, Year
New Zealand, and the countries of Europe. Most are
highly industrialized and have high average per capita Figure 1-5 Global outlook: past and projected population size
for developed countries, developing countries, and the world,
GDP. All other nations (with 5.3 billion people) are 1950–2100. Developing countries are expected to account for
classified as developing countries, most of them in 97% of the 2.4 billion people projected to be added to the
Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Some are middle- world’s population between 2005 and 2050. (Data from the
income, moderately developed countries and others are United Nations)
low-income countries.
Figure 1-4 compares some key characteristics of Figure 1-6 (p. 10) summarizes some of the benefits
developed and developing countries. About 97% of (good news) and harm (bad news) caused mostly by eco-
the projected increase in the world’s population is ex- nomic development. It shows the effects of the wide
pected to take place in developing countries, as shown and growing gap between the world’s haves and
in Figure 1-5. have-nots.
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sources the tragedy of the commons. It happens be- migratory birds—that cannot be divided up and con-
cause each user reasons, “If I do not use this resource, verted to private property.
someone else will. The little bit I use or pollute is not
enough to matter, and such resources are renewable.”
Science: Our Ecological Footprints
With only a few users, this logic works. Eventu-
ally, however, the cumulative effect of many people Supplying each person with resources and absorbing
trying to exploit a free-access resource exhausts or ru- the wastes from such resource use creates a large
ins it. Then no one can benefit from it—and that is the ecological footprint or environmental impact.
tragedy. The per capita ecological footprint is the amount of bi-
One solution is to use free-access resources at rates ologically productive land and water needed to supply
well below their estimated sustainable yields by reducing each person with the resources he or she uses and to
population, regulating access to the resources, or both. absorb the wastes from such resource use (Figure 1-7,
Some communities have established rules and tradi- left). It is an estimate of the average environmental im-
tions to regulate access to common-property resources pact of individuals in different countries and areas.
such as ocean fisheries, grazing lands, and forests. The numbers shown in Figure 1-7 are estimates and
Governments have also enacted laws and interna- should not be taken literally. But they can be used to
tional treaties to regulate access to commonly owned show relative differences in resource use and waste
resources such as forests, national parks, rangelands, production by countries and geographical areas. See
and fisheries in coastal waters. Figures 2 and 3 in Science Supplement 2 at the end of
Another solution is to convert free-access resources to this book for maps of our ecological footprints for the
private ownership. The reasoning is that if you own some- world and the United States.
thing, you are more likely to protect your investment. Humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds the earth’s eco-
That sounds good, but private ownership is not al- logical capacity to replenish its renewable resources and ab-
ways the answer. Private owners do not always protect sorb waste by about 21% (Figure 1-7, right). If these esti-
natural resources they own when this goal conflicts mates are correct, we are drawing down renewable resources
with protecting their financial capital or increasing 21% faster than the earth can renew them. In other words,
their profits. For example, some private forest owners it will take the resources of 1.21 planet earths to sup-
can make more money by clear-cutting timber, selling port indefinitely our current production and consump-
the degraded land, and investing their profits in other tion of renewable resources!
timberlands or businesses. Also, this approach is not The ecological footprint of most people in devel-
practical for global common resources—such as the at- oped countries is large because of their huge con-
mosphere, the open ocean, most wildlife species, and sumption of renewable resources. You can estimate
Figure 1-7 Natural capital use and degradation: relative per capita and total ecological footprints of the
United States, the Netherlands, and India (left). The per capita ecological footprint is a measure of the bio-
logically productive areas of the earth required to produce the resources required per person and absorb or
break down the wastes produced by such resource use. By 2001, humanity’s ecological footprint was about
21% higher than the earth’s ecological capacity (right). (Data from World Wide Fund for Nature, UN Environ-
mental Programme, and Global Footprint Network)
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SOLAR
CAPITAL EARTH
Heat
Cultural
Systems
Natural Capital Degradation of renewable resources
Figure 1-9 Natural capital use, depletion, and degradation: human and natural capital pro-
duce an amazing array of goods and services for most of the world’s people. But this rapid flow of
material resources through the world’s economic systems depletes nonrenewable resources, de-
grades renewable resources, and adds heat, pollution, and waste to the environment.
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Figure 1-10 Natural capital depletion and degradation: five basic causes of the environmental problems we
face. Critical thinking: can you think of any other basic causes?
Economics: Poverty and wood and dung), haul drinking water, tend crops and
Environmental Problems livestock, work, and beg in the streets. The children
Poverty is a major threat to human health and the also help their parents survive in their old age before
environment. they die, typically in their fifties in the poorest coun-
tries. The poor do not have retirement plans, social se-
Many of the world’s poor do not have access to the basic
curity, or government-sponsored health plans.
necessities for a healthy, productive, and decent life (see
Many of the world’s desperately poor die prema-
Figure 1-11). Their daily lives are focused on getting
turely from four preventable health problems. The first
enough food, water, and fuel to survive. Desperate for
problem is malnutrition, caused by a lack of protein and
land to grow enough food, many of the world’s poor
other nutrients needed for good health (Figure 1-12).
people deplete and degrade forests, soil, grasslands,
The second problem is increased susceptibility to nor-
and wildlife for short-term survival. They do not have
mally nonfatal infectious diseases, such as diarrhea
the luxury of worrying about long-term environmental
and measles, caused by their weakened condition from
quality or sustainability.
malnutrition. A third factor is lack of access to clean
Poverty also affects population growth. Poor peo-
drinking water. A fourth factor is severe respiratory
ple often have many children as a form of economic se-
disease and premature death from inhaling indoor air
curity. Their children help them gather fuel (mostly
pollutants produced by burning wood or coal for heat
and cooking in open fires or in poorly vented stoves.
Lack of Number of people According to the World Health Organization, these
access to (% of world's population) four factors cause premature death for at least 7 million
Adequate poor people each year or about 800 people per hour.
sanitation 2.4 billion (37%) This premature death of about 19,200 humans per day
Enough fuel for is equivalent to 48 fully loaded 400-passenger jumbo jet
heating and 2 billion (31%) planes crashing every day with no survivors! Two-thirds
cooking
of those dying are children younger than age 5. The
Electricity daily news rarely covers this ongoing human tragedy.
1.6 billion (25%)
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Developing Countries
x x =
Consumption
Technological impact per Environmental
Population (P) x per person x unit of consumption (T) = impact of population (I)
(affluence, A)
x x =
Developed Countries
Figure 1-13 Connections: simplified model of how three factors—number of people, affluence, and tech-
nology—affect the environmental impact of the population in developing countries (top) and developed
countries (bottom).
the same lifetime resource consumption as 2 children in a Until about 12,000 years ago, we were mostly
typical U.S. family. hunter–gatherers who typically moved as needed to
Some forms of technology, such as polluting facto- find enough food for survival. Since then, three major
ries and motor vehicles and energy-wasting devices, cultural changes have occurred: the agricultural revolu-
increase environmental impact by raising the T factor tion (which began 10,000–12,000 years ago), the indus-
in the equation. Other technologies, such as pollution trial–medical revolution (which began about 275 years
control and prevention, solar cells, and energy-saving ago), and the information–globalization revolution (which
devices, lower environmental impact by decreasing began about 50 years ago).
the T factor. In other words, some forms of technology These major cultural changes have significantly in-
are environmentally harmful and some are environmen- creased our impact on the environment. They have
tally beneficial. given us much more energy and new technologies with
which to alter and control more of the planet to meet our
basic needs and increasing wants. They have also al-
lowed expansion of the human population, mostly be-
1-6 CULTURAL CHANGES AND
cause of increased food supplies and longer life spans.
SUSTAINABILITY
In addition, they have greatly increased the resource
use, pollution, and environmental degradation that
Major Human Cultural Changes
threaten the long-term sustainabilityof human cultures.
Since our hunter–gatherer days, three major
cultural changes have increased our impact on
the environment. Eras of Environmental History
in the United States
Evidence from fossils and studies of ancient cultures
suggests that the current form of our species, Homo The environmental history of the United States
sapiens sapiens, has walked the earth for only 60,000 consists of the tribal, frontier, early conservation,
years (some recent evidence suggests 90,000–195,000 and modern environmental eras.
years)—less than an eye-blink in this marvelous The environmental history of the United States can be
planet’s 3.7 billion years of life. divided into four eras. During the tribal era, 5–10 million
tribal people (now called Native Americans) occupied ture human generations and other species that support
North America for at least 10,000 years before European us and for other forms of life.
settlers began arriving in the early 1600s. Many Native The most useful answer to the question of whether
American cultures had a deep respect for the land and things are getting better or worse is both. Some things
its animals and did not believe in land ownership. are getting better and some are getting worse.
The frontier era (1607–1890) began when European Our challenge is not to get trapped into confusion
colonists started settling North America. They inhab- and inaction by listening primarily to either of two
ited a continent offering seemingly inexhaustible for- groups of people. Technological optimists tend to over-
est and wildlife resources and rich soils. As a result, state the situation by telling us to be happy and not to
these early colonists developed a frontier environ- worry, because technological innovations and conven-
mental worldview: They viewed most of the conti- tional economic growth and development will lead to
nent as having vast resources and as a wilderness to a wonderworld for everyone. In contrast, environmen-
be conquered by settlers clearing and planting land as tal pessimists overstate the problems to the point where
they spread across the continent. our environmental situation seems hopeless. Accord-
Next came the early conservation era (1832–1870), ing to the noted conservationist Aldo Leopold, “I have
during which some people became alarmed at the no hope for a conservation based on fear.”
scope of resource depletion and degradation in the
United States during the latter part of the frontier era. x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? * Is the society you live in
on an unsustainable path? Cast your vote online at http://
They urged that part of the unspoiled wilderness on
biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
public lands owned jointly by all people (but managed
by the government) be protected as a legacy to future
generations.
Economics: Environmentally Sustainable
This period was followed by an era—lasting from
Economic Development
1870 to the present—characterized by an increased role
of the federal government and private citizens in resource Environmentally sustainable economic development
conservation, public health, and environmental protection. rewards environmentally beneficial and sustainable
Science Supplement 3 at the end of this book summa- activities and discourages environmentally harmful
rizes some of the major events during these periods. and unsustainable activities.
During this century, many analysts challenge us to put
much greater emphasis on environmentally sustain-
able economic development. Figure 1-14 (p. 18) lists
1-7 IS OUR PRESENT COURSE
some of the shifts involved in implementing an envi-
SUSTAINABLE?
ronmental, or sustainability, revolution during this cen-
tury based on this concept.
Are Things Getting Better or Worse?
This type of development uses economic rewards
There is good and bad environmental news. (mostly government subsidies and tax breaks) to en-
Experts disagree about how serious our population courage environmentally beneficial and more sustain-
and environmental problems are and what we should able forms of economic growth and uses economic
do about them. Some suggest that human ingenuity penalties (mostly government taxes and regulations)
and technological advances will allow us to clean up to discourage environmentally harmful and unsustain-
pollution to acceptable levels, find substitutes for any able forms of economic growth.
scarce resources, and keep expanding the earth’s ability This book tries to present a balanced view of good
to support more humans. They accuse most scientists and bad environmental news and the trade-offs in-
and environmentalists of exaggerating the seriousness volved in dealing with the environmental problems
of the problems we face and of failing to appreciate the we face. Try not to be overwhelmed or immobilized by
progress we have made in improving quality of life and the bad environmental news, because there is also
protecting the environment. some great environmental news. We have made im-
Many leading environmental scientists disagree mense progress in improving the human condition
with this view. They cite evidence that we are degrad- and dealing with many environmental problems. We
ing and disrupting many of the earth’s life-support are learning a great deal about how nature works and
systems at an accelerating rate. They are greatly en- sustains itself. And we have numerous scientific, tech-
couraged by the progress made in increasing average nological, and economic solutions available to deal
life expectancy, reducing infant mortality, increasing with the environmental problems we face.
food supplies, and reducing many forms of pollu-
tion—especially in developed countries. At the same *To cast your vote, go the website for the book and then to the
appropriate chapter (in this case, Chapter 1). In most cases, you
time, they point out that we need to use the earth in a will be able to compare how you voted with others using this
way that is more sustainable for both present and fu- book throughout the United States and the rest of the world.
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CASE STUDY the platforms and statues across wooden rails to vari-
ous locations on the island’s coast.
An Environmental Lesson In doing so, they used up the island’s precious
from Easter Island trees faster than they were regenerated—an example
of the tragedy of the commons. By 1600, only a few
Let me tell you a sad story that has an important les- small trees were left. Without large trees, the islanders
son for us. could not build their traditional seagoing canoes for
Easter Island (Rapa Nui) is a small, isolated island hunting large porpoises and catching fish in deeper
in the great expanse of the South Pacific. Polynesians offshore waters, and no one could escape the island
used double-hulled sea-going canoes to colonize this by boat.
island about 2,900 years ago. They brought along Without the once-great forests to absorb and
their pigs, chickens, dogs, stowaway rats, taro roots, slowly release water, springs and streams dried up, ex-
yams, bananas, and sugarcane. posed soils eroded, crop yields plum-
The settlers found an island par- meted, and famine struck. There was
adise with fertile soil that supported no firewood for cooking or keeping
dense and diverse forests and lush warm. The hungry islanders ate all of
grasses. The Polynesians developed the island’s seabirds and landbirds.
a civilization based on two species Then they began raising and eating
of the island’s trees, giant palms and rats, descendants of hitchhikers on the
basswoods (called hauhau). They first canoes to reach Easter Island.
used the towering palm trees for Both the population and the
shelter, as tools, and to build large civilization collapsed as rival clans
canoes used for catching fish such as fought one another for dwindling
porpoises. They felled the hauhau food supplies. Eventually, the
trees and burned them to cook and islanders began to hunt and eat
keep warm in the island’s cool win- one another.
Jeremy Woodhouse/WWI/Peter Arnold, Inc.
What Is Harming
Well-tested and the Robins?
accepted
hypotheses
become Suppose a scientist observes an
scientific theories abnormality in the growth of
Figure 2-2 What scientists do. robin embryos in a certain area.
SCIENCE The area has been sprayed with a
SPOTLIGHT
pesticide, and the scientist sus-
nomena that have a high degree of certainty because pects this chemical may be caus-
they are supported by extensive evidence. ing the abnormalities.
Nonscientists often use the word theory incorrectly To test this hypothesis, the scientist carries out a
when they actually mean scientific hypothesis, a tentative controlled experiment. She maintains two groups
of robin embryos of the same age in the laboratory.
explanation that needs further evaluation. The state-
Each group is raised with the same conditions of
ment, “Oh, that’s just a theory,” made in everyday con-
light, temperature, food supply, and so on, except
versation, implies a lack of knowledge and careful test- that the embryos in the experimental group are ex-
ing—the opposite of the scientific meaning of the word. posed to a known amount of the pesticide.
Another important result of science is a scientific, The embryos in both groups are then examined
or natural, law: a description of what we find happen- over an identical period of time. If the scientist
ing in nature over and over in the same way. For ex- finds a significantly larger number of the abnor-
ample, after making thousands of observations and malities in the experimental group than in the con-
measurements over many decades, scientists discov- trol group, the results support the idea that the pes-
ered the second law of thermodynamics. Simply stated, ticide is the culprit.
it says that heat always flows spontaneously from hot To be sure no errors occur during the proce-
dure, the original researcher should repeat the
to cold—something you learned the first time you
experiment several times. Ideally, one or more
touched a hot object. Scientific laws describe repeated,
other scientists should repeat the experiment
consistent findings in nature, whereas scientific theo- independently.
ries are widely accepted explanations of data and laws.
A scientific law is no better than the accuracy of Critical Thinking
the observations or measurements upon which it is
Can you find flaws in this experiment that might
based. But if the data are accurate, a scientific law can-
lead you to question the scientist’s conclusions?
not be broken. (Hint: What other factors in nature—but not in the
laboratory—and in the embryos themselves could
Scientific Method explain the results?)
There are many scientific methods.
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that is, by running mathematical models on high- Royal Society, which attempt to summarize consensus
speed computers to analyze the interactions of many among experts in key areas of science.
variables without having to carry out traditional con-
trolled experiments.
Junk Science
Scientists use critical thinking skills (p. 3) and logi-
cal thinking to develop and evaluate scientific ideas. Junk science is untested ideas presented as sound
But scientists also try to come up with new and cre- science.
ative ideas to explain some of the things they observe Junk science consists of scientific results or hypotheses
in nature. According to physicist Albert Einstein, how- that are presented as sound science but have not under-
ever, “There is no completely logical way to a new sci- gone the rigors of peer review. Two problems arise in
entific idea.” Intuition, imagination, and creativity are uncovering junk science. First, some scientists, politi-
as important in science as they are in poetry, art, music, cians, and other analysts label as junk science any sci-
and other great adventures of the human spirit, as re- ence that does not support or further their particular
flected by Warren Weaver’s quotation found at the agenda. Second, reporters and journalists sometimes
opening of this chapter. mislead their audiences by presenting sound or consen-
sus science along with a quote from a scientist in the
field who disagrees with the consensus view or from
How Valid Are the Results of Science?
someone who is not an expert in the field. Such attempts
Scientists try to establish that a particular theory or to give a false sense of balance or fairness can mislead
law has a very high probability of being true. the public into distrusting well-established sound sci-
Scientists try to do two major things. First, they dis- ence. See the Guest Essay on environmental reporting
prove things. Second, they establish that a particular by Andrew C. Revkin on the website for this chapter.
theory or law has a very high probability or degree of Here are some critical thinking questions you can
certainty of being true. Ultimately, like scholars in any use to uncover junk science.
field, scientists cannot prove their theories and laws ■ How reliable are the sources making a particular
are absolutely true.
claim? Do they have a hidden agenda? Are they ex-
Although it may be extremely low, some degree of
perts in this field? What is their source of funding?
uncertainty is always present for any scientific theory,
model, or law. Most scientists rarely say something ■ Do the conclusions follow logically from the
like, “Cigarettes cause lung cancer.” Rather, they might observations?
say, “Overwhelming evidence from thousands of stud- ■ Has the claim been verified by impartial peer
ies indicates that there is a significant relationship be- review?
tween cigarette smoking and lung cancer.” ■ How does the claim compare with the consensus
view of experts in this field?
Frontier Science and Sound Science
Scientific results fall into two categories: those that
have not been confirmed (frontier science) and those 2-2 MATTER
that have been well tested and widely accepted
(sound science). Elements and Compounds
News reports often focus on two things: so-called sci- Matter exists in chemical forms as elements and
entific breakthroughs, and disputes between scientists compounds.
over the validity of preliminary and untested data and Matter is anything that has mass (the amount of mate-
hypotheses. These preliminary results, called frontier rial in an object) and takes up space. Scientists classify
science, are often controversial because they have not matter as existing in various levels of organization
been widely tested and accepted. At the frontier stage, (Figure 2-3). Chapter 3 gives details about the five lev-
it is normal and healthy for reputable scientists to dis- els of matter that make up the realm of ecology.
agree about the meaning and accuracy of data and the Matter is found in two chemical forms. One is ele-
validity of various hypotheses. ments: the distinctive building blocks of matter that
By contrast, sound science (also known as con- make up every material substance. The other consists
sensus science) consists of data, theories, and laws of compounds: two or more different elements held to-
that are widely accepted by scientists who are consid- gether in fixed proportions by attractive forces called
ered experts in the field. The results of sound science chemical bonds.
are based on a self-correcting process of open peer re- To simplify things, chemists represent each ele-
view. To find out what scientists generally agree on, ment by a one- or two-letter symbol. Examples used in
you can seek out reports by scientific bodies such as this book are hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), ni-
the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and the British trogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl),
Universe
? Galaxies
Biosphere
Supermacro or Solar systems
cosmic world
(the very large)
Planets
Earth
Biosphere
Ecosystems Ecosystems
Communities
Life Populations
Realm of
Macro world ecology
(the ordinary) Organisms
Communities
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Populations
Borderline Protoplasm
Micro world
(the very small) Molecules
Nonlife Organisms
Atoms
Subatomic particles
Active Figure 2-3 Natural capital: levels of organization of matter in nature. Ecology focuses on five of these
levels. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
fluorine (F), bromine (Br), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), 70 kilograms (154 pounds), the total value comes to
lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and uranium about $120. Not very uplifting, is it?
(U). Good news. The elements in the list above are the Of course, you are worth much more because your
only ones you need to know to understand the mater- body is not just a bunch of chemicals enclosed in a bag
ial in this book. of skin. You are an incredibly complex system in which
From a chemical standpoint, how much are you air, water, soil nutrients, energy-storing chemicals, and
worth? Not much. If we add up the market price per food chemicals interact in millions of ways to keep you
kilogram for each element in someone weighing alive and healthy. Feel better now?
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Atoms, Ions, and Compounds There are three major types of organic polymers: com-
Atoms, ions, and compounds are the building blocks plex carbohydrates, consisting of two or more monomers
of matter. of simple sugars (such as glucose) linked together; pro-
teins, formed by linking together monomers of amino
If you had a supermicroscope capable of looking at in-
acids; and nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), made
dividual elements and compounds, you could see they
by linking sequences of monomers called nucleotides.
are made up of three types of building blocks. The first
Genes consist of specific sequences of nucleotides
type is an atom: the smallest unit of matter that has the
found within a DNA molecule. These coded units of
characteristics of a particular element.
information about specific traits are passed from par-
The second type is an ion: an electrically charged
ents to offspring during reproduction. Chromosomes
atom or combination of atoms. Examples encountered
are combinations of genes that make up a single DNA
in this book include positive hydrogen ions (H+),
molecule, together with a number of proteins. Each
sodium ions (Na+), calcium ions (Ca2+), and ammonium
chromosome typically contains thousands of genes.
ions (NH4+) and negative chloride ions (Cl-), nitrate ions
Genetic information coded in your chromosomal DNA
(NO2-), sulfate ions (SO42-), and phosphate ions (PO43-).
is what makes you different from an oak leaf, an alliga-
A third building block is a compound: a substance
tor, or a flea, and from your parents. The relationships
containing atoms or ions of more than one element
of genetic material to cells are depicted in Figure 2-4.
that are held together by chemical bonds. Chemists
use a chemical formula to show the number of atoms
(or ions) of each type in a compound. This shorthand What Are Atoms Made Of?
contains the symbol for each element present and uses Each atom has a tiny nucleus containing protons, and
subscripts to represent the number of atoms or ions of in most cases neutrons, and one or more electrons
each element in the compound’s basic structural unit. whizzing around somewhere outside the nucleus.
Examples of compounds and their formulas encoun-
If you increased the magnification of your supermicro-
tered in this book are water (H2O, read as “H-two-O”),
scope, you would find that each different type of atom
oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), nitrogen (N2), nitrous oxide
contains a certain number of subatomic particles. There
(N2O), nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), car-
are three types of these atomic building blocks: posi-
bon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen
tively charged protons (p), uncharged neutrons (n),
dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3),
and negatively charged electrons (e).
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), methane
Each atom consists of an extremely small center, or
(CH4), and glucose (C6H12O6).
nucleus. It contains one or more protons, and in most
Table sugar, vitamins, plastics, aspirin, penicillin,
cases neutrons, and one or more electrons in rapid mo-
and most of the chemicals in your body are organic
tion somewhere outside the nucleus. Atoms are in-
compounds that contain at least two carbon atoms
credibly small. In fact, more than 3 million hydrogen
combined with each other and with atoms of one or
atoms could sit side by side on the period at the end of
more other elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitro-
this sentence.
gen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, and fluorine. One
Each atom has equal numbers of positively
exception, methane (CH4), has only one carbon atom.
charged protons inside its nucleus and negatively
All other compounds are called inorganic compounds.
charged electrons outside its nucleus. Because these
The millions of known organic (carbon-based)
electrical charges cancel one another, the atom as a whole
compounds include the following:
has no net electrical charge.
■ Hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon and hydrogen Each element has a unique atomic number, equal
atoms. An example is methane (CH4), the main com- to the number of protons in the nucleus of each of its
ponent of natural gas, and the simplest organic atoms. The simplest element, hydrogen (H), has only
compound. 1 proton in its nucleus, so its atomic number is 1. Car-
■ Chlorinated hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon, hy- bon (C), with 6 protons, has an atomic number of 6,
drogen, and chlorine atoms. An example is the insecti- whereas uranium (U), a much larger atom, has 92 pro-
cide DDT (C14H9Cl5). tons and an atomic number of 92.
Because electrons have so little mass compared
■ Simple carbohydrates (simple sugars): certain types of
with the masses of protons or neutrons, most of an
compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
atom’s mass is concentrated in its nucleus. The mass of an
An example is glucose (C6H12O6), which most plants
atom is described in terms of its mass number: the total
and animals break down in their cells to obtain energy.
number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus. For ex-
Larger and more complex organic compounds, ample, a hydrogen atom with 1 proton and no neutrons
called polymers, consist of a number of basic structural in its nucleus has a mass number of 1, and a uranium
or molecular units (monomers) linked by chemical atom with 92 protons and 143 neutrons in its nucleus
bonds, somewhat like cars linked in a freight train. has a mass number of 235 (92 143 235).
Matter Quality
There is a nucleus inside each Matter can be classified as having high or low
human cell (except red blood cells). quality depending on how useful it is to us as a
resource.
Matter quality is a measure of how useful a form of
Each cell nucleus has an identical matter is to humans as a resource, based on its avail-
set of chromosomes, which are ability and concentration, as shown in Figure 2-5.
found in pairs.
Solid Gas
AC
T The genes in each cell are coded
G by sequences of nucleotides in Coal Coal-fired power
G their DNA molecules. plant emissions
T
C A
All atoms of an element have the same number of Gasoline Automobile emissions
protons in their nuclei. They may have different num-
bers of uncharged neutrons in their nuclei, however,
and therefore different mass numbers. Forms of an ele-
ment having the same atomic number but different
mass numbers are called isotopes of that element.
Scientists identify isotopes by attaching their mass
numbers to the name or symbol of the element. For ex- Aluminum can Aluminum ore
ample, hydrogen has three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (H-1,
Figure 2-5 Examples of differences in matter quality. High-
with one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus), hy- quality matter (left column) is fairly easy to extract and is con-
drogen-2 (H-2, common name deuterium, with one pro- centrated; low-quality matter (right column) is more difficult to
ton and one neutron in its nucleus), and hydrogen-3 extract and is more widely dispersed than high-quality matter.
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Persistence is a measure of how long the pollu- mate how long a sample of a radioisotope must be
tant stays in the air, water, soil, or body. Pollutants stored before it decays to a safe level. A rule of thumb is
can be classified into four categories based on their that such decay takes about 10 half-lives. Thus people
persistence: must be protected from radioactive waste containing
■ Degradable, or nonpersistent, pollutants are bro- iodine-131 (which concentrates in the thyroid gland
ken down completely or reduced to acceptable levels and has a half-life of 8 days) for 80 days (10 8 days).
by natural physical, chemical, and biological processes. Plutonium-239, which is produced in nuclear reactors
and used as the explosive in some nuclear weapons,
■ Biodegradable pollutants are complex chemical
can cause lung cancer when its particles are inhaled in
pollutants that living organisms (usually specialized
even minute amounts. Its half-life is 24,000 years. Thus
bacteria) break down into simpler chemicals. Human
it must be stored safely for 240,000 years (10 24,000
sewage in a river, for example, is biodegraded fairly
years)—about four times longer than our species
quickly by bacteria if the sewage is not added faster
(Homo sapiens sapiens) has existed.
than it can be broken down.
Exposure to alpha particles, beta particles, or
■ Slowly degradable, or persistent, pollutants take
gamma rays can alter DNA molecules in cells and in
decades or longer to degrade. Examples include the
some cases lead to genetic defects in the next genera-
insecticide DDT and most plastics.
tion of offspring or several generations later. Such ex-
■ Nondegradable pollutants are chemicals that nat- posure can also damage body tissues and cause burns,
ural processes cannot break down. Examples include miscarriages, eye cataracts, and certain cancers.
the toxic elements lead, mercury, and arsenic. Ideally,
we should try not to use these chemicals. If we do, we
should figure out ways to keep them from getting into Learn more about half-lives and how radioactive particles
the environment. can be used by doctors to help us at Environmental
ScienceNow.
We can make the environment cleaner and convert
some potentially harmful chemicals into less harmful
physical or chemical forms. Nevertheless, the law of Nuclear fission is a nuclear change in which the
conservation of matter means we will always face the nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers
problem of what to do with some quantity of wastes (such as uranium-235) are split apart into lighter nuclei
and pollutants. when struck by neutrons; each fission releases two or
three more neutrons plus energy (Figure 2-6, p. 28).
Each of these neutrons, in turn, can trigger an addi-
Nuclear Changes: Radioactive Decay, Fission,
tional fission reaction. For multiple fissions to take
and Fusion
place, enough fissionable nuclei must be present to
Nuclei of some atoms can spontaneously lose particles provide the critical mass needed for efficient capture
or give off high-energy radiation, split apart, or fuse of these neutrons.
together. Multiple fissions within a critical mass produce a
In addition to physical and chemical changes, matter chain reaction, which releases an enormous amount of
can undergo a third type of change known as a nuclear energy (see Figure 2-6). This is somewhat like a room
change. There are three types of nuclear change: natural in which the floor is covered with spring-loaded
radioactive decay, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion. mousetraps, each topped by a Ping-Pong ball. Open
Natural radioactive decay is a nuclear change the door, throw in a single Ping-Pong ball, and watch
in which unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast- the action in this simulated chain reaction of snapping
moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta parti- mousetraps and balls flying around in every direction.
cles), high-energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a In an atomic bomb, an enormous amount of en-
fixed rate. The unstable isotopes are called radioactive ergy is released in a fraction of a second in an uncon-
isotopes or radioisotopes. Radioactive decay of these trolled nuclear fission chain reaction. In the reactor of a
isotopes into other isotopes continues until it produces nuclear power plant, the rate at which the nuclear fis-
a stable isotope that is not radioactive. sion chain reaction takes place is controlled. The heat
Each type of radioisotope spontaneously decays at released produces high-pressure steam to spin tur-
a characteristic rate into a different isotope. This rate of bines, thereby generating electricity.
decay can be expressed in terms of half-life: the time Nuclear fusion is a nuclear change in which two
needed for one-half of the nuclei in a given quantity of a isotopes of light elements, such as hydrogen, are
radioisotope to decay and emit their radiation to form forced together at extremely high temperatures until
a different isotope. they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. A tremendous
An isotope’s half-life cannot be changed by tem- amount of energy is released in this process. In fact,
perature, pressure, chemical reactions, or any other fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei is the
known factor. As a consequence, it can be used to esti- source of energy in the sun and other stars.
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Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Energy
Fission
fragment
Uranium-235
n
n
Neutron n n
Energy Energy Uranium-235
Uranium-235 n
n
Fission Uranium-235
fragment
Energy
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Sun
10 –14 10 –12 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 1
High energy, short Wavelength in meters Low energy, long
wavelength (not to scale) wavelength
Active Figure 2-8 The electromagnetic spectrum: the range of electromagnetic waves, which differ in wave-
length (distance between successive peaks or troughs) and energy content. See an animation based on this
figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
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10
In a physical or chemical change, we can change
energy from one form to another but we can never
create or destroy any of the energy involved.
Scientists have observed energy being changed from
one form to another in millions of physical and chemi-
5 Visible cal changes. But they have never been able to detect
the creation or destruction of any energy (except in nu-
Ultraviolet
Infrared
clear changes). The results of their experiments have
been summarized in the law of conservation of en-
0
ergy, also known as the first law of thermodynamics:
0.25 1 2 2.5 3 In all physical and chemical changes, energy is neither cre-
Wavelength (micrometers) ated nor destroyed, although it may be converted from one
form to another.
This scientific law tells us that when one form of
Active Figure 2-9 Solar capital: the spectrum of electromag-
energy is converted to another form in any physical or
netic radiation released by the sun consists mostly of visible
light. See an animation based on this figure and take a short chemical change, energy input always equals energy out-
quiz on the concept. put. No matter how hard we try or how clever we are,
we cannot get more energy out of a system than we put
When a car engine burns gasoline, the potential energy in; in other words, we cannot get something for nothing in
stored in the chemical bonds of its molecules changes terms of energy quantity. This is one of Mother Nature’s
into heat, light, and mechanical (kinetic) energy that basic rules.
propel the car. Potential energy stored in a flashlight’s
batteries becomes kinetic energy in the form of light The Second Law of Thermodynamics
when the flashlight is turned on. When your body uses Whenever energy changes from one form to another,
potential energy stored in various molecules to do we always end up with less usable energy than we
work, it becomes kinetic energy. had initially.
Because the first law of thermodynamics states that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, you may
Witness how kinetic and potential energy might be used by
be tempted to think there will always be enough en-
a Martian at Environmental ScienceNow.
ergy. Yet if you fill a car’s tank with gasoline and drive
around or use a flashlight battery until it is dead,
Energy Quality
something has been lost. But what is it? The answer is
Energy can be classified as having high or low energy quality, the amount of energy available that can
quality depending on how useful it is to us as a perform useful work.
resource. Countless experiments have shown that when en-
Energy quality is a measure of an energy source’s abil- ergy changes from one form to another, a decrease in
ity to do useful work, as described in Figure 2-10. energy quality or ability to do useful work always oc-
High-quality energy is concentrated and can per- curs. The results of these experiments have been sum-
form much useful work. Examples include electricity, marized in the second law of thermodynamics: When
the chemical energy stored in coal and gasoline, con- energy changes from one form to another, some of the useful
centrated sunlight, and the nuclei of uranium-235, energy is always degraded to lower-quality, more dispersed,
used as fuel in nuclear power plants. less useful energy. This degraded energy usually takes
By contrast, low-quality energy is dispersed and the form of heat given off at a low temperature to the
has little ability to do useful work. An example is heat surroundings (environment). There it is dispersed by
dispersed in the moving molecules of a large amount the random motion of air or water molecules and be-
of matter (such as the atmosphere or a large body of comes even less useful as a resource.
water) so that its temperature is low. In other words, we cannot even break even in terms of
For example, the total amount of heat stored in the energy quality because energy always goes from a more use-
Atlantic Ocean is greater than the amount of high- ful to a less useful form when it changes from one form to
Figure 2-10 Natural capital: categories of the quality of different sources of energy. High-quality energy is
concentrated and has great ability to perform useful work. Low-quality energy is dispersed and has little ability
to do useful work. To avoid unnecessary energy waste, you should match the quality of an energy source with
the quality of energy needed to perform a task.
another. No one has ever found a violation of this fun- than incandescent bulbs, and even more efficient ver-
damental scientific law. It is another one of Mother sions are on the way. Do you use compact fluorescent
Nature’s basic rules. bulbs?
Consider three examples of the second law of ther- Third, in living systems, solar energy is converted
modynamics in action. First, when you drive a car, into chemical energy (food molecules) and then into
only 20–25% of the high-quality chemical energy avail- mechanical energy (moving, thinking, and living). Dur-
able in its gasoline fuel is converted into mechanical ing each conversion, high-quality energy is degraded
energy (to propel the vehicle) and electrical energy (to and flows into the environment as low-quality heat.
run its electrical systems). The remaining 75–80% is de- Trace the flows and energy conversions in Figure 2-11
graded to low-quality heat that is released into the en- (p. 32) to see how.
vironment and eventually lost into space. Thus, most The second law of thermodynamics also means we
of the money you spend for gasoline is not used to can never recycle or reuse high-quality energy to perform
transport you anywhere. useful work. Once the concentrated energy in a serving
Second, when electrical energy in the form of mov- of food, a liter of gasoline, a lump of coal, or a chunk of
ing electrons flows through filament wires in an incan- uranium is released, it is degraded to low-quality heat
descent light bulb, it changes into about 5% useful that is dispersed into the environment.
light and 95% low-quality heat that flows into the en- Energy efficiency, or energy productivity, is a
vironment. In other words, the light bulb is really a heat measure of how much useful work is accomplished
bulb. Good news. Scientists have developed compact by a particular input of energy into a system. Good
fluorescent bulbs that are four times more efficient news. There is plenty of room for improving energy
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Mechanical
Solar Chemical energy Chemical energy
energy (photosynthesis) energy (moving,
(food) thinking,
living)
Active Figure 2-11 The second law of thermodynamics in action in living systems. Each time energy changes from
one form to another, some of the initial input of high-quality energy is degraded, usually to low-quality heat that is
dispersed into the environment. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
efficiency. Scientists estimate that only 16% of the en- waste) economies that attempt to boost economic
ergy used in the United States ends up performing growth by increasing the one-way flow of matter and
useful work. The remaining 84% is either unavoidably energy resources through their economic systems
wasted because of the second law of thermodynamics (Figure 2-12). These resources flow through their
(41%) or unnecessarily wasted (43%). economies into planetary sinks (air, water, soil, organ-
Thermodynamics teaches us an important lesson: isms), where pollutants and wastes can accumulate to
The cheapest and quickest way to get more energy is to harmful levels.
stop wasting almost half of the energy we use. We can What happens if more people continue to use and
do so by not driving gas-guzzling motor vehicles and waste more energy and matter resources at an increas-
by not living in poorly insulated and leaky houses. ing rate? In other words, what happens if most of the
What are you doing to reduce your unnecessary waste world’s people become infected with the affluenza
of energy? virus?
The law of conservation of matter and the two laws
of thermodynamics discussed in this chapter tell us
See examples of how the first and second laws of that eventually this resource consumption will exceed
thermodynamics apply in our world at Environmental the capacity of the environment to dilute and degrade
ScienceNow.
waste matter and absorb waste heat. However, they do
not tell us how close we are to reaching such limits.
2-4 MATTER AND ENERGY CHANGE
LAWS AND SUSTAINABILITY Matter-Recycling-and-Reuse Economies
Recycling and reusing more of the earth’s matter
Unsustainable High-Throughput Economies resources slow down depletion of nonrenewable
Most nations increase their economic growth by matter resources and reduce our environmental
converting the world’s resources to goods and impact.
services in ways that add large amounts of waste, There is a way to slow down the resource use and re-
pollution, and low-quality heat to the environment. duce our environmental impact in a high-throughput
As a result of the law of conservation of matter and the economy. We can convert this linear economy into a cir-
second law of thermodynamics, individual resource cular matter-recycling-and-reuse economy, which
use automatically adds some waste heat and waste mat- mimics nature by recycling and reusing most of our
ter to the environment. Most of today’s advanced in- matter outputs instead of dumping them into the
dustrialized countries feature high-throughput (high- environment.
System
Throughputs
Active Figure 2-12 Natural capital de-
gredation: the high-throughput
economies of most developed countries
rely on continually increasing the rates of
Inputs Outputs energy and matter flow. This practice
(from environment) (into environment) produces valuable goods and services
but also converts high-quality matter and
High-quality energy Unsustainable Low-quality energy (heat) energy resources into waste, pollution,
high-waste and low-quality heat. See an animation
Matter economy Waste and pollution
based on this figure and take a short
quiz on the concept.
Energy Low-quality
Energy conservation energy
(heat)
Sustainable
low-waste
economy
Recycle
and
reuse
Matter
Feedback
Energy Feedback
Active Figure 2-13 Solutions: lessons from nature. A low-throughput economy, based on energy flow and mat-
ter recycling, works with nature to reduce the throughput of matter and energy resources (items shown in green).
This is done by (1) reusing and recycling most nonrenewable matter resources, (2) using renewable resources
no faster than they are replenished, (3) using matter and energy resources efficiently, (4) reducing unnecessary
consumption, (5) emphasizing pollution prevention and waste reduction, and (6) controlling population growth.
See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
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an economy. This can be done by wasting less matter 5. A tree grows and increases its mass. Explain why this
and energy, living more simply to decrease per capita phenomenon is not a violation of the law of conservation
resource use, and slowing population growth to re- of matter.
duce the number of resource users. In other words, we 6. If there is no “away,” why is the world not filled with
learn to live more sustainably by heeding the lessons waste matter?
from nature revealed by the law of conservation of mass
7. Someone wants you to invest money in an automobile
and the two laws of thermodynamics. engine that will produce more energy than the energy in
Since all forms of life depend on energy flow and the fuel (such as gasoline or electricity) used to run the
matter recycling, their processes are governed by the motor. What is your response? Explain.
three basic scientific laws of matter and thermody-
8. Use the second law of thermodynamics to explain
namics. The next four chapters apply these laws to liv-
why a barrel of oil can be used only once as a fuel.
ing systems and look at some biological principles that
can teach us how to live more sustainably by learning 9. a. Imagine you have the power to revoke the law of
from and working with nature. conservation of matter for one day. What are the
three most important things you would do with
this power?
Compare how energy is used in high- and low-throughput b. Imagine you have the power to violate the first law
economies at Environmental ScienceNow. of thermodynamics for one day. What are the three
most important things you would do with this
power?
The second law of thermodynamics holds, I think, the
c. Imagine you have the power to violate the second
supreme position among laws of nature. . . . If your theory is
law of thermodynamics for one day. What are the
found to be against the second law of thermodynamics, I can
three most important things you would do with
give you no hope.
this power?
ARTHUR S. EDDINGTON
LEARNING ONLINE
CRITICAL THINKING
The website for this book includes review questions for
1. Respond to the following statements: the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
a. Scientists have not absolutely proven that anyone a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
has ever died from smoking cigarettes. references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
b. The greenhouse theory—that certain gases (such as InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
water vapor and carbon dioxide) warm the atmos- Visit
phere—is not a reliable idea because it is just a sci-
entific theory. http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
2. Find an advertisement or an article describing some Then choose Chapter 2, and select a learning resource. For
aspect of science in which (a) the concept of scientific access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
proof is misused, (b) the term “theory” is used when it and summaries, register and log in to
should have been “hypothesis,” (c) a consensus or sound
scientific finding is dismissed or downplayed because it
is “only a theory,” and (d) an example of sound science
at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
labeled as junk science for political purposes.
card in the front of your book.
3. Use the library or Internet to find an example of junk
science. Why is it junk science?
4. How does a scientific law (such as the law of conser-
vation of matter) differ from a societal law (such maxi-
mum speed limits for vehicles)? Can each be broken?
Ecosystems: What
Soil
Energy
Nutrient
Recycling
Biodiversity
CASE STUDY Insects have been around for at least 400 million
years and are extremely successful forms of life.
Have You Thanked the Some reproduce at an astounding rate. For example,
Insects Today? a single housefly and her offspring can theoretically
produce about 5.6 trillion flies in only one year.
Insects have a bad reputation. We classify many insect Insects can rapidly develop new genetic traits,
species as pests because they compete with us for food, such as resistance to pesticides. They also have an
spread human diseases such as malaria, and invade exceptional ability to evolve into new species when
our lawns, gardens, and houses. Some people have faced with new environmental conditions, and they
“bugitis”—they fear all insects and think the only good are very resistant to extinction.
bug is a dead bug. This view fails to recognize the vital The environmental lesson is clear: Although in-
roles insects play in helping sustain life on earth. sects can thrive without newcomers such as humans,
Many of the earth’s plant species (including trees) we and most other land organisms would perish
depend on insects to pollinate their flowers (Figure 3-1, without them.
left). Without pollinating insects, we would have very Learning about insects’ roles in nature requires
few fruits and vegetables to enjoy. us to understand how insects and other organisms
Insects that eat other insects—such as the praying living in a biological community such as a forest or
mantis (Figure 3-1, right)—help control the popula- pond interact with one another and with the
tions of at least half the species of insects we call pests. nonliving environment. Ecology is the science that
This free pest control service is an important part of studies such relationships and interactions in
the earth’s natural capital. nature.
John Henry Williams/Bruce Coleman USA
Figure 3-1 Natural capital: the monarch butterfly feeding on pollen in a flower (left) and other insects
pollinate flowering plants that serve as food for many plant eaters. The praying mantis eating a house cricket
(right) and many other insect species help control the populations of at least half of the insect species we
classify as pests.
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The earth’s thin film of living matter is sustained by grand- An organism is any form of life. The cell is the ba-
scale cycles of chemical elements. sic unit of life in organisms. Organisms may consist of
G. EVELYN HUTCHINSON a single cell (bacteria, for instance) or many cells. Look
in the mirror. You will see the result—about 10 trillion
cells divided into about 200 different types.
This chapter describes the major components of eco-
Organisms are classified into species, groups of
systems and the processes that sustain them. It dis-
organisms that resemble one another in terms of their
cusses these questions:
appearance, behavior, chemistry, and genetic makeup.
■ What is ecology? Organisms that reproduce sexually by combining cells
■ What basic processes keep us and other organisms from both parents are classified as members of the
alive? same species if, under natural conditions, they can po-
tentially breed with one another and produce live, fer-
■ What are the major components of an ecosystem? tile offspring. Scientists use a special system to classify
■ What happens to energy in an ecosystem? and name species (see Science Supplement 5 at the end
of this book).
■ What are soils, and how are they formed? How many species are on the earth? We do not
■ What happens to matter in an ecosystem? know. Estimates range from 3.6 million to 100 mil-
lion—most of them microorganisms too small to be
■ How do scientists study ecosystems?
seen with the naked eye. The best guess is that we share
the planet with 10–14 million other species. So far biol-
ogists have identified and named about 1.4 million
KEY IDEAS species, most of them insects (Figure 3-2 and Science
■ Life on earth is sustained by the flow of energy from Spotlight, below).
the sun, the cycling of matter or key nutrients through
the biosphere, and gravity that keeps the molecules in Science Spotlight: Which Species Rule
the atmosphere from flying off into space. the World?
■ Some organisms produce food; others consume Multitudes of tiny microbes such as bacteria,
food. protozoa, fungi, and yeast help keep us alive.
■ The biodiversity found in the earth’s genes, species, They are everywhere and there are trillions of them.
ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is a vital renew- Billions are found inside your body, on your body, in a
able resource. handful of soil, and in a cup of river water.
■ Soil supplies most of the nutrients needed for These mostly invisible rulers of the earth are mi-
plant growth, helps purify water, and stores carbon crobes, a catchall term for many thousands of species of
that helps control atmospheric levels of carbon bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and yeasts—most too small
dioxide. to be seen with the naked eye.
Microbes do not get the respect they deserve.
■ Human activities are altering the flows of energy Most of us view them as threats to our health in the
and the cycling of key nutrients through ecosystems. form of infectious bacteria or “germs,” fungi that
cause athlete’s foot and other skin diseases, and proto-
zoa that cause diseases such as malaria. In reality,
these harmful microbes are in the minority.
You are alive because of multitudes of microbes
3-1 THE NATURE OF ECOLOGY
toiling away mostly out of sight. Microbes convert ni-
trogen gas in the atmosphere into forms that plants
What Is Ecology?
can take up from the soil as nutrients. They also help
Ecology is a study of connections in nature. produce foods such as bread, cheese, yogurt, vinegar,
Ecology (from the Greek words oikos, meaning “house” tofu, soy sauce, beer, and wine. Bacteria and fungi in
or “place to live,” and logos, meaning “study of”) is the the soil decompose organic wastes into nutrients that
study of how organisms interact with one another and can be taken up by plants that we and most other ani-
with their nonliving environment. In effect, it exam- mals eat. Without these wee creatures, we would be up
ines connections in nature—the house for the earth’s life. to our eyeballs in waste matter.
Ecologists focus on trying to understand the interac- Microbes, especially bacteria, help purify the wa-
tions among organisms, populations, communities, ter you drink by breaking down wastes. Bacteria in
ecosystems, and the biosphere (Figure 2-3, p. 23). your intestinal tract break down the food you eat.
Known species
1,412,000
Other animals
281,000
Insects
751,000 Fungi
69,000
Prokaryotes
4,800
Plants
248,400
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Mantle
Learn more about how earth’s life is organized on five levels
in the study of ecology at Environmental ScienceNow.
Crust (soil
and rock)
3-2 THE EARTH’S LIFE-SUPPORT
SYSTEMS Biosphere
(living and dead
Hydrosphere organisms)
The Earth’s Life-Support Systems: (water)
Four Spheres Lithosphere Atmosphere
(crust, top of upper mantle) (air)
The earth is made up of interconnected spherical
layers that contain air, water, soil, minerals, and life. Figure 3-5 Natural capital: general structure of the earth.
All parts of the biosphere are interconnected, just as through parts of the biosphere. Because the earth is
the parts of your body are connected. Any change in closed to significant inputs of matter from space, its
one of the biosphere’s components or processes can essentially fixed supply of nutrients must be continu-
have a ripple effect on other parts. If the earth were an ally recycled to support life. All nutrient trips in
apple, the biosphere would be no thicker than the ap- ecosystems are round-trips.
ple’s skin. The goal of ecology is to understand the interac- ■ Gravity, which allows the planet to hold on to its
tions in this thin, life-supporting global skin or membrane of
atmosphere and enables the movement of chemicals
air, water, soil, and organisms.
between the air, water, soil, and organisms in the mat-
ter cycles.
What Sustains Life on Earth?
Solar energy, the cycling of matter, and gravity sustain What Happens to Solar Energy Reaching
the earth’s life. the Earth?
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected fac- Solar energy flowing through the biosphere warms
tors (Figure 3-6): the atmosphere, evaporates and recycles water,
generates winds, and supports plant growth.
■ The one-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun
About one-billionth of the sun’s output of energy
through materials and living things in their feeding
reaches the earth—a tiny sphere in the vastness of
interactions, into the environment as low-quality en-
space—in the form of electromagnetic waves, mostly
ergy (mostly heat dispersed into air or water mole-
as visible light (Figure 2-9, p. 30). Much of this energy
cules at a low temperature), and eventually back into
is either reflected away or absorbed by chemicals in
space as heat. No round-trips are allowed because en-
the planet’s atmosphere (Figure 3-7, p. 40).
ergy cannot be recycled.
Most solar radiation making it through the at-
■ The cycling of matter (the atoms, ions, or com- mosphere is degraded into longer-wavelength infra-
pounds needed for survival by living organisms) red radiation. This infrared radiation encounters the
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Reflected by
atmosphere (34%) Radiated by
UV radiation
atmosphere
as heat (66%)
Lower Stratosphere
Absorbed (ozone layer)
by ozone Troposphere Greenhouse
Visible
light effect
Heat
Absorbed
by the Heat radiated
earth by the earth
so-called greenhouse gases (such as water vapor, car- and to keep the light gaseous molecules (such as N2,
bon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone) in O2, CO2, and H2O) in its atmosphere from flying off
the troposphere. As it interacts with these gaseous into space.
molecules, it increases their kinetic energy, helping On a time scale of millions of years, the earth
warm the troposphere and the earth’s surface. With- is enormously resilient and adaptive. During the 3.7
out this natural greenhouse effect, the earth would billion years since life arose here, the planet’s average
be too cold for life as we know it to exist. surface temperature has remained within the narrow
range of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F), even with a 30–40% in-
crease in the sun’s energy output. In short, this re-
Learn more about the flow of energy—from sun to earth and markable planet that we call home is uniquely suited
within the earth’s systems—at Environmental ScienceNow.
for life as we know it.
Coastal mountain Sierra Nevada Great American Rocky Great Mississippi Appalachian
ranges Mountains Desert Mountains Plains River Valley Mountains
Coastal chaparral Coniferous forest Desert Coniferous forest Prairie grassland Deciduous forest
and scrub
Figure 3-8 Natural capital: major biomes found along the 39th parallel across the United States. The differ-
ences reflect changes in climate, mainly differences in average annual precipitation and temperature.
systems. Examples include freshwater life zones (such as cool or cold one. Some do best under wet conditions;
lakes and streams) and ocean or marine life zones (such others succeed under dry conditions.
as coral reefs, coastal estuaries, and the deep ocean). Each population in an ecosystem has a range of
tolerance to variations in its physical and chemical en-
vironment, as shown in Figure 3-11 (p. 43). Individuals
Nonliving and Living Components
within a population may also have slightly different
of Ecosystems
tolerance ranges for temperature or other factors be-
Ecosystems consist of nonliving (abiotic) and living cause of small differences in genetic makeup, health,
(biotic) components. and age. For example, a trout population may do best
Two types of components make up the biosphere and within a narrow band of temperatures (optimum level or
its ecosystems: abiotic or nonliving components such range), but a few individuals can survive above and
as water, air, nutrients, and solar energy and biotic or below that band. Of course, if the water becomes too
living biological components such as plants, animals, hot or too cold, none of the trout can survive.
and microbes. These observations are summarized in the law of
Figures 3-9 and 3-10 (p. 42) are greatly simplified tolerance: The existence, abundance, and distribution of a
diagrams of some of the biotic and abiotic components species in an ecosystem are determined by whether the levels
in a freshwater aquatic ecosystem and a terrestrial of one or more physical or chemical factors fall within the
ecosystem. Look carefully at these components and range tolerated by that species. A species may have a
how they are connected to one another through the wide range of tolerance to some factors and a narrow
consumption habits of organisms. range of tolerance to others. Most organisms are least
Different species thrive under different physical tolerant during juvenile or reproductive stages of their
conditions. Some need bright sunlight; others thrive in life cycles. Highly tolerant species can live in a variety
shade. Some need a hot environment; others prefer a of habitats with widely different conditions.
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Sun
Producers (phytoplankton)
Primary consumers (zooplankton)
Secondary consumer (fish)
Sediment
Sun
Oxygen (O2)
Producer
Secondary consumer
(fox)
Primary consumer
(rabbit)
Precipitation
Falling leaves
and twigs Producers
Soil decomposers
ol
S
ub
le m
Water in e r al n
utrients
Figure 3-11 Range of tolerance for a population of organisms, such as fish, to an abiotic environmental
factor—in this case, temperature.
Factors That Limit Population Growth various inorganic minerals or salts dissolved in a
Availability of matter and energy resources can limit given volume of water.
the number of organisms in a population.
A variety of factors can affect the number of organisms Biological Components of Ecosystems:
in a population. Sometimes one factor, known as a lim- Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers
iting factor, is more important in regulating population Some organisms in ecosystems produce food, while
growth than other factors. This ecological principle, re- others consume food.
lated to the law of tolerance, is called the limiting fac-
The earth’s organisms either produce or consume
tor principle: Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can
food. Producers, sometimes called autotrophs (self-
limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other fac-
feeders), make their own food from compounds ob-
tors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance.
tained from their environment.
On land, precipitation often is the limiting factor.
On land, most producers are green plants. In
Lack of water in a desert limits plant growth. Soil nu-
freshwater and marine life zones, algae and plants are
trients also can act as a limiting factor on land. Suppose
the major producers near shorelines. In open water,
a farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor soil. Even if
the dominant producers are phytoplankton—mostly mi-
water, nitrogen, potassium, and other nutrients are at
croscopic organisms that float or drift in the water.
optimal levels, the corn will stop growing when it uses
Most producers capture sunlight to make complex
up the available phosphorus.
compounds (such as glucose, C6H12O6) by photosyn-
Similarly, too much of an abiotic factor can be lim-
thesis. Although hundreds of chemical changes take
iting. For example, providing excess water or fertilizer
place during photosynthesis, the overall reaction can
can kill plants—both common mistakes made by
be summarized as follows:
many beginning gardeners.
Important limiting factors for aquatic life zones in- carbon dioxide water solar energy glucose oxygen
clude temperature, sunlight, nutrient availability, and 6 CO2 6 H2O solar energy C6H12O6 6 O2
dissolved oxygen (DO) content—the amount of oxy-
gen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a par- (See Science Supplement 4 at the end of this book for
ticular temperature and pressure. Another limiting information on how to balance chemical equations
factor in aquatic life zones is salinity—the amounts of such as this one.)
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A few producers, mostly specialized bacteria, can into a powder and finally into simple inorganic mole-
convert simple compounds from their environment cules that plants can absorb as nutrients (Figure 3-12).
into more complex nutrient compounds without sun- In natural ecosystems, there is little or no waste. One organ-
light, through a process called chemosynthesis. ism’s wastes serve as resources for other organisms, as
All other organisms in an ecosystem are con- the nutrients that make life possible are recycled again
sumers, or heterotrophs (“other-feeders”) that obtain and again.
energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms Producers, consumers, and decomposers use the
or their remains. Decomposers (mostly certain types chemical energy stored in glucose and other organic
of bacteria and fungi) are specialized consumers that compounds to fuel their life processes. In most cells
recycle organic matter in ecosystems. They break this energy is released by aerobic respiration, which
down (biodegrade) dead organic material or detritus uses oxygen to convert organic nutrients back into car-
(“di-TRI-tus,” meaning “debris”) to get nutrients. This bon dioxide and water. The net effect of the hundreds
activity releases simpler inorganic compounds into of steps in this complex process is represented by the
the soil and water, where producers can take them up following reaction:
as nutrients.
Omnivores play dual roles by feeding on both glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water energy
plants and animals. Examples are pigs, rats, foxes, C6H12O6 6 O2 6 CO2 6 H2O energy
bears, cockroaches, and humans. Were you an herbi-
vore, a carnivore, or an omnivore when you had lunch Although the detailed steps differ, the net chemical
today? change for aerobic respiration is the opposite of that
Detritivores include detritus feeders and decom- for photosynthesis.
posers that feed on detritus. Hordes of these waste The survival of any individual organism depends
eaters and degraders can transform a fallen tree trunk on the flow of matter and energy through its body. By com-
Wood Mushroom
reduced
to powder
Figure 3-12 Natural capital: Some detritivores, called detritus feeders, directly consume tiny fragments of this
log. Other detritivores, called decomposers (mostly fungi and bacteria), digest complex organic chemicals in
fragments of the log, converting them into simpler inorganic nutrients that can be used again by producers.
Functional Diversity
The biological and chemical processes such as energy
flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species,
communities, and ecosystems.
Ecological Diversity
The variety of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems found in an area or on the earth.
Abiotic chemicals Heat
Heat (carbon dioxide, Solar
oxygen, nitrogen, energy
minerals)
Heat
Decomposers Producers
(bacteria, fungi) (plants)
Consumers
(herbivores, Heat
Heat
carnivores)
Figure 3-14 Natural capital: the major components of the earth’s biodiversity—one of the earth’s most impor-
tant renewable resources.
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Figure 3-15 Natural capital: two species found in tropical forests are part of the earth’s biodiversity. On the left
is an endangered white ukari in a Brazilian tropical forest. On the right is the world’s largest flower, the flesh
flower (Rafflesia), growing in a tropical rainforest of West Sumatra, Indonesia. The flower of this leafless plant
can be as large as 1 meter (4.3 feet) in diameter and weigh 7 kilograms (15 pounds). The plant gives off a
smell like rotting meat, presumably to attract flies and beetles that pollinate the flower. After blossoming once a
year for a few weeks, the flower dissolves into a slimy black mass.
Figure 3-15 shows two tropical forest species that All organisms, whether dead or alive, are potential
make up part of the earth’s species diversity. sources of food for other organisms. A caterpillar eats a
The earth’s biodiversity is the biological wealth or leaf, a robin eats the caterpillar, and a hawk eats the
capital that helps keep us alive. It supplies us with robin. Decomposers consume the leaf, caterpillar, robin,
food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial and hawk after they die. As a result, there is little waste in
chemicals, and medicines—all of which pour hun- natural ecosystems.
dreds of billions of dollars into the world economy A sequence of organisms, each of which serves as
each year. It also helps preserve the quality of the air a source of food for the next, is called a food chain. It
and water, maintain the fertility of soils, dispose of determines how energy and nutrients move from one
wastes, and control populations of pests that attack organism to another through the ecosystem, as shown
crops and forests. in Figure 3-16.
Biodiversity is a renewable resource as long we Ecologists assign each organism in an ecosystem
live off the biological income it provides instead of to a feeding level, or trophic level (from the Greek
nibbling away at the natural capital that supplies this word trophos, meaning “nourishment”), depending
income. Understanding, protecting, and sustaining bio- on whether it is a producer or a consumer and on
diversity is a major goal of ecology and of this book. what it eats or decomposes. Producers belong to the
first trophic level, primary consumers to the second
trophic level, secondary consumers to the third, and
so on. Detritivores (detritus feeders and decom-
3-4 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS posers) process detritus from all trophic levels.
Of course, real ecosystems are more complex.
Food Chains and Food Webs Most consumers feed on more than one type of organ-
Food chains and webs show how eaters, the eaten, ism, and most organisms are eaten by more than one
and the decomposed are connected to one another in type of consumer. Because most species participate in
an ecosystem. several different food chains, the organisms in most
Solar
energy
Heat Heat
Heat Heat
Detritivores Heat
(decomposers and detritus feeders)
Active Figure 3-16 Natural capital: a food chain. The arrows show how chemical energy in food flows
through various trophic levels in energy transfers; most of the energy is degraded to heat, in accordance
with the second law of thermodynamics. Critical thinking: food chains rarely have more than four trophic lev-
els. Can you figure out why? See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
ecosystems form a complex network of interconnected only about 1,000 units of energy will be available to
food chains called a food web, as shown in Figure 3-17 support herbivores and only about 100 units to sup-
(p. 48). Trophic levels can be assigned in food webs just port carnivores.
as in food chains. The more trophic levels or steps in a food chain or
web, the greater the cumulative loss of usable energy
as energy flows through the various trophic levels. The
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
pyramid of energy flow in Figure 3-18 (p. 49) illus-
There is a decrease in the amount of energy trates this energy loss for a simple food chain, assum-
available to each succeeding organism in a food chain ing a 90% energy loss with each transfer. How does
or web. this diagram help explain why there are so few tigers
Each trophic level in a food chain or web contains a cer- in the world?
tain amount of biomass, the dry weight of all organic Energy flow pyramids explain why the earth can
matter contained in its organisms. The chemical energy support more people if they eat at lower trophic levels
stored in biomass is transferred from one trophic level by consuming grains, vegetables, and fruits directly
to another. rather than passing such crops through another
The percentage of usable energy transferred as trophic level and eating grain eaters such as cattle.
biomass from one trophic level to the next is called The large loss in energy between successive trophic
ecological efficiency. It ranges from 2% to 40% (that is, levels also explains why food chains and webs rarely
a loss of 60–98%) depending on the types of species have more than four or five trophic levels. In most
and the ecosystem involved, but 10% is typical. cases, too little energy is left after four or five transfers
Assuming 10% ecological efficiency (90% loss) at to support organisms feeding at these high trophic lev-
each trophic transfer, if green plants in an area manage els. As a result, there are relatively few top carnivores
to capture 10,000 units of energy from the sun, then such as eagles, hawks, tigers, and white sharks. This
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Humans
Elephant
Crabeater seal seal
Killer whale
Leopard
seal
Emperor
penguin
´
Adelie
penguins
Petrel
Squid
Fish
Carnivorous plankton
Krill Herbivorous
zooplankton
Phytoplankton
Active Figure 3-17 Natural capital: a greatly simplified food web in the
Antarctic. Many more participants in the web, including an array of decomposer organisms, are not depicted here.
See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
Productivity of Producers
yn
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Terrestrial Ecosystems
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Northern coniferous forest (taiga)
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland
Tundra (arctic and alpine)
Desert scrub
Extreme desert
Aquatic Ecosystems
Estuaries
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)
Figure 3-20 Natural capital: estimated net primary productivity per unit of area in major life zones and
ecosystems, expressed as kilocalories of energy produced per square meter per year (kcal/m2/yr). (Data from
R. H. Whittaker, Communities and Ecosystems, 2nd ed., New York: Macmillan, 1975)
darker and looser than deeper layers. A fertile soil that The color of its topsoil suggests how useful a soil
produces high crop yields has a thick topsoil layer is for growing crops. Dark brown or black topsoil is
with lots of humus. This composition helps topsoil rich in both nitrogen and organic matter. Gray, bright
hold water and nutrients taken up by plant roots. yellow, and red topsoils are low in organic matter and
The roots of most plants and the majority of a soil’s need nitrogen enrichment to support most crops.
organic matter are concentrated in a soil’s two upper The spaces, or pores, between the solid organic
layers. As long as vegetation anchors these layers, soil and inorganic particles in the upper and lower soil lay-
stores water and releases it in a nourishing trickle. ers contain varying amounts of air (mostly nitrogen
The two top layers of most well-developed soils and oxygen gas) and water. Plant roots need the oxy-
teem with bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and small gen for cellular respiration.
insects that interact in complex food webs. Bacteria Some precipitation that reaches the soil percolates
and other decomposer microorganisms found by the through the soil layers and occupies many of the soil’s
billions in every handful of topsoil break down some open spaces or pores. This downward movement of
of its complex organic compounds into simpler in- water through soil is called infiltration. As the water
organic compounds that are soluble in water. Soil seeps down, it dissolves various minerals and organic
moisture carrying these dissolved nutrients is drawn matter in upper layers and carries them to lower layers
up by the roots of plants and transported through in a process called leaching.
stems and into leaves as part of the earth’s chemical Most of the world’s crops are grown on soils ex-
cycling processes. posed when grasslands and deciduous (leaf-shedding)
Wood
Oak tree sorrel
Lords and
ladies Dog violet
Earthworm Grasses and Organic debris
Mole small shrubs builds up
Millipede Rock
Moss and
Fern fragments
Honey lichen
fungus
O horizon
Leaf litter
A horizon
Topsoil
Bedrock
B horizon
Subsoil Immature soil
Regolith
Young soil
C horizon Pseudoscorpion
Parent Mite
material
Nematode
Root system
Red earth Actinomycetes
mite
Springtail
Fungus
Mature soil Bacteria
Active Figure 3-21 Natural capital: soil formation and generalized soil profile. Horizons, or layers, vary in
number, composition, and thickness, depending on the type of soil. See an animation based on this figure and
take a short quiz on the concept. (Used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Company from Derek Elsom,
Earth, New York: Macmillan, 1992. Copyright © 1992 by Marshall Editions Developments Limited)
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forests are cleared. Figure 3-22 profiles five important rub it between your fingers and thumb. A gritty feel
soil types. means it contains a lot of sand. A sticky feel means a
Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine parti- high clay content, and you should be able to roll the
cles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium-size particles), soil into a clump. Silt-laden soil feels smooth, like
and gravel (coarse to very flour. A loam topsoil, which is best suited to plant
coarse particles). Take a growth, has a texture between these extremes—a
small amount of top- crumbly, spongy feeling—with many of its particles
soil, moisten it, and clumping loosely together.
Mosaic
of closely
packed
pebbles,
boulders
Weak humus–
mineral mixture
Alkaline,
dark,
Dry, brown to and rich
reddish-brown in humus
with variable
accumulations
Clay,
of clay, calcium
calcium
carbonate, and
compounds
soluble salts
Tropical Rain Forest Soil Deciduous Forest Soil Coniferous Forest Soil
(humid, tropical climate) (humid, mild climate) (humid, cold climate)
Active Figure 3-22 Natural capital: soil profiles of the principal soil types typically found in five types of ter-
restrial ecosystems. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
The acidity or alkalinity of a soil, as measured by that organisms need to live, grow, and reproduce are
its pH (Figure 3-23), influences the uptake of nutrients continuously cycled between air, water, soil, rock, and
by plants. Chemicals can be added to raise or lower living organisms. These cycles, driven directly or indi-
the acidity of soils. rectly by incoming solar energy and gravity, include
the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and hydro-
logic (water) cycles (Figure 3-6, p. 39).
Compare soil profiles from grassland, desert, and three The earth’s chemical cycles also connect past, pre-
types of forests at Environmental ScienceNow.
sent, and future forms of life. Some of the carbon
atoms in your skin may once have been part of a leaf, a
dinosaur’s skin, or a layer of limestone rock. Your
grandmother, Plato, or a hunter–gatherer who lived
3-6 MATTER CYCLING IN ECOSYSTEMS
25,000 years ago may have inhaled some of the oxygen
molecules you just inhaled.
Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling
Global cycles recycle nutrients through the earth’s air,
land, water, and living organisms and, in the process, The Water Cycle
connect past, present, and future forms of life. A vast global cycle collects, purifies, distributes, and
All organisms are interconnected by vast global recy- recycles the earth’s fixed supply of water.
cling systems known as nutrient cycles, or biogeo- The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, which collects,
chemical cycles (literally, life–earth–chemical cycles). purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed supply of wa-
In these cycles, nutrient atoms, ions, and molecules ter, as shown in Figure 3-24 (p. 54).
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Condensation
Rain clouds
Transpiration
Evaporation
Precipitation Transpiration
Precipitation
to land from plants
Precipitation
Evaporation
from land Evaporation
Surface runoff
Runoff (rapid) from ocean Precipitation
to ocean
Ocean storage
Active Figure 3-24 Natural capital: simplified model of the hydrologic cycle. See an animation based on this
figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
Solar energy evaporates water found on the chemical and biological processes. Thus, the hydrologic
earth’s surface into the atmosphere. About 84% of wa- cycle can be viewed as a cycle of natural renewal of water
ter vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans; quality.
the rest comes from land.
Some of the fresh water returning to the earth’s
Effects of Human Activities
surface as precipitation in this cycle becomes locked in
on the Water Cycle
glaciers. And some infiltrates and percolates through
soil and permeable rock formations to groundwater We alter the water cycle by withdrawing large
storage areas called aquifers. But most precipitation amounts of fresh water, clearing vegetation and
falling on terrestrial ecosystems becomes surface runoff. eroding soils, and polluting surface and underground
This water flows into streams and lakes, which even- water.
tually carry water back to the oceans, from which it During the past 100 years, we have been intervening in
can evaporate to repeat the cycle. the earth’s current water cycle in three major ways.
Besides replenishing streams and lakes, surface First, we withdraw large quantities of fresh water from
runoff causes soil erosion, which moves soil and rock streams, lakes, and underground sources.
fragments from one place to another. Water is the pri- Second, we clear vegetation from land for agricul-
mary sculptor of the earth’s landscape. Because water ture, mining, road and building construction, and
dissolves many nutrient compounds, it is a major other activities and sometimes cover the land with
medium for transporting nutrients within and be- buildings, concrete, or asphalt. This increases runoff,
tween ecosystems. reduces infiltration that recharges groundwater sup-
Throughout the hydrologic cycle, many natural plies, increases the risk of flooding, and accelerates soil
processes purify water. Evaporation and subsequent erosion and landslides. We also increase flooding by
precipitation act as a natural distillation process that destroying wetlands, which act like sponges to absorb
removes impurities dissolved in water. Water flowing and hold overflows of water.
above ground through streams and lakes and below Third, we add nutrients (such as phosphates
ground in aquifers is naturally filtered and purified by and nitrates found in fertilizers) and other pollutants
to water. This overload of plant nutrients can change or earth’s average temperature by adding excess carbon
impair natural ecological processes that purify water. dioxide to the atmosphere.
Since 1800, and especially since 1950, we have been in-
tervening in the earth’s carbon cycle in two ways that
The Carbon Cycle
add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. First, we clear
Carbon recycles through the earth’s air, water, soil, trees and other plants that absorb CO2 through photo-
and living organisms. synthesis faster than they can grow back. Second, we
Carbon, the basic building block of the carbohydrates, add large amounts of CO2 by burning fossil fuels (Fig-
fats, proteins, DNA, and other organic compounds ure 3-26, p. 56) and wood.
necessary for life, circulates through the biosphere in Computer models of the earth’s climate systems
the carbon cycle shown in Figure 3-25 (p. 56). suggest that increased concentrations of atmospheric
The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide CO2 and other gases could enhance the planet’s natural
(CO2) gas, which makes up 0.038% of the volume of greenhouse effect, which helps warm the lower atmos-
the troposphere and is also dissolved in water. Car- phere (troposphere) and the earth’s surface (Figure 3-7).
bon dioxide is a key component of nature’s thermo- The resulting global warming could disrupt global food
stat. If the carbon cycle removes too much CO2 from production and wildlife habitats, alter temperature and
the atmosphere, the atmosphere will cool; if it gener- precipitation patterns, and raise the average sea level in
ates too much CO2, the atmosphere will get warmer. various parts of the world.
Thus, even slight changes in this cycle can affect
climate and ultimately the types of life that can exist
The Nitrogen Cycle: Bacteria in Action
on earth.
Terrestrial producers remove CO2 from the atmos- Different types of bacteria help recycle nitrogen
phere, and aquatic producers remove it from the wa- through the earth’s air, water, soil, and living
ter. They then use photosynthesis to convert CO2 into organisms.
complex carbohydrates such as glucose (C6H12O6). Nitrogen is the atmosphere’s most abundant element,
The cells in oxygen-consuming producers, con- with nitrogen gas (N2) making up 78% of the volume
sumers, and decomposers then carry out aerobic res- of the troposphere. The N2 in the atmosphere is a
piration. This process breaks down glucose and other stable molecule that does not readily react with other
complex organic compounds and converts the carbon elements, so it cannot be absorbed and used directly as
back to CO2 in the atmosphere or water for reuse by a nutrient by multicellular plants or animals.
producers. This linkage between photosynthesis in pro- Fortunately, atmospheric electrical discharges in
ducers and aerobic respiration in producers, con- the form of lightning and certain types of bacteria in
sumers, and decomposers circulates carbon in the aquatic systems, in the soil, and in the roots of some
biosphere. Oxygen and hydrogen—the other ele- plants can convert N2 into compounds useful as nutri-
ments in carbohydrates—cycle almost in step with ents for plants and animals as part of the nitrogen cy-
carbon. cle, depicted in Figure 3-27 (p. 58).
Some carbon atoms take a long time to recycle. The nitrogen cycle consists of several major steps.
Over millions of years, buried deposits of dead plant In nitrogen fixation, specialized bacteria in soil and
matter and bacteria are compressed between layers of aquatic environments convert (or fix) gaseous nitrogen
sediment, where they form carbon-containing fossil (N2) to ammonia (NH3) that can be used by plants.
fuels such as coal and oil (Figure 3-25). This carbon is Ammonia not taken up by plants may undergo ni-
not released to the atmosphere as CO2 for recycling trification. In this two-step process, specialized soil bac-
until these fuels are extracted and burned, or until teria convert most of the ammonia in soil first to nitrite
long-term geological processes expose these deposits ions (NO2), which are toxic to plants, and then to ni-
to air. In only a few hundred years, we have extracted trate ions (NO3), which are easily taken up by the
and burned fossil fuels that took millions of years to roots of plants. Animals, in turn, get their nitrogen by
form. This is why fossil fuels are nonrenewable re- eating plants or plant-eating animals.
sources on a human time scale. Plants and animals return nitrogen-rich organic
compounds to the environment as wastes, cast-off par-
ticles, and dead bodies. In ammonification, vast armies
Effects of Human Activities of specialized decomposer bacteria convert this detri-
on the Carbon Cycle tus into simpler nitrogen-containing inorganic com-
Burning fossil fuels and clearing photosynthesizing pounds such as ammonia (NH3) and water-soluble
vegetation faster than it is replaced can increase the salts containing ammonium ions (NH4).
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projection
11 then into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous oxide gas
CO2 emissions from fossil fuels
Atmosphere
(most carbon is in carbon dioxide)
Combustion
volcanic action of fossil
fuels
Terrestrial
rocks
Soil water
(dissolved carbon)
Peat,
fossil fuels
applied to the soil. This gas can warm the atmosphere physicist Robert Socolow calls for countries around the
and deplete ozone in the stratosphere. world to work out some type of nitrogen management
Third, nitrate (NO3) in inorganic fertilizers can agreement to help prevent this problem from reaching
leach through the soil and contaminate groundwater. crisis levels.
This contaminated groundwater is harmful to drink,
especially for infants and small children.
The Phosphorus Cycle
Fourth, we release large quantities of nitrogen
stored in soils and plants as gaseous compounds into Phosphorus cycles fairly slowly through the earth’s
the troposphere through destruction of forests, grass- water, soil, and living organisms.
lands, and wetlands. Phosphorus circulates through water, the earth’s crust,
Fifth, we upset aquatic ecosystems by adding ex- and living organisms in the phosphorus cycle, de-
cess nitrates in agricultural runoff and discharges picted in Figure 3-29 (p. 59). Bacteria play less impor-
from municipal sewage systems. tant roles here than in the nitrogen cycle. Very little
Sixth, we remove nitrogen from topsoil when we phosphorus circulates in the atmosphere because soil
harvest nitrogen-rich crops, irrigate crops, and burn or conditions do not allow bacteria to convert chemical
clear grasslands and forests before planting crops. forms of phosphorus to gaseous forms of phosphates.
Since 1950, human activities have more than dou- The phosphorus cycle is slow, and on a short human
bled the annual release of nitrogen from the terrestrial time scale much phosphorus flows one way from the
portion of the earth into the rest of the environment land to the oceans.
(Figure 3-28, p. 58). This excessive input of nitrogen into Phosphorous typically is found as phosphate salts
the air and water represents a serious local, regional, containing phosphate ions (PO43) in terrestrial rock
and global environmental problem that has attracted formations and ocean bottom sediments. As water
relatively little attention compared to global environ- runs over phosphorus-containing rocks, it slowly
mental problems such as global warming and deple- erodes away inorganic compounds that contain phos-
tion of ozone in the stratosphere. Princeton University phate ions.
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Food Webs
on Land
Nitrogen Fixation
bacteria convert N2 to Nitrogenous Wastes, NO3– Denitrification
ammonia (NH3); this Remains in Soil in Soil by bacteria
dissolves to form
ammonium (NH4+)
Ammonification 2. Nitrification
bacteria, fungi convert the bacteria convert NO2–
NH3, NH4+ residues to NH3; this to nitrate (NO3–)
in Soil dissolves to form NH4+
1. Nitrification NO2–
loss by bacteria convert NH4+ loss by
in Soil leaching
leaching to nitrite (NO2–)
Active Figure 3-27 Natural capital: simplified model of the nitrogen cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem. Nitrogen
reservoirs are shown as boxes; processes changing one form of nitrogen to another are shown in boxed print.
See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Adapted from Cecie Starr and
Ralph Taggart, Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed., Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, © 2001)
mining Fertilizer
excretion Guano
agriculture
weathering
uptake by uptake by
autotrophs autotrophs
death, death,
decomposition decomposition
Figure 3-29 Natural capital: simplified model of the phosphorus cycle. Phosphorus reservoirs are shown as
boxes; processes that change one form of phosphorus to another are shown in unboxed print. (From Cecie
Starr and Ralph Taggart, Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed., Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth © 2001)
rock to make commercial inorganic fertilizers and de- ions and incorporate the sulfur as an essential compo-
tergents. Second, we reduce the available phosphate in nent of many proteins.
tropical soils when we cut down tropical forests. Certain marine algae produce large amounts of
Third, we disrupt aquatic systems with phosphates volatile dimethyl sulfide, or DMS (CH3SCH3). Tiny
from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers and dis- droplets of DMS serve as nuclei for the condensation
charges from sewage treatment systems. of water into droplets found in clouds. In this way,
Since 1900, human activities have increased the changes in DMS emissions can affect cloud cover and
natural rate of phosphorus release into the environ- climate. In the atmosphere, DMS is converted to sulfur
ment by about 3.7-fold. dioxide.
In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide (SO2) from nat-
The Sulfur Cycle ural sources and human activities is converted to sulfur
Sulfur cycles through the earth’s air, water, soil, and trioxide gas (SO3) and to tiny droplets of sulfuric acid
living organisms. (H2SO4). In addition, it reacts with other atmospheric
chemicals such as ammonia to produce tiny particles of
Sulfur circulates through the biosphere in the sulfur
sulfate salts. These droplets and particles fall to the
cycle, shown in Figure 3-30 (p. 60). Much of the earth’s
earth as components of acid deposition, which along with
sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals, in-
other air pollutants can harm trees and aquatic life.
cluding sulfate (SO4) salts buried deep under ocean
sediments.
Effects of Human Activities
Sulfur also enters the atmosphere from several
on the Sulfur Cycle
natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)—a colorless,
highly poisonous gas with a rotten-egg smell—is We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere by burning
released from active volcanoes and from organic mat- coal and oil, refining oil, and producing some metals
ter in flooded swamps, bogs, and tidal flats broken from ores.
down by anaerobic decomposers. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere in three ways.
a colorless, suffocating gas, also comes from volcanoes. First, we burn sulfur-containing coal and oil to produce
Particles of sulfate (SO42) salts, such as ammo- electric power. Second, we refine sulfur-containing
nium sulfate, enter the atmosphere from sea spray, petroleum to make gasoline, heating oil, and other
dust storms, and forest fires. Plant roots absorb sulfate useful products. Third, we convert sulfur-containing
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Water
Sulfur trioxide Sulfuric acid Acidic fog and precipitation
Ammonia
Ammonium sulfate
Oxygen
Sulfur dioxide Hydrogen sulfide
Plants
Volcano
Dimethyl sulfide
Industries Animals
Ocean
Sulfate salts
Active Figure 3-30 Natural capital: simplified model of the sulfur cycle. See an animation based on this
figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
metallic mineral ores into free metals such as copper, changing a variable in one part of an area and compar-
lead, and zinc—an activity that releases large amounts ing the results with nearby unchanged areas.
of sulfur dioxide into the environment. Tropical ecologists erect tall construction cranes
that stretch into the canopies of tropical forests to iden-
tify and observe the rich diversity of species living or
Learn more about the water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, feeding in these treetop habitats.
and sulfur cycles using interactive animations at
Increasingly, ecologists are using new technologies
Environmental ScienceNow.
to collect field data. In remote sensing from aircraft and
satellites and geographic information systems (GISs), data
gathered from broad geographic regions are stored in
3-7 HOW DO ECOLOGISTS LEARN
spatial databases (Figure 3-31). Computers and GIS
ABOUT ECOSYSTEMS?
software can analyze and manipulate these data and
combine them with ground and other data. The result:
Field Research, Remote Sensing, and GIS
computerized maps of forest cover, water resources, air
Ecologists go into ecosystems and hang out in pollution emissions, coastal changes, relationships be-
treetops to learn what organisms live there and how tween cancers and sources of pollution, and changes in
they interact. global sea temperatures.
Field research, sometimes called muddy-boots biology,
involves going into nature and observing and measur-
Studying Ecosystems in the Laboratory
ing the structure of ecosystems and what happens in
them. Most of what we know about the structure and Ecologists use aquarium tanks, greenhouses, and
functioning of ecosystems has come from such research. controlled indoor and outdoor chambers to study
Ecologists trek through forests, deserts, and grass- ecosystems.
lands and wade or boat through wetlands, lakes, and During the past 50 years, ecologists have increasingly
streams collecting and observing species. Sometimes supplemented field research by using laboratory re-
they carry out controlled experiments by isolating and search to set up, observe, and make measurements of
Critical nesting site Since the late 1960s, ecologists have explored the
locations use of systems analysis to develop mathematical and
other models that simulate ecosystems. Computer
simulations can help us understand large and very
complex systems (such as rivers, oceans, forests,
grasslands, cities, and climate) that cannot be ade-
USDA Forest Service
USDA
quately studied and modeled in field and laboratory
Private Forest Service research. Figure 3-32 outlines the major stages of sys-
owner 1 tems analysis.
Private owner 2
Researchers can change values of the variables in
their computer models to project possible changes in
Topography environmental conditions, anticipate environmental
surprises, and analyze the effectiveness of various al-
ternative solutions to environmental problems.
Of course, the simulations and projections made
using ecosystem models are no better than the data
Habitat type and assumptions used to develop the models. Clearly,
Forest
Wetland Lake
careful field and laboratory ecological research must
Grassland
be used to provide the baseline data and determine the
causal relationships between key variables needed to
develop and test ecosystem models.
Real world
Define objectives
Systems Identify and inventory variables
Measurement
Obtain baseline data on variables
Systems Analysis
Ecologists develop mathematical and other models to Figure 3-32 Major stages of systems analysis. (Modified data
simulate the behavior of ecosystems. from Charles Southwick)
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Importance of Baseline Ecological Data 2. a. How would you set up a self-sustaining aquarium
We need baseline data on the world’s ecosystems so we for tropical fish?
b. Suppose you have a balanced aquarium sealed with
can see how they are changing and develop effective
a clear glass top. Can life continue in the aquarium
strategies for preventing or slowing their degradation.
indefinitely as long as the sun shines regularly on it?
Before we can understand what is happening in nature c. A friend cleans out your aquarium and removes all
and how best to prevent harmful environmental the soil and plants, leaving only the fish and water.
changes, we need to know about current conditions. In What will happen? Explain.
other words, we need baseline data about the condition 3. Make a list of the food you ate for lunch or dinner to-
of the earth’s ecosystems. day. Trace each type of food back to a particular producer
By analogy, your doctor would like to have base- species.
line data on your blood pressure, weight, and func-
4. Use the second law of thermodynamics (p. 31) to ex-
tioning of your organs and other systems as revealed
plain why a sharp decrease in usable energy occurs as en-
by blood and other basic tests. If something happens ergy flows through a food chain or web. Does an energy
to your health, the doctor can run new tests and com- loss at each step violate the first law of thermodynamics
pare the results with the baseline data to determine (p. 31)? Explain.
what has changed in an effort to come up with an ef-
5. Use the second law of thermodynamics to explain
fective treatment.
why many poor people in developing countries live on a
Bad news. According to a 2002 ecological study pub- mostly vegetarian diet.
lished by the Heinz Foundation and a 2005 Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, scientists have less than half of 6. Why do farmers not need to apply carbon to grow
the basic ecological data they need to evaluate the sta- their crops but often need to add fertilizer containing
nitrogen and phosphorus?
tus of ecosystems in the United States. Even fewer data
are available for most other parts of the world. 7. Why are CO2 levels in the atmosphere higher during
the day than at night?
Two Principles of Sustainability 8. What would happen to an ecosystem if all its decom-
Ecosystems have sustained themselves for several posers and detritus feeders were eliminated? If all its
producers were eliminated?
billion years by using solar energy and recycling the
chemical nutrients their organisms need. 9. Visit a nearby aquatic life zone or terrestrial ecosystem
and try to identify its major producers, consumers, detri-
As described in this chapter, almost all natural ecosys-
tivores, and decomposers.
tems and the biosphere itself achieve long-term sustain-
ability in two ways. First, they use renewable solar en-
ergy as their energy source. Second, they recycle the LEARNING ONLINE
chemical nutrients their organisms need for survival,
The website for this book includes review questions for
growth, and reproduction.
the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
These two sustainability principles arise from the a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
structure and function of natural ecosystems (Figures references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
3-6 and 3-13), the law of conservation of matter (p. 26), InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
and the two laws of thermodynamics (p. 31). Thus the Visit
results of basic research in both the physical and
biological sciences provide the same guidelines or http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
lessons from nature on how we can live more sustain- Then choose Chapter 3, and select a learning resource. For
ably on the earth, as summarized in Figure 2-13 (p. 33). access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
and summaries, register and log in to
All things come from earth, and to earth they all return.
MENANDER (342–290 B.C.)
Biodiversity
There is a grandeur to this view of life . . . that, whilst 4-1 ORIGINS OF LIFE
this planet has gone cycling on . . . endless forms most
beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, Development of Life
evolved.
on the Primitive Earth
CHARLES DARWIN
Scientific evidence indicates that the earth’s life is the
result of about 1 billion years of chemical evolution to
This chapter describes how scientists believe life on form the first cells, followed by about 3.7 billion years
earth arose and developed into the diversity of species of biological evolution to form the species we find on
we find today. It discusses these questions: the earth today.
How did life on the earth evolve to its present incredi-
■ How do scientists account for the development of ble diversity of species? We do not know the full an-
life on the earth? swers to these questions. But considerable evidence
■ What is biological evolution by natural selection, suggests that life on the earth developed in two phases
and how has it led to the current diversity of over the past 4.6–4.7 billion years.
organisms on the earth? The first phase involved chemical evolution of the
organic molecules, biopolymers, and systems of chem-
■ What is an ecological niche, and how does it help a ical reactions needed to form the first cells. It took
population adapt to changing environmental about 1 billion years. Evidence for this phase comes
conditions? from chemical analysis and measurements of radioac-
■ How do extinction of species and formation of new tive elements in primitive rocks and fossils. Chemists
species affect biodiversity? have also conducted laboratory experiments showing
how simple inorganic compounds in the earth’s early
■ What is the future of evolution, and what role atmosphere might have reacted to produce amino
should we play in this future? acids, simple sugars, and other organic molecules used
as building blocks for the proteins, complex carbohy-
drates, RNA, and DNA needed for life.
KEY IDEAS
■ Chemical, geological, and fossil evidence indicate Learn more about one of the most famous of these experi-
that life on earth developed as a result of about 1 bil- ments exploring early life at Environmental ScienceNow.
lion years of chemical evolution and 3.7 billion years
of biological evolution.
Fossil and other evidence indicates that chemical
■ Populations can evolve when genes change or evolution was followed by biological evolution from
mutate, giving some individuals genetic traits that en- single-celled bacteria to multicellular protists, plants,
hance their ability to survive and to produce offspring fungi, and animals.
with these traits (natural selection).
■ Each species in an ecosystem fills a unique ecologi- How Do We Know Which Organisms Lived
cal role called its ecological niche. in the Past?
■ As enviroinmental conditions change, the balance Our knowledge about past life comes from fossils,
between the formation of new species (speciation) chemical analysis, cores drilled out of buried ice, and
and the disapearance or extinction of existing ones DNA analysis.
determines the earth’s biodiversity. Most of what we know of the earth’s life history comes
from fossils: mineralized or petrified replicas of skele-
■ Human activities decrease the earth’s biodiversity
tons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or impres-
when they cause the premature extinction of species
sions of such items. Fossils provide physical evidence
and destroy or degrade habitats that traditionally
of ancient organisms and reveal what their internal
served as centers for the development of new
structures looked like (Figure 4-2).
species.
Despite its importance, the fossil record is uneven
■ Genetic engineering enables us to combine genes and incomplete. Some forms of life left no fossils,
from different organisms—a process that both holds some fossils have decomposed, and others are yet to
great promise and raises a number of legal, ethical, be found. The fossils we have found so far are be-
and environmental issues. lieved to represent only 1% of all species that have
ever lived.
Evidence about the earth’s early history also species arise from ancestral species and other species
comes from chemical analysis and measurements of are lost through extinction.
the half-lives of radioactive elements in primitive
rocks and fossils. Scientists also drill cores from glacial How Does Microevolution Work?
ice and examine the kinds of life found at different lay-
A population’s gene pool changes over time when
ers. They also compare the DNA of past and current
beneficial changes or mutations in its DNA molecules
organisms.
are passed on to offspring.
A population’s gene pool consists of all of the genes
(Figure 2-4, p. 25) in its individuals. Microevolution is a
4-2 EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION
change in a population’s gene pool over time.
The first step in microevolution is the develop-
Biological Evolution
ment of genetic variability in a population. Genetic vari-
Biological evolution is the change in a population’s ability in a population originates through mutations:
genetic makeup over time. random changes in the structure or number of DNA
According to scientific evidence, populations of organ- molecules in a cell. Mutations can occur in two ways.
isms adapt to changes in environmental conditions First, DNA may be exposed to external agents such as
through biological evolution, known more simply as radioactivity, X rays, and natural and human-made
evolution. Evolution involves the change in a popula- chemicals (called mutagens). Second, random mistakes
tion’s genetic makeup through successive generations. sometimes occur in coded genetic instructions when
Populations—not individuals—evolve by becoming geneti- DNA molecules are copied each time a cell divides and
cally different. whenever an organism reproduces.
According to the theory of evolution, all species Mutations can occur in any cells, but only those in
descended from earlier, ancestral species. In other reproductive cells are passed on to offspring. Although
words, life comes from life. This widely accepted sci- some mutations are harmless, most are lethal. Occasion-
entific theory explains how life has changed over the ally, a mutation results in beneficial genetic traits may
past 3.7 billion years (Figure 4-3, p. 66) and why it is so give that individual and its offspring better chances for
diverse today. Religious and other groups may offer survival and reproduction under existing environmen-
other explanations, but evolution is the accepted scien- tal conditions or when such conditions change.
tific explanation.
Natural Selection
Get a detailed look at early evolution—the roots of the tree Some members of a population may have genetic
of life—at Environmental ScienceNow. traits that enhance their ability to survive and produce
offspring with these traits.
Biologists use the term microevolution to describe Natural selection occurs when some individuals of a
small genetic changes that occur in a population. They population have genetically based traits that increase
use the term macroevolution to describe long-term, their chances of survival and their ability to produce
large-scale evolutionary changes through which new offspring with the same traits.
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Modern humans
(Homo sapiens sapiens)
appear about
2 seconds
before midnight
Recorded human
years history begins
i l li o n
65 m
1/4 second
rs
midnight
ea Insects and 12
ny
amphibians
li o
invade
mil
the land 9 3
370
530 million years
AM
6 6
PM
First fossil
record of
s
animals
year n
3 9
llio
mi
Plants begin
0
invading
57
12
land noon
s
Evolution and
ar
ye expansion of life
n o
i lli
80m
7
1 billion years
Figure 4-3 Natural capital: greatly simplified overview of the biological evolution of life on the earth, which
was preceded by about 1 billion years of chemical evolution. Microorganisms (mostly bacteria) that lived in
water dominated the early span of biological evolution on the earth, between about 3.7 billion and 1 billion
years ago. Plants and animals evolved first in the seas. Fossil and recent DNA evidence suggests that plants
began invading the land some 780 million years ago, and animals began living on land about 370 million years
ago. Humans arrived on the scene only a very short time ago. We have been around for less than an eye blink
of the earth’s roughly 3.7-billion-year history of biological evolution. Although we are newcomers, humans have
taken over much of the planet and now have the power to cause the premature extinction of many of the other
species that travel with us as passengers on the earth as it hurtles through space.
Three conditions are necessary for evolution of a pulses of sound. They analyze the returning echoes to
population by natural selection to occur. First, there create a sonic “image” of their prey. (We have copied
must be genetic variability for a trait in a population. this natural technology by using sonar to detect sub-
Second, the trait must be heritable—that is, it can be marines, whale, and schools of fish.)
passed from one generation to another. Third, the trait As a countermeasure, some moth species have
must lead to differential reproduction—that is, it evolved ears that are especially sensitive to the sound
must enable individuals with the trait to leave more frequencies that bats use to find them. When the moths
offspring than other members of the population. Note hear the bat frequencies, they try to escape by falling to
that natural selection acts on individuals, but evolu- the ground or flying evasively.
tion occurs in populations. Some bat species evolved ways to counter this de-
An adaptation, or adaptive trait, is any heritable fense by switching the frequency of their sound
trait that enables an organism to survive and repro- pulses. In turn, some moths evolved their own high-
duce better under prevailing environmental condi- frequency clicks to jam the bats’ echolocation system
tions. Structural adaptations include coloration (allow- (we have also learned to jam radar). Some bat species
ing more individuals to hide from predators or to then adapted by turning off their echolocation system
sneak up on prey), mimicry (looking like a poisonous and using the moths’ clicks to locate their prey.
or dangerous species), protective cover (shell, thick skin, As we see, each species continues refining its adap-
bark, or thorns), and gripping mechanisms (hands with tations in this ongoing coevolutionary contest. Coevo-
opposable thumbs; see Figure 4-1). Physiological adap- lution is like an arms race between interacting popula-
tations include the ability to hibernate during cold tions of different species. Sometimes the predators
weather and give off chemicals that poison or repel surge ahead; at other times the prey get the upper hand.
prey. Behavioral adaptations include the ability to fly to
a warmer climate during winter and various interac-
tions between species.
4-3 ECOLOGICAL NICHES
When faced with a change in environmental con-
AND ADAPTATION
ditions, a population of a species has three possibili-
ties: adapt to the new conditions through natural
Ecological Niches
selection of an increasing number of individuals in the
population, migrate (if possible) to an area with more Each species in an ecosystem has a specific role
favorable conditions, or become extinct. or way of life.
The process of microevolution can be summarized If asked what role a certain species, such as an alliga-
as follows: Genes mutate, individuals are selected, and tor, plays in an ecosystem, an ecologist would describe
populations evolve. its ecological niche, or simply niche (pronounced
“nitch”). It is a species’ way of life or functional role in
a community or ecosystem and involves everything
How many moths can you eat? Find out and learn more that affects its survival and reproduction.
about adaptation at Environmental ScienceNow.
The ecological niche of a species differs from its
habitat, the physical location where it lives. Ecologists
often say that its niche is analogous to a species’ occu-
Coevolution: A Biological Arms Race
pation, whereas its habitat is analogous to its address.
Interacting species can engage in a back-and-forth A species’ fundamental niche consists of the full
genetic contest in which each gains a temporary potential range of physical, chemical, and biological
genetic advantage over the other. conditions and resources it could theoretically use if it
Some biologists have proposed that interactions between could avoid direct competition from other species. Of
species can result in microevolution in each population. course, in a particular ecosystem, different species of-
According to this hypothesis, when populations of two ten compete with one another for the same resources.
different species interact over a long time, changes in In short, the niches of competing species overlap.
the gene pool of one species can lead to changes in the To survive and avoid competition for the same
gene pool of the other. This process is called coevolu- resources, a species usually occupies only part of
tion. In this give-and-take evolutionary game, each its fundamental niche in a particular community or
species is in a genetic race to produce the largest num- ecosystem—what ecologists call its realized niche. By
ber of surviving offspring. analogy, you may be capable of being president of
Consider the interactions between bats and moths. a particular company (your fundamental professional
Bats like to eat moths, and they hunt at night and use niche), but competition from others may mean you
echolocation to navigate and locate their prey. To do become only a vice president (your realized professional
so, they emit extremely high-frequency, high-intensity niche).
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Flamingo
feeds on
minute Oystercatcher feeds on
organisms clams, mussels, and
in mud Louisiana heron wades into
other shellfish into which
water to seize small fish
it pries its narrow beak
Cockroaches (Fig- detect minute movements of air, productive rate helps them quickly
ure 4A), the bugs vibration sensors in their knee develop genetic resistance to almost
many people love joints, and rapid response times any poison we throw at them.
to hate, have been (faster than you can blink). Some Most cockroaches sample food
SCIENCE around for 350 even have wings. before it enters their mouths, so they
SPOTLIGHT million years. One learn to shun foul-tasting poisons.
of evolution’s They also clean up after themselves
great success stories, they have by eating their own dead and, if
thrived because they are generalists. food is scarce enough, their living.
The earth’s 3,500 cockroach Only about 25 species of cock-
species can eat almost anything, in- roach live in homes. Unfortunately,
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Fruit and seed eaters Insect and nectar eaters netic trait to predominate—hardly a desirable solution
to the environmental problems we face.
Greater Koa-finch
Kuai Akialaoa
Two Commonly Misunderstood
Amakihi Aspects of Evolution
Kona Grosbeak Evolution is about leaving the most descendants,
and there is no master plan leading to genetic
perfection.
There are two common misconceptions about bio-
Crested Honeycreeper
logical evolution. One is that “survival of the fittest”
Akiapolaau
means “survival of the strongest.” To biologists, fitness
is a measure of reproductive success, not strength.
The fittest individuals are those that leave the most
descendants.
The other misconception is that evolution involves
Maui Parrotbill Apapane some grand plan of nature in which species become
more perfectly adapted. From a scientific standpoint,
no plan or goal of genetic perfection has been identi-
fied in the evolutionary process.
Gray Fox
Figure 4-7 Geographic isolation can lead to reproductive isolation, divergence, and speciation.
In reproductive isolation, mutation and natural planet, and releases of large amounts of methane
selection operate independently in the gene pools of trapped beneath the ocean floor. Some of these events
geographically isolated populations. If this process created dust clouds that shut down or sharply reduced
continues long enough, members of the geographically photosynthesis long enough to eliminate huge num-
and reproductively isolated populations of sexually re- bers of producers and, soon thereafter, the consumers
producing species may become so different in genetic that fed on them.
makeup that they can never produce live, fertile off- In some places, populations of existing species
spring. Then one species has become two, and specia- have been reduced or eliminated by newly arrived
tion has occurred. migrant species or species that are accidentally or de-
For some rapidly reproducing organisms, this type liberately introduced into new areas. More recently,
of speciation may occur within hundreds of years. For humans have taken over or degraded many of the
most species, it takes from tens of thousands to mil- earth’s resources and habitats. Today’s biodiversity
lions of years. represents the species that have survived and thrived
Given this time scale, it is difficult to observe and despite environmental upheavals.
document the appearance of a new species. Thus many
controversial hypotheses attempt to explain the details
Background Extinction, Mass Extinction,
of speciation.
and Mass Depletion
All species eventually become extinct, but drastic
Extinction: Lights Out changes in environmental conditions can eliminate
A species becomes extinct when its populations large groups of species.
cannot adapt to changing environmental Extinction is the ultimate fate of all species, just as
conditions. death awaits all individual organisms. Biologists esti-
Another process affecting the number and types of mate that 99.9% of all the species that ever existed are
species on the earth is extinction, in which an entire now extinct. The human species will not escape this ul-
species ceases to exist. When environmental condi- timate fate.
tions change drastically enough, a species must evolve As local environmental conditions change, a cer-
(become better adapted), move to a more favorable tain number of species disappear at a low rate, called
area if possible, or become extinct. background extinction. Based on the fossil record and
For most of the earth’s geological history, species analysis of ice cores, biologists estimate that the aver-
have faced incredible challenges to their existence. age annual background extinction rate is one to five
Continents have broken apart and moved over mil- species for each million species on the earth.
lions of years (Figure 4-8, p. 72). The earth’s land area In contrast, mass extinction is a significant rise in
has repeatedly shrunk when continents have been extinction rates above the background level. In such a
flooded, has expanded when the world’s oceans have catastrophic, widespread (often global) event, large
shrunk, and has sometimes been covered with ice. groups of existing species (perhaps 25–70%) are wiped
The earth’s life has also had to cope with volcanic out. Fossil and geological evidence indicates that the
eruptions, meteorites and asteroids crashing onto the earth’s species have experienced five mass extinctions
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LAURASIA
A
E
GA
N
120° 80° 40° 80° 120° 120° 80° 80° 120°
PA
GONDW
AN
AL
A
N
D
225 million years ago 135 million years ago
A
ERIC
AM
R TH EURASIA
O
N
AFRICA
120° 0° 40° 120°
SO ER
A
DI
UT ICA
IN
H
MADA-
GASCAR
IA
AL
S TR
A AU
IC
A N TA R C T
Figure 4-8 Geological processes and biological evolution: over millions of years, the earth’s continents
have moved very slowly on several gigantic plates. This process plays a role in the extinction of species as
land areas split apart and in the rise of new species where once isolated areas of land combine. Rock and
fossil evidence indicates that 200–250 million years ago all of the earth’s present-day continents were locked
together in a supercontinent called Pangaea (top left). About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began splitting
apart as the earth’s huge plates separated and eventually resulted in today’s locations of the continents (bot-
tom right).
(20–60 million years apart) during the past 500 million response to changing environmental conditions. Al-
years (Figure 4-9). though extinction is a natural process, humans have
In periods of mass depletion, extinction rates are become a major force in the premature extinction of
much higher than normal but not high enough to clas- species.
sify as a mass extinction. In both types of events, large According to biologists Stuart Primm and Edward
numbers of species have become extinct. O. Wilson, during the 20th century, extinction rates in-
A mass extinction or mass depletion crisis for some creased by 100–1,000 times the natural background
species is an opportunity for other species. The exis- extinction rate. As human population and resource con-
tence of millions of species today means that speciation, sumption increase over the next 50–100 years, we are
on average, has kept ahead of extinction, especially expected to take over a larger share of the earth’s sur-
during the last 250 million years (Figure 4-10, p. 74). face and net primary productivity (NPP) (Figure 3-20,
p. 50). According to Wilson and Primm, this may cause
the premature extinction of at least one-fifth of the
Effects of Human Activities
earth’s current species by 2030 and half of those species
on the Earth’s Biodiversity
by the end of this century. If not checked, this trend
Human activities are decreasing the earth’s could bring about a new mass depletion and possibly a
biodiversity. new mass extinction. Wilson says that if we make an “all-
Speciation minus extinction equals biodiversity, the out effort to save the biologically richest parts of the
planet’s genetic raw material for future evolution in world, the amount of loss can be cut at least by half.”
On our short time scale, such major losses cannot solar energy to food, chemicals cycle, and species filling
be recouped by formation of new species; it took mil- different biological roles (niches) have evolved in response
lions of years after each of the earth’s past mass to changing environmental conditions.
extinctions and depletions for life to recover to the pre- Each species here today represents the outcome of
vious level of biodiversity. We are also destroying or a long chain of evolution, and each plays a unique eco-
degrading ecosystems such as tropical forests, coral logical role in the earth’s communities and ecosys-
reefs, and wetlands that are centers for future specia- tems. These species, communities, and ecosystems are
tion. (See the Guest Essay on this topic by Norman essential for future evolution, as populations of spe-
Myers on the website for this chapter.) Genetic engi- cies continue to adapt to changes in environmental
neering cannot stop this loss of biodiversity because conditions by changing their genetic makeup.
genetic engineers rely on natural biodiversity for their
genetic raw material.
We can summarize the 3.7-billion-year biological Learn more about different types of speciation and ways in
which they can occur at Environmental ScienceNow.
history of the earth in one sentence: Organisms convert
Extinction
Quaternary Today Current extinction crisis caused
Cenozoic
Jurassic
Extinction
180 Triassic: 35% of animal families, including
many reptiles and marine mollusks.
Triassic
Extinction
250 Permian: 90% of animal families, including
over 95% of marine species; many trees,
Permian amphibians, most bryozoans and
brachiopods, all trilobites.
Carboniferous
Extinction
345 Devonian: 30% of animal families,
including agnathan and placoderm
fishes and many trilobites.
Paleozoic
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Extinction
500 Ordovician: 50% of animal families,
Cambrian including many trilobites.
Figure 4-9 Fossils and radioactive dating indicate that five major mass extinctions (indicated by arrows) have
taken place over the past 500 million years. Mass extinctions leave many organism roles (niches) unoccupied
and create new ones. As a result, each mass extinction has been followed by periods of recovery (represented
by the wedge shapes) called adaptive radiations. During these periods, which last 10 million years or longer,
new species evolve to fill new or vacated ecological roles. Many scientists say that we are now in the midst of a
sixth mass extinction, caused primarily by human activities.
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1600
Terrestrial
Pre-cambrian
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
organisms
1200
Marine
Number of families
organisms
800
Tertiary
Quaternary
400
0
3500 545 500 440 410 355 290 250 205 145 65 1.8 0
Millions of years ago
Figure 4-10 Natural capital: changes in the earth’s biodiversity over geological time. The biological diversity
of life on land and in the oceans has increased dramatically over the last 3.5 billion years, especially during the
past 250 million years. During the last 1.8 million years this increase has leveled off. Critical thinking: will the
human species be a major factor in decreasing the earth’s biodiversity over this century?
Phase 1
Make Modified Gene
E. coli
Cell Genetically
Extract
modified
plasmid
Extract DNA plasmid
plasmid
Gene of DNA
interest
Identify and extract Identify and remove Remove plasmid Insert extracted DNA Insert modified Grow in tissue
gene with desired trait portion of DNA with from DNA of E. coli (step 2) into plasmid plasmid into E. coli culture to
desired trait (step 3) make copies
Phase 2 Phase 3
Make Transgenic Cell Grow Genetically Engineered Plant
Culture cells
to form plantlets
Transfer to soil
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All we have yet discovered is but a trifle in comparison with (c) using genetic engineering to eliminate aging and
what lies hid in the great treasury of nature. death.
ANTOINE VAN LEEUWENHOCK 6. Congratulations! You are in charge of the future evolu-
tion of life on the earth. What are the three most impor-
CRITICAL THINKING tant things you would do?
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Land
Climate
Control
Grassland
Renewal
Forest
Renewal
To do science is to search for repeated patterns, not simply to Weather is an area’s short-term temperature, precipita-
accumulate facts, and to do the science of geographical ecology tion, humidity, wind speed, cloud cover, and other
is to search for patterns of plant and animal life that can be physical conditions of the lower atmosphere over a
put on a map. short period of time. Science Supplement 5 at the end of
ROBERT H. MACARTHUR this book introduces you to weather basics.
Climate is a region’s general pattern of atmo-
spheric or weather conditions over a long time. Aver-
This chapter provides an introduction to the earth’s
age temperature and average precipitation are the two
climate and how it affects the types of life found in
main factors determining climate. Figure 5-2 (p. 80) de-
different parts of the earth. It discusses addresses
picts the earth’s major climate zones.
these questions:
Many factors contribute to the global and local cli-
■ What key factors determine the earth’s climate? mate. The main ones are the amount of solar radiation
reaching the area, the earth’s daily rotation and annual
■ How does climate determine where the earth’s path around the sun, air circulation over the earth’s
major biomes are found? surface, the global distribution of landmasses and
■ What are the major types of desert and grassland seas, the circulation of ocean currents, and the eleva-
biomes, and how do human activities affect them? tion of landmasses.
Three major factors determine how air circulates
■ What are the major types of forest and mountain over the earth’s surface. The first factor is the uneven
biomes, and how do human activities affect them? heating of the earth’s surface. Air is heated much more at
■ What are the major types of saltwater life zones, its fattest part, the equator, where the sun’s rays strike
and how do human activities affect them? directly, than at the poles, where sunlight strikes at a
slanted angle and spreads out over a much greater
■ What are the major types of freshwater life zones, area. You can observe this effect by shining a flashlight
and how do human activities affect them? in a darkened room on the middle of a spherical object
such as a basketball and moving the light up and
down. The differences in the amount of incoming solar
energy help explain why tropical regions near the
KEY IDEAS equator are hot, polar regions are cold, and temperate
■ Climate is an area’s average weather conditions— regions in between generally have intermediate aver-
especially temperature and precipitation—over a long age temperatures.
time. A second factor is the rotation of the earth on its
axis—an imaginary line connecting the north and south
■ The climate of a region is determined by incoming
poles. As the earth rotates around its north–south axis,
solar radiation, global patterns of air and water move-
its equator rotates faster than its polar regions. As a re-
ment, gases in the atmosphere, and major features of
sult, the air masses rising above the earth and moving
the earth’s surface.
north and south are deflected to the west or east over
■ The location of terrestrial biomes such as deserts, different parts of the planet’s surface (Figure 5-3, p. 80).
grassland, and forests is determined mostly by climate The direction of air movement in these cells sets up
and human activities that remove or alter vegetation. belts of prevailing winds—major surface winds that
■
blow almost continuously and distribute air and mois-
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover
ture over the earth’s surface.
almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface.
The third factor affecting global air circulation is
■ Human activities are disrupting and degrading properties of air, water, and land. Heat from the sun evap-
many of the ecological and economic services pro- orates ocean water and transfers heat from the oceans
vided by the earth’s terrestrial biomes and aquatic to the atmosphere, especially near the hot equator.
systems. Also, the earth’s landmasses give up heat faster than
its oceans. These properties create giant cyclical con-
vection cells that circulate air, heat, and moisture both
vertically and from place to place in the troposphere.
The earth’s air circulation patterns, prevailing winds,
5-1 CLIMATE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION and mixture of continents and oceans result in six giant
convection cells—three north of the equator and three
Factors That Affect Climate south of the equator—in which warm, moist air rises
Climate is the average weather conditions—especially and cool, dry air sinks. This leads an irregular distribu-
temperature and precipitation—of an area over a long tion of climates and patterns of vegetation, as shown in
time. It is affected by global air circulation. Figure 5-4 (p. 81).
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Arctic t
ri f
or current
Circle d
tic
lan
At t
rth
ash urren
ad
ska
r No
b
Ala ent
La
io c
r
cur
i f ic
c
Oy
Pa
c u rr e nt
rt h
No dri
ft m
ea current
str ros
hio
lf
es
r r e nt Ku
a ri
G
an
Tropic of
C
cu
Cancer ni a N o rt h
C al i f o r Carib equatorial current
oo
bea
nc Gu ns n
dr
Mo
ur in e
a cu
ift
re
Equatorial countercurrent n rr ent
t
ou
S
South equatorial current th
e q uatorial cu
rrent
equatorial curre
uth nt
So nt
rre
Bra
cu
Peru c u r r e n t
Tropic of
r a lian
c u rr e nt
z
il c u r r e n t
Capricorn
t
us
t
rre n
tA
Eas
cu
la
ue
n
li a
ng
tr a
us
Be
West wind tA
drift W es
West wind drift West wind drift
Antarctic
Circle
Polar (ice) Subarctic (snow) Cool temperate Highland Warm ocean current River
Warm temperate Dry Tropical Major upwelling zones Cold ocean current
Active Figure 5-2 Natural capital: generalized map of the earth’s current climate zones, showing the major
contributing ocean currents and drifts. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the
concept.
encing climate and vegetation, especially near coastal Witness the greenhouse effect and see how human activity
areas. They also help mix ocean waters and distribute has affected it at Environmental ScienceNow.
the nutrients and dissolved oxygen needed by aquatic
organisms.
The warm Gulf Stream (Figure 5-2), for example,
Topography of the Earth’s Surface
transports 25 times more water than all of the world’s
and Local Climate: Land Matters
rivers combined. Without the warming effect of the
heat carried northward from the equator, the climate Interactions between land and oceans, as well as
of northwestern Europe would be subarctic to arctic. If disruptions of air flows by mountains and cities, affect
this ocean current suddenly stopped flowing, deserts local climates.
would appear in the tropics and thick ice sheets would Heat is absorbed and released more slowly by water
cover northern Europe, Siberia, and Canada. than by land. This difference creates land and sea
breezes. As a result, the world’s oceans and large lakes
moderate the climate of nearby lands.
Learn more about how oceans affect air movements, near Various topographic features of the earth’s surface
where you live and all over the world, at Environmental create local and regional climatic conditions that differ
ScienceNow.
from the general climate of a region. For example,
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Active Figure 5-5 Natural capital: the natural greenhouse effect. Without the atmospheric warming provided
by this natural effect, the earth would be a cold and mostly lifeless planet. When concentrations of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere rise, the average temperature of the troposphere rises. See an animation based on
this figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Modified by permission from Cecie Starr, Biology: Concepts
and Applications, 4th ed., Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 2000.)
mountains interrupt the flow of prevailing surface ward side of high mountains create the rain shadow
winds and the movement of storms. When moist air effect (Figure 5-6), sometimes leading to the formation
blowing inland from an ocean reaches a mountain of deserts. For example, in the Sierra Nevada moun-
range, it cools as it is forced to rise and expand. The air tains in North America, about five times more precipi-
then loses most of its moisture as rain and snow on the tation falls on the side of the range facing the wind as
windward (wind-facing) slopes. on the side facing away from the wind.
As the drier air mass flows down the leeward Cities also create distinct microclimates. Bricks,
(away from the wind) slopes, it draws moisture out of concrete, asphalt, and other building materials absorb
the plants and soil below. The lower precipitation and and hold heat, and buildings block wind flow. Motor
the resulting semiarid or arid conditions on the lee- vehicles and the climate control systems of buildings
Dry habitats
Moist habitats
Figure 5-6 Natural capital: the rain shadow effect is a reduction of rainfall on the side of mountains facing
away from prevailing surface winds. Warm, moist air in prevailing onshore winds loses most of its moisture as
rain and snow on the windward (wind-facing) slopes of a mountain range. This leads to semiarid and arid con-
ditions on the leeward side of the mountain range and the land beyond. California’s Mojave Desert and Asia’s
Gobi Desert are both produced by this effect.
release large quantities of heat and pollutants. As a re- Why is one area of the earth’s land surface a desert, an-
sult, cities tend to have more haze and smog, higher other a grassland, and yet another a forest? Why do
temperatures, and lower wind speeds than the sur- different types of deserts, grasslands, and forests exist?
rounding countryside. The general answer to these questions is differences in
climate (Figure 5-2), resulting mostly from differences
in average temperature and precipitation caused by
5-2 BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE global air circulation (Figure 5-4). Different climates
ON LAND support different communities of organisms.
Figure 5-7 shows how scientists have divided
Why Do Different Organisms Live the world into 12 major biomes. These terrestrial re-
in Different Places? gions have characteristic types of natural communities
Different climates lead to different communities of adapted to the climate of each region. What kind of
organisms, especially vegetation. biome do you live in?
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
Semidesert,
Arctic tundra (polar grasslands) Desert
arid grassland
Boreal forest (taiga), evergreen coniferous Tropical rain forest, Mountains
forest (e.g., montane coniferous forest) tropical evergreen forest (complex zonation)
Temperate deciduous forest Tropical deciduous forest Ice
Active Figure 5-7 Natural capital: the earth’s major biomes—the main types of natural vegetation in various
undisturbed land areas—result primarily from differences in climate. Each biome contains many ecosystems
whose communities have adapted to differences in climate, soil, and other environmental factors. Humans have
removed or altered much of this natural vegetation in some areas for farming, livestock grazing, lumber and fu-
elwood, mining, and construction. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
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By comparing Figure 5-7 with Figure 5-2 and Fig- biomes are not uniform. They consist of a mosaic of patches,
ure 1 in Science Supplement 2 at the end of this book, each having a somewhat different biological commu-
you can see how the world’s major biomes vary with nity but sharing similarities unique to the biome. These
climate. Figure 3-8 (p. 41) shows major biomes in the patches occur mostly because the resources that plants
United States as one moves through different climates and animals need are not uniformly distributed and
along the 39th parallel. because human activities remove and alter natural
Average annual precipitation and temperature (as vegetation.
well as soil type; see Figure 3-22, p. 52) are the most Figure 5-9 shows how climate and vegetation vary
important factors in producing tropical, temperate, or with latitude (distance from the equator) and altitude
polar deserts, grasslands, and forests (Figure 5-8). (elevation above sea level). If you climb a tall mountain
On maps such as the one in Figure 5-7, biomes are from its base to its summit, you can observe changes in
depicted as having sharp boundaries and being cov- plant life similar to those you would encounter in trav-
ered with the same general type of vegetation. In reality, eling from the equator to the earth’s poles.
d
Col
Polar
Tundra
Subpolar
re
tu
ra
pe
te m
in g
Temperate
as
Coniferous forest
cre
De
Desert
Deciduous Grassland
forest Chaparral Tropical
Hot
Desert
W Savanna
et Rain forest y
Dr
Tropical
seasonal Scrubland
forest
D e cre
asing pre
cipitation
Figure 5-8 Natural capital: average precipitation and average temperature, acting together as limiting fac-
tors over a period of 30 or more years, determine the type of desert, grassland, or forest biome in a particular
area. Although the actual situation is much more complex, this simplified diagram explains how climate deter-
mines the types and amounts of natural vegetation found in an area left undisturbed by human activities. (Used
by permission of Macmillan Publishing Company, from Derek Elsom, The Earth, New York: Macmillan, 1992.
Copyright © 1992 by Marshall Editions Developments Limited.)
Altitude
Mountain
ice and snow
Tundra (herbs,
lichens, mosses)
Coniferous
Forest
Deciduous Latitude
Forest
Tropical
Forest
Figure 5-9 Natural capital: generalized effects of altitude (left) and latitude (right) on climate and biomes.
Parallel changes in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator to the poles or from lowlands to
mountaintops.
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Prickly
pear
cactus
Roadrunner
Darkling
beetle
Bacteria
Diamondback rattlesnake
Fungi
Kangaroo rat
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Grasshopper
Blue stem
grass
Prairie
dog
Bacteria
Fungi
Prairie
coneflower
Paul A. Souders/CORBIS
Darrell Gulin/CORBIS
Figure 5-14 Natural capital: Arctic tundra (polar grassland) near Nome, Alaska, in winter (left) and in Alaska’s
Denali National Park in summer (right).
Types of Forests
Conversion of savanna and Forests have enough precipitation to support stands
temperate grassland to cropland
of trees and are found in tropical, temperate, and
Release of CO2 to atmosphere polar regions.
from burning and conversion of Undisturbed areas with moderate to high average an-
grassland to cropland
nual precipitation tend to be covered with forest,
Overgrazing of tropical and which contains various species of trees and smaller
temperate grasslands by forms of vegetation. The three main types of forest—
livestock
tropical, temperate, and boreal (polar)—result from com-
Damage to fragile arctic tundra binations of the precipitation level and various average
by oil production, air and water temperatures (Figure 5-8).
pollution, and off-road vehicles Tropical rain forests (Figure 5-16, p. 90) are found
near the equator (Figure 5-7), where hot, moisture-
laden air rises and dumps its moisture (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-15 Natural capital degradation: major human im-
These forests have a warm annual mean temperature
pacts on the world’s grasslands. Critical thinking: what are the (which varies little, either daily or seasonally), high hu-
direct and indirect effects of your lifestyle on grasslands? midity, and heavy rainfall almost daily.
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Tropical rain forests are dominated by broadleaf Dropped leaves, fallen trees, and dead animals de-
evergreen plants, which keep most of their leaves year- compose quickly because of the warm, moist condi-
round. The tops of the trees form a dense canopy that tions and hordes of decomposers. This rapid recycling
blocks most light from reaching the forest floor. Many of scarce soil nutrients explains why little litter is
of the plants that live at the ground level have enor- found on the ground. Instead of being stored in the
mous leaves to capture what little sunlight filters soil, most minerals released by decomposition are
through to the dimly lit forest floor. taken up quickly by plants and stored by trees, vines,
Tropical rain forests are teeming with life and boast and other plants. As a result, tropical rain forest soils
incredible biological diversity. These life forms occupy contain very few plant nutrients (Figure 3-22, bottom
a variety of specialized niches in distinct layers—in the left, p. 52). Rain forests are not good places to clear and
plants’ case, based mostly on their need for sunlight, as grow crops or graze cattle on a sustainable basis.
shown in Figure 5-17. Stratification of specialized plant
and animal niches in a tropical rain forest enables the
coexistence of a great variety of species. Although tropi- Learn more about how plants and animals in a rain
cal rain forests cover only 2% of the earth’s land surface, forest are connected across a food web at Environmental
ScienceNow.
at least half of the earth’s terrestrial species reside there.
Harpy Ocelot
Blue and eagle
gold macaw
Squirrel
monkeys
Climbing
monstera palm
Slaty-tailed Katydid
trogon
Green tree snake
Tree frog
45
Emergent
Harpy layer
40 eagle
35 Toco
toucan
Canopy
30
Height (meters)
25
20
Understory
Wooly
opossum
15
10
Brazilian Shrub
5 tapir layer
Black-crowned Ground
antpitta layer
0
Figure 5-17 Natural capital: stratification of specialized plant and animal niches in a tropical rain forest. Fill-
ing such specialized niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition for resources and results in the
coexistence of a great variety of species.
Temperate deciduous forests (Figure 5-18, p. 92) grow tic tundra in northern regions across North America,
in areas with moderate average temperatures that Asia, and Europe (Figure 5-7). In this subarctic climate,
change significantly with the season. These areas have winters are long, dry, and extremely cold; in the north-
long, warm summers, cold but not too severe winters, ernmost taiga, sunlight is available only 6–8 hours per
and abundant precipitation, often spread fairly evenly day. Summers are short, with mild to warm tempera-
throughout the year. tures, and the sun typically shines 19 hours per day.
This biome is dominated by a few species of Most boreal forests are dominated by a few
broadleaf deciduous trees such as oak, hickory, maple, species of coniferous (cone-bearing) evergreen trees such
poplar, and beech. They survive cold winters by be- as spruce, fir, cedar, hemlock, and pine that keep some
coming dormant through the winter (photo in Fig- of their narrow-pointed leaves (needles) year-round
ure 5-18, right). Each spring they grow new leaves (Figure 5-19, p. 93). The small, needle-shaped, waxy-
whose colors change in the fall into an array of reds coated leaves of these trees can withstand the intense
and golds before the leaves drop (photo in Figure 5-18, cold and drought of winter when snow blankets the
left). Because of a slow rate of decomposition, these ground. The trees are ready to take advantage of the
forests accumulate a thick layer of slowly decaying brief summers in these areas without taking time to
leaf litter that is a storehouse of nutrients grow new needles. Plant diversity is low in these
Evergreen coniferous forests, also called boreal forests forests because few species can survive the winters
and taigas (“TIE-guhs”), are found just south of the arc- when soil moisture is frozen.
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Mountain
winterberry
Shagbark hickory
May beetle
Racer
Long-tailed
Fungi weasel
Wolf
Bebb
willow
Pine sawyer
beetle
and larvae
Snowshoe
hare
Fungi
Starflower
Bacteria Bunchberry
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Forests
Timber extraction
What Kinds of Organisms Live in Aquatic
Mineral resource extraction Life Zones?
Hydroelectric dams and Aquatic systems contain floating, drifting, swimming,
reservoirs bottom-dwelling, and decomposer organisms.
Increasing tourism (such as Saltwater and freshwater life zones contain several
hiking and skiing) major types of organisms. One group consists of
weakly swimming, free-floating plankton. They con-
Air pollution from industrial and sist mostly of phytoplankton (plant plankton) and zoo-
urban centers
plankton (animal plankton).
Increased ultraviolet radiation A second group of organisms consists of nekton,
from ozone depletion strongly swimming consumers such as fish, turtles,
and whales. A third group, benthos, dwells on the bot-
Soil damage from off-road
vehicles tom. Examples include barnacles and oysters that an-
chor themselves to one spot, worms that burrow into
the sand or mud, and lobsters and crabs that walk
about on the seafloor. A fourth group consists of de-
Figure 5-22 Natural capital degradation: major human im-
composers (mostly bacteria) that break down the or-
pacts on the world’s mountains. Critical thinking: what are the
direct and indirect effects of your lifestyle on mountains? ganic compounds in the dead bodies and wastes of
aquatic organisms into simple nutrient compounds for
use by producers.
Finally, mountains play a critical role in the hydro-
logic cycle by gradually releasing melting ice, snow, Factors That Limit Life at Different Depths
and water stored in the soils and vegetation of moun- in Aquatic Life Zones
tainsides to small streams. Life in aquatic systems is found in surface, middle,
Despite their ecological, economic, and cultural and bottom layers.
importance, the fate of mountain ecosystems has not
Most aquatic life zones can be divided into three lay-
been a high priority of governments or many environ-
ers: surface, middle, and bottom. Important environmen-
mental organizations. Mountain ecosystems are com-
tal factors determining the types and numbers of
ing under increasing pressure from several human ac-
organisms found in these layers are temperature, access
tivities (Figure 5-22).
to sunlight for photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen content,
and availability of nutrients such as carbon (as dissolved
CO2 gas), nitrogen (as NO3), and phosphorus (mostly
as PO43) for producers.
5-5 AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS: TYPES
In deep aquatic systems, photosynthesis is largely
AND CHARACTERISTICS
confined to the upper layer, or euphotic zone, through
which sunlight can penetrate. The depth of the euphotic
Types of Aquatic Life Zones
zone in oceans and deep lakes can be reduced when ex-
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover cessive algal growth (algal blooms) clouds the water.
almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface. In shallow waters in streams, ponds, and oceans,
The aquatic equivalents of biomes are called aquatic ample supplies of nutrients for primary producers are
life zones. The major types of organisms found in usually available. By contrast, nitrates, phosphates,
aquatic environments are determined by the water’s iron, and other nutrients are often in short supply in
salinity—the amounts of various salts such as sodium the open ocean and limit net primary productivity
chloride (NaCl) dissolved in a given volume of water. (NPP; see Figure 3-20, p. 50). NPP is much higher in
As a result, aquatic life zones are classified into two some parts of the open ocean, where upward flows of
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Lakes
Rivers
Coral reefs
Mangroves
Sergio Hanquet/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Figure 5-23 Natural capital: distribution of the world’s major saltwater oceans, coral reefs, mangroves, and
freshwater lakes and rivers. The photo on the left shows a coral reef in the Red Sea. The photo on the right
shows a mangrove forest in Daintree National Park in Queensland, Australia.
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High tide
Low tide Sun
Coastal Zone Open Sea Depth in
meters
Sea level
0
Photosynthesis
50
Estuarine
Zone Euphotic Zone
100
Continental
shelf 200
Twilight
1,000
1,500
2,000
Abyssal
Zone
Darkness
3,000
4,000
5,000
10,000
Figure 5-26 Natural capital: major life zones in an ocean (not drawn to scale). Actual depths of zones may vary.
Snowy
egret Cordgrass
Short-billed
dowitcher
Marsh
periwinkle
Phytoplankton
Smelt
Zooplankton and
small crustaceans
Soft-shelled
clam
Clamworm
Bacteria
Figure 5-28 Natural capital: components and interactions in a salt marsh ecosystem in a tem-
perate area such as the United States. When these organisms die, decomposers break down
their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and
energy between consumers (herbivores); secondary, or higher-level, consumers (carnivores);
and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. The photo shows a salt marsh in Peru.
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this reason, estuaries and their associated coastal wet- of the sea. Such real estate is so scarce and valuable that
lands are some of the earth’s most productive ecosys- coastal developers frequently remove the protective
tems and provide other important ecological and eco- dunes or build behind the first set of dunes and cover
nomic services. them with buildings and roads. Large storms can then
These systems filter out toxic pollutants, excess flood and even sweep away seaside buildings and se-
plant nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. They verely erode the sandy beaches. Some people inac-
reduce storm damage by absorbing the energy of curately call these human-influenced events “natural
waves and storing excess water produced by storms. disasters.”
They also provide food, habitats, and nursery sites for
numerous aquatic species. Bad news: We are degrading
Case Study: Coral Reefs
or destroying some of the ecological services that these
important ecosystems provide at no cost. Coral reefs are biologically diverse and productive
ecosystems that are increasingly stressed by human
activities.
Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living
Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal waters of the
with the Tides
tropics and subtropics (Figure 5-23). These stunningly
Organisms in coastal areas experiencing daily low and beautiful natural wonders are among the world’s old-
high tides have evolved many ways to survive under est, most diverse, and productive ecosystems, and they
harsh and changing conditions. provide homes for one-fourth of all marine species
The area of shoreline that appears between low and (Figure 5-31, p. 102).
high tides is called the intertidal zone. Organisms liv- Coral reefs are formed by massive colonies of tiny
ing in this zone must be able to avoid being swept animals called polyps (close relatives of jellyfish). They
away or crushed by waves, and evade or cope with be- slowly build reefs by secreting a protective crust of
ing immersed during high tides and left high and dry limestone (calcium carbonate) around their soft bod-
(and much hotter) at low tides. They must also survive ies. When the polyps die, their empty crusts remain
changing levels of salinity when heavy rains dilute salt behind as a platform for more reef growth. The result-
water. To deal with these stresses, most intertidal or- ing elaborate network of crevices, ledges, and holes
ganisms hold on to something, dig in, or hide in pro- serves as calcium carbonate “condominiums” for a va-
tective shells. riety of marine animals.
On some coasts, steep rocky shores are pounded by Coral reefs represent a mutually beneficial rela-
waves. The numerous pools and other niches in the tionship between the polyps and the single-celled al-
rocks in their intertidal zones contain a great variety of gae called zooxanthellae (“zoh-ZAN-thel-ee”) that live
species that occupy different niches (Figure 5-29, top). in the tissues of the polyps. The algae provide the
Other coasts have gently sloping barrier beaches, or polyps with color, food, and oxygen through photo-
sandy shores, with niches for different marine organ- synthesis. The polyps, in turn, provide the algae with a
isms (Figure 5-29, bottom). Most of them keep hidden well-protected home and some of their nutrients.
from view and survive by burrowing, digging, and Although coral reefs occupy only about 0.1%
tunneling in the sand. These sandy beaches and their of the world’s ocean area, they provide numerous
adjoining coastal wetlands are also home to numerous free ecological and economic services. They help
birds that occupy specialized niches by feeding on dif- moderate atmospheric temperatures by removing
ferent types of crustaceans, insects, and other organ- CO2 from the atmosphere, act as natural barriers that
isms (Figure 4-5, p. 69). help protect 15% of the world’s coastlines from ero-
Barrier islands are low and narrow sandy islands sion by battering waves and storms, and support at
that form offshore from a coastline. These beautiful but least one-fourth of all identified marine species and
very limited pieces of real estate are prime targets for almost two-thirds of marine fish species. Economi-
real estate development. Living on these islands can be cally, they produce about one-tenth of the global fish
risky. Sooner or later many of the structures humans catch and one-fourth of the catch in developing coun-
build on low-lying barrier islands, such as Atlantic tries, and provide jobs and building materials for
City, New Jersey, and Miami Beach, Florida, are dam- some of the world’s poorest countries. They also sup-
aged or destroyed by flooding, severe beach erosion, port fishing and tourism industries worth billions of
or major storms (including hurricanes; see Figure 3 in dollars each year.
Science Supplement 6 at the end of this book). Coral reefs are vulnerable to damage because they
Undisturbed barrier beaches have one or more grow slowly and are disrupted easily. They also thrive
rows of natural sand dunes in which the sand is held in only in clear and fairly shallow water of constant high
place by the roots of grasses (Figure 5-30, p. 102). These salinity. This water must have a temperature of
dunes serve the first line of defense against the ravages 18–30°C (64–86°F).
High tide
Periwinkle
Low tide
Sculpin
Barnacles
Monterey flatworm
Beach flea
Nudibranch
Sandpiper
Ghost
Silversides Low tide shrimp
Mole
shrimp
Figure 5-29 Natural capital: living between the tides. Some organisms with specialized niches found in
various zones on rocky shore beaches (top) and barrier or sandy beaches (bottom). Organisms are not
drawn to scale.
The biodiversity of coral reefs can be reduced by able to adapt to such natural environmental
natural disturbances such as severe storms, freshwater changes. Today the biggest threats to the biodi-
floods, and invasions of predatory fish. Throughout versity of the world’s coral reefs come from hu-
their very long geologic history, coral reefs have been man activities listed in Figure 5-32 (p. 103).
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Ocean Beach Primary Dune Trough Secondary Dune Back Dune Bay or Lagoon
Intensive recreation, No direct passage Limited No direct passage Most suitable Intensive
no building or building recreation or building for development recreation
and walkways
Bay shore
Grasses or shrubs
No filling
Taller shrubs
Taller shrubs and trees
Symbiotic Coney
algae
Zooplankton
Figure 5-31 Natural capital: Blackcap basslet
components and interactions in
a coral reef ecosystem. When Sponges
these organisms die, decom-
posers break down their organic
matter into minerals used by
Moray
plants. Colored arrows indicate eel
transfers of matter and energy
between producers; primary Bacteria
consumers (herbivores); sec-
ondary, or higher-level, con-
sumers (carnivores); and de-
composers. Organisms are not Producer to Primary to Secondary to All consumer
drawn to scale. See the photo of primary secondary higher-level and producers
a coral reef in Figure 5-23 (left). consumer consumer consumer to decomposers
Mangrove destruction
Effects of Human Activities on Marine
Coral reef bleaching Systems: Red Alert
Rising sea levels People are destroying or degrading many of the
coastal areas’ most vital resources.
Increased UV exposure from ozone
depletion In their desire to live near the coast, people are de-
stroying or degrading the resources that make coastal
Using cyanide and dynamite to
harvest coral reef fish areas so enjoyable and economically and ecologically
valuable. Currently, 45% of the world’s people and
Coral removal for building material, more than half of the U.S. population live along or
aquariums, and jewelery
near coasts. Some 13 of the world’s 19 megacities with
Damage from anchors, ships, and populations of 10 million or more people are located in
tourist divers coastal zones. By 2030, at least 6.3 billion people are ex-
pected to live in or near coastal areas. Figure 5-33 lists
major human impacts on marine systems.
Figure 5-32 Natural capital degradation: major threats to
coral reefs. Critical thinking: which two of these threats do you
believe are the most serious? Natural Capital Degradation
Marine Ecosystems
Biological Zones in the Open Sea: Light Rules
The open ocean consists of a brightly lit surface
Half of coastal wetlands lost to
layer, a dimly lit middle layer, and a dark bottom agriculture and urban
zone. development
The sharp increase in water depth at the edge of the Over one-third of mangrove
continental shelf separates the coastal zone from the forests lost since 1980 to
agriculture, development, and
vast volume of the ocean called the open sea. Primar-
aquaculture shrimp farms
ily on the basis of the penetration of sunlight, it is di-
vided into three vertical zones (see Figure 5-26). About 10% of world’s beaches
eroding because of coastal
The euphotic zone is the brightly lit upper zone
development and rising sea level
where floating drifting phytoplankton carry out pho-
tosynthesis. Nutrient levels are low (except around Ocean bottom habitats degraded
by dredging and trawler fishing
upwellings), and levels of dissolved oxygen are high.
boats
Large, fast-swimming predatory fish such as sword-
fish, sharks, and bluefin tuna populate this zone. At least 20% of coral reefs
severely damaged and 30–50%
The bathyal zone is the dimly lit middle zone that
more threatened
does not contain photosynthesizing producers because
of a lack of sunlight. Various types of zooplankton and
smaller fish, many of which migrate to feed on the sur-
face at night, populate this zone.
The lowest zone, called the abyssal zone, is dark Figure 5-33 Natural capital degradation: major human im-
and very cold and has little dissolved oxygen. Never- pacts on the world’s marine systems. Critical thinking: how does
theless, the ocean floor contains enough nutrients to your lifestyle directly or indirectly contribute to this degradation?
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Sunlight
Green Painted
turtle Blue-winged
frog teal
Muskrat
Pond
snail
Littoral zone
Limnetic zone
Diving
beetle Plankton
Profundal zone
Benthic zone
Northern
Yellow Bloodworms pike
perch
Active Figure 5-35 Natural capital: distinct zones of life in a fairly deep temperate zone lake. See an anima-
tion based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
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Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Delta
Deposited
sediment
Transition Zone
Water
Figure 5-36 Natural capital: three zones in the down- Sediment
hill flow of water: source zone containing mountain
(headwater) streams; transition zone containing wider, Floodplain Zone
lower-elevation streams; and floodplain zone containing
rivers, which empty into the ocean.
before water covers them again. In such cases, scien- ings. More than half of the inland wetlands estimated to
tists must use the composition of the soil or the pres- have existed in the continental United States during the
ence of certain plants (such as cattails, bulrushes, or 1600s no longer exist. This loss of natural capital has
red maples) to determine that a particular area is really been an important factor in increased flood and drought
a wetland. Inland wetlands provide a number of free damage in the United States. Many other countries have
ecological and economic services. For example, they suffered similar losses. For example, 80% of all wet-
filter toxic wastes and pollutants, absorb and store lands in Germany and France have been destroyed.
excess water from storms, and provide habitats for Scientists have made a good start in understanding
many species. important aspects of the ecology of the world’s terres-
trial and aquatic systems. One of the major lessons from
their research: In nature, everything is connected. Accord-
Natural Capital Degradation: Effects of
ing to scientists, we urgently need more research on
Human Activities on Freshwater Systems
how the world’s terrestrial and aquatic systems work
We have built dams, levees, and dikes that reduce the and are connected to one another and to the atmo-
flow of water and alter wildlife habitats in rivers; sphere. With such information we will have a clearer
established cities and farmlands that pollute streams picture of how our activities affect the earth’s biodiver-
and rivers; and filled in inland wetlands to grow food sity and what we can do to live more sustainably.
and build cities.
Human activities affect freshwater systems in four ma- When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched
jor ways. First, dams, diversions, or canals fragment to everything else in the universe.
almost 60% of the world’s 237 large rivers. They alter JOHN MUIR
and destroy wildlife habitats along rivers and in
coastal deltas and estuaries by reducing water flow.
Second, flood control levees and dikes built along CRITICAL THINKING
rivers alter and destroy aquatic habitats. Third, cities 1. List a limiting factor for each of the following eco-
and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutri- systems: (a) a desert, (b) arctic tundra, (c) alpine tundra,
ents to nearby streams and rivers. Fourth, many inland (d) the floor of a tropical rain forest, (e) a temperate
wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or deciduous forest, (f) the surface layer of the open sea,
have been covered with concrete, asphalt, and build- and (g) the bottom of a deep lake.
2. Why do deserts and arctic tundra support a much of each of these ecosystems. If the judge decides you can
smaller biomass of animals than do tropical forests? save only one of the ecosystems, which one would you
choose, and why?
3. Why do most animals in a tropical rain forest live in
its trees? 9. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. What
are the three most important features of your plan to help
4. Which biomes are best suited for (a) raising crops and
sustain (a) the earth’s terrestrial biodiversity and (b) the
(b) grazing livestock?
earth’s aquatic biodiversity?
5. Some biologists have suggested placing large herds
of bison on public lands in the North American plains as
a way of restoring remaining tracts of tall-grass prairie. LEARNING ONLINE
Ranchers with permits to graze cattle and sheep on
The website for this book includes review questions for
federally managed lands have strongly opposed this
the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
idea. Do you agree or disagree with the idea of returning
a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
large numbers of bison to the plains of North America?
references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
Explain.
InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
6. What type of biome do you live in? How have human Visit
activities over the past 50 years affected the characteristic
vegetation and animal life normally found in the biome http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
you live in? How is your lifestyle affecting this biome?
Then choose Chapter 5, and select a learning resource. For
7. Which factors in your lifestyle contribute to the access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
destruction and degradation of coastal and inland and summaries, register and log in to
wetlands?
8. You are a defense attorney arguing in court for sparing
an undeveloped old-growth tropical rain forest and a at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
coral reef from severe degradation or destruction by de- card in the front of your book.
velopment. Write your closing statement for the defense
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Biodiversity
Animal and vegetable life is too complicated a problem for hu- 6-1 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
man intelligence to solve, and we can never know how wide a AND SPECIES DIVERSITY
circle of disturbance we produce in the harmonies of nature
when we throw the smallest pebble into the ocean of organic
Community Structure: Appearance Matters
life.
GEORGE PERKINS MARSH
Biological communities differ in their structure and
physical appearance.
This chapter looks at the roles and interactions of One way that ecologists distinguish between biological
species in a community, the ways in which communi- communities is by describing their overall physical ap-
ties and populations respond to changes in environ- pearance: the relative sizes, stratification, and distribu-
mental conditions, and actions we can take to help tion of the populations and species in each community,
sustain populations, communities, and ecosystems. as shown in Figure 6-2 (p. 110) for various terrestrial
communities. There are also differences in the physical
■ What determines the number of species in a structures and zones of communities in aquatic life
community? zones such as oceans, rocky shores and sandy beaches,
■ How can we classify species according to their lakes, river systems, and inland wetlands.
roles in a community? The physical structure within a particular type of
community or ecosystem can also vary. Most large ter-
■ How do species interact with one another?
restrial communities and ecosystems consist of a mo-
■ How do communities respond to changes in envi- saic of different-sized vegetation patches. Life is patchy.
ronmental conditions? Likewise, community structure varies around its
■ How do populations respond to changes in envi- edges where one type of community makes a transition
ronmental conditions? to a different type of community. For example, the edge
area between a forest and an open field may be sunnier,
■ How do species differ in their reproductive
warmer, and drier than the forest interior and support
patterns?
different species than the forest and field interiors.
■ What are the major impacts of human activities on Increasing the edge area through habitat fragmen-
populations, communities, and ecosystems? tation makes many species more vulnerable to stresses
■ What lessons can we learn from ecology about liv- such as predators and fire. It also creates barriers that
ing more sustainably? can prevent some species from colonizing new areas
and finding food and mates.
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100
30
20
50
10
ft m
Tropical Coniferous Deciduous Thorn Thorn Tall-grass Short-grass Desert
rain forest forest forest forest scrub prairie prairie scrub
Figure 6-2 Natural capital: generalized types, relative sizes, and stratification of plant species in various ter-
restrial communities.
species interact. For most terrestrial plants and animals, stability. According to this hypothesis, a complex com-
species diversity is highest in the tropics and declines munity with a diversity of species and feeding paths
as we move from the equator toward the poles. has more ways to respond to most environmental
The most species-rich environments are tropical stresses because it does not have “all its eggs in one
rain forests, coral reefs, the deep sea, and large tropical basket.” This is a useful hypothesis, but recent research
lakes. A community such as a tropical rain forest or a has found exceptions to this intuitively appealing idea.
coral reef with a large number of different species Because no community can function without
(high species richness) generally has only a few mem- some producers and decomposers, there is a mini-
bers of each species (low species evenness). mum threshold of species diversity below which com-
munities and ecosystems cannot function. Beyond
this, it is difficult to know whether simple communi-
Learn about how latitude affects species diversity and ties are less stable than complex and biodiverse ones
about the differences between big and small islands at
or to identify the threshold of species diversity needed
Environmental ScienceNow.
to maintain community stability. Research by ecologist
David Tilman and others suggests that communities
with more species tend to have a higher net primary
Are Complex Communities More Sustainable
productivity (NPP) and can be more resilient than
Than Simple Ones?
simpler ones.
Having many different species can provide some Many studies support the idea that some level of
ecological stability or sustainability for communities, biodiversity provides insurance against catastrophe.
but we do not know whether this applies to all But how much biodiversity is needed in various com-
communities or what the minimum number of species munities remains uncertain. Recent research suggests
needed to ensure stability is. that the average annual NPP of an ecosystem reaches a
In the 1960s, most ecologists believed the greater the peak with 10–40 producer species. Many ecosystems
species diversity and the accompanying web of feed- contain even more producer species, but it is difficult
ing and biotic interactions, the greater an ecosystem’s to distinguish between the essential species and the
nonessential species. We need much more research quality because trout need clean water with high lev-
into this important area of ecology. els of dissolved oxygen.
Birds are excellent biological indicators because
they are found almost everywhere and are affected
6-2 TYPES OF SPECIES quickly by environmental changes such as loss or frag-
mentation of their habitats and introduction of chemi-
Types of Species in Communities cal pesticides. The population of many bird species is
Communities can contain native, nonnative, indicator, declining.
keystone, and foundation species that play different Butterflies are good indicator species because their
ecological roles. association with various plant species makes them vul-
nerable to habitat loss and fragmentation. Some am-
Ecologists often use labels—such as native, nonnative,
phibians are also believed to be indicator species, as
indicator, keystone, or foundation—to describe the major
discussed next.
niches filled by various species in communities. Any
given species may play more than one of these five
Case Study: Why Are Amphibians
ecological roles in a particular community.
Vanishing?
Native species are those species that normally live
and thrive in a particular community. Other species The disappearance of many amphibian species may
that migrate into or are deliberately or accidentally in- indicate a decline in environmental quality in many
troduced into an community are called nonnative parts of the world.
species, invasive species, or alien species. Amphibians (frogs, toads, and salamanders) live part
Many people tend to think of nonnative species of their lives in water and part on land, and some are
as villains. In fact, most introduced and domesti- classified as indicator species. Frogs, for example, are
cated species of crops and animals such as chickens, especially vulnerable to environmental disruption at
cattle, and fish from around the world are beneficial various points in their life cycle, shown in Figure 6-3
to us. (p. 112). As tadpoles, they live in water and eat plants;
Sometimes, however, a nonnative species can as adults, they live mostly on land and eat insects that
crowd out native species and cause unintended and can expose them to pesticides. Frogs’ eggs have no pro-
unexpected consequences. In 1957, for example, Brazil tective shells to block ultraviolet (UV) radiation or pol-
imported wild African bees to help increase honey lution. As adults, they take in water and air through
production. Instead, the bees displaced domestic hon- their thin, permeable skins, which can readily absorb
eybees and reduced the honey supply. pollutants from water, air, or soil.
Since then, these nonnative bee species—popu- Since 1980, populations of hundreds of the world’s
larly known as “killer bees”—have moved northward estimated 5,280 amphibian species have been vanish-
into Central America and parts of the southwestern ing or declining in almost every part of the world, even
United States. They are still heading north but should in protected wildlife reserves and parks. According to
be stopped eventually by the harsh winters in the cen- the World Conservation Union, one-fourth of all
tral United States unless they can adapt genetically to known amphibian species are extinct, endangered, or
cold weather. vulnerable to extinction.
The wild African bees are not the fearsome killers No single cause has been identified to explain the
portrayed in some horror movies, but they are aggres- amphibian declines. However, scientists have identi-
sive and unpredictable. They have killed thousands of fied a number of factors that can affect frogs and other
domesticated animals and an estimated 1,000 people amphibians at various points in their life cycles:
in the western hemisphere. Most of their human vic- ■ Habitat loss and fragmentation (especially from
tims died because they were allergic to bee stings or
draining and filling of inland wetlands, deforestation,
because they fell down or became trapped and could
and development)
not flee.
■ Prolonged drought (which dries up breeding pools
Indicator Species: Biological Smoke Alarms so few tadpoles survive)
Some species can alert us to harmful changes taking ■ Pollution (particularly from exposure to pesti-
place in biological communities. cides, which can make frogs more vulnerable to
Species that serve as early warnings of damage to a bacterial, viral, and fungal diseases and cause sexual
community or an ecosystem are called indicator spe- abnormalities)
cies. For example, the presence or absence of trout ■ Increases in ultraviolet radiation caused by reduc-
species in water at temperatures within their range of tions in stratospheric ozone (which can harm young
tolerance (Figure 3-11, p. 43) is an indicator of water embryos of amphibians in shallow ponds)
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Sexual
reproduction
Tadpole
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Number of individuals
bird foundation species can regenerate deforested ar-
eas and spread fruit plants by depositing plant seeds
in their droppings.
Species 1 Species 2
Region
6-3 SPECIES INTERACTIONS of
niche overlap
How Do Species Interact?
Resource use
Species can interact and increase their ability to
survive through competition, predation, parasitism,
mutualism, and commensalism.
Number of individuals
When different species in an ecosystem have activities
or resource needs in common, they may interact with
one another. Members of these species may be harmed
by, benefit from, or be unaffected by the interaction.
Ecologists identify five basic types of interactions be-
tween species: interspecific competition, predation, para- Species 1 Species 2
sitism, mutualism, and commensalism.
The most common interaction between species is
competition for shared or scarce resources such as space Resource use
and food. Ecologists call such competition between
species interspecific competition. Figure 6-4 Natural capital: resource partitioning and niche
specialization as a result of competition between two species.
As long as commonly used resources are abun- The top diagram shows the overlapping niches of two compet-
dant, different species can share them. Each species ing species. The bottom diagram shows that through natural
can then come closer to occupying the fundamental selection the niches of the two species become separated and
niche it would occupy if it faced no competition from more specialized (narrower) so that they avoid competing for
other species. the same resources.
Of course, most species face competition from
other species for one or more limited resources (such
as food, sunlight, water, soil nutrients, space, nesting scarce resources evolve more specialized traits that al-
sites, and good places to hide). As a result, the funda- low them to use shared resources at different times, in
mental niches of the competing species may overlap. different ways, or in different places.
With significant niche overlap, one of the competing Through natural selection, the fairly broad niches
species must migrate, if possible, to another area; shift of two competing species (Figure 6-4, top) can become
its feeding habits or behavior through natural selec- more specialized (Figure 6-4, bottom) so that the
tion and evolution; suffer a sharp population decline; species can share limited resources. When lions and
or become extinct in that area. leopards live in the same area, for example, lions take
Humans compete with other species for space, mostly larger animals as prey, and leopards take
food, and other resources. As we convert more of the smaller ones. Hawks and owls feed on similar prey,
earth’s land and aquatic resources and NPP to our but hawks hunt during the day and owls hunt at night.
uses, we deprive many other species of resources they Figure 6-5 shows resource partitioning by some
need to survive. insect-eating bird species. Figure 4-5 (p. 69) shows the
specialized feeding niches of bird species in a coastal
wetland.
Reducing or Avoiding Competition:
Sharing Resources
Some species develop adaptations through natural Predators and Prey: Eating and Being Eaten
selection that allow them to reduce or avoid Species called predators feed on all or parts of other
competition for resources with other species. species called prey.
Over a time scale long enough for natural selection to In predation, members of one species (the predator)
occur, some species competing for the same resources feed directly on all or part of a living organism of
develop adaptations that reduce or avoid competition. another species (the prey). Together, the two kinds
One way this happens is through resource partition- of organisms, such as lions (the predator or hunter)
ing. It occurs when species competing for similar and zebras (the prey or hunted), form a predator–prey
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Parasites: Sponging Off of Others in a community together. Parasites also promote bio-
Although parasites can harm their host organisms, diversity by helping keep some species from becoming
they may also promote community biodiversity. so plentiful that they eliminate other species.
Parasitism occurs when one species (the parasite) feed-
Mutualism: Win–Win Relationships
son part of another organism (the host), usually by liv-
ing on or in the host. Parasitism can be viewed as a spe- Pollination and fungi that help plant roots take up
cial form of predation. But unlike a conventional nutrients are examples of species interactions that
predator, a parasite usually is much smaller than its benefit both species.
host (prey) and rarely kills its host. Also, most parasites In mutualism, two species interact in a way that bene-
remain closely associated with, draw nourishment fits both. Such benefits include having pollen and
from, and may gradually weaken their host over time. seeds dispersed for reproduction, being supplied with
Tapeworms, microorganisms that cause disease food, or receiving protection. For example, honeybees,
(pathogens), and other parasites live inside their hosts. caterpillars and other insects may feed on a male
Other parasites attach themselves to the outside of their flower’s nectar, picking up pollen in the process, and
hosts. Examples include ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, mistle- then pollinate female flowers when they feed on them.
toe plants, and sea lampreys that use their sucker-like Figure 6-7 shows three examples of mutualistic re-
mouths to attach themselves to their fish hosts and feed lationships that combine nutrition and protection. One
on their blood. Some parasites move from one host to involves birds that ride on the backs of large animals
another, as fleas and ticks do; others, such as tape- like African buffalo, elephants, and rhinoceroses (Fig-
worms, spend their adult lives with a single host. ure 6-7a). The birds remove and eat parasites from the
From the host’s point of view, parasites are harm- animal’s body and often make noises warning the ani-
ful. Nevertheless, parasites play important ecological mal when predators approach.
roles. Collectively, the matrix of parasitic relationships A second example involves clownfish species,
in a community acts like glue to help hold the species which live within sea anemones, whose tentacles sting
and paralyze most fish that
touch them (Figure 6-7b).
The clownfish, which are
not harmed by the tenta-
cles, gain protection from
predators and feed on the
Joe McDonald/Tom Stack & Associates
(a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros (b) Clownfish and sea anemone
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nity of organisms has been disturbed, removed, or species and is in balance with its environment. This
destroyed, but the soil or bottom sediment remains. equilibrium model of succession is what ecologists
Candidates for secondary succession include aban- once meant when they talked about the balance of nature.
doned farmlands (Figure 6-10, p. 120), burned or cut Over the last several decades, many ecologists
forests, heavily polluted streams, and land that has have changed their views about balance and equilib-
been dammed or flooded. Because some soil or sedi- rium in nature. Under the old balance-of-nature view,
ment is present, new vegetation usually can begin to a large terrestrial community undergoing succession
germinate within a few weeks. Seeds can be present in eventually became covered with an expected type of
soils, or they can be carried from nearby plants by climax vegetation. In reality, a close look at almost any
wind or by birds and other animals. community reveals that it consists of an ever-chang-
During primary or secondary succession, distur- ing mosaic of vegetation patches at different stages of
bances such as natural or human-caused fires or defor- succession.
estation can convert a particular stage of succession to The modern view is that we cannot project the course of
an earlier stage. Such disturbances create new condi- a given succession or view it as preordained progress toward
tions that encourage some species and discourage or an ideally adapted climax community. Rather, succession
eliminate others. reflects the ongoing struggle by different species for
enough light, nutrients, food, and space. This competi-
tion allows them to survive and gain reproductive ad-
Explore the differences between primary and secondary vantages over other species.
succession at Environmental ScienceNow.
Lichens
Exposed and mosses
rocks
Balsam fir,
paper birch, and
Jack pine,
white spruce
black spruce,
Heath mat forest community
and aspen
Small herbs
and shrubs
Time
Active Figure 6-9 Natural capital: starting from scratch. Primary ecological succession over several hundred
years of plant communities on bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier on Isle Royal in northern Lake Superior.
See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
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Population size (N )
from nature.
Environmental resistance consists of all factors
that act to limit the growth of a population. Together, Biotic
biotic potential and environmental resistance deter- potential
mine the carrying capacity (K): the number of individ- Exponential
growth
uals of a given species that can be sustained indefi-
nitely in a given space (area or volume). The growth
rate of a population decreases as its size nears the car-
rying capacity of its environment because resources
such as food and water begin to dwindle. Time (t )
Exponential and Logistic Population Active Figure 6-11 Natural capital: no population can grow
Growth: J-Curves and S-Curves forever. Exponential growth (lower part of the curve) occurs
when resources are not limiting and a population can grow at its
With ample resources, a population can grow rapidly.
intrinsic rate of increase (r) or biotic potential. Such exponential
As resources become limited, its growth rate slows growth is converted to logistic growth, in which the growth rate
and levels off. decreases as the population becomes larger and faces envi-
A population with few, if any, resource limitations ronmental resistance. Over time, the population size stabilizes
at or near the carrying capacity (K) of its environment, which re-
grows exponentially at a fixed rate such as 1% or 2%. sults in a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve. De-
Exponential growth starts slowly but then accelerates as pending on resource availability, the size of a population often
the population increases because the base size of the fluctuates around its carrying capacity. See an animation based
population is increasing. Plotting the number of indi- on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
viduals against time yields a J-shaped growth curve
(Figure 6-11, bottom half of curve).
Logistic growth involves exponential population 2.0 Overshoot
growth followed by a steady decrease in population Carrying capacity
growth with time until the population size levels off
Number of sheep (millions)
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Number of reindeer
capacity
crash, unless the excess individuals can switch to new 1,500
Population
resources or move to an area with more resources. crashes
Such a crash occurred when reindeer were introduced
1,000
onto a small island off the southwest coast of Alaska
(Figure 6-13).
Humans are not exempt from population over- 500 Carrying
shoot and dieback. Ireland experienced a population capacity
crash after a fungus destroyed the potato crop in 1845.
About 1 million people died, and 3 million people mi- 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950
grated to other countries. Polynesians on Easter Island
experienced a population crash after using up most of Year
the island’s trees that helped keep them alive (p. 19). Figure 6-13 Exponential growth, overshoot, and population
Technological, social, and other cultural changes crash of reindeer introduced to a small island off the southwest
have extended the earth’s carrying capacity for the hu- coast of Alaska. When 26 reindeer (24 of them female) were in-
man species. We have increased food production and troduced in 1910, lichens, mosses, and other food sources
were plentiful. By 1935, the herd size had soared to 2,000,
used large amounts of energy and matter resources to overshooting the island’s carrying capacity. This led to a popu-
make normally uninhabitable areas become habitable. lation crash, with the herd size plummeting to only 8 reindeer
How long will we be able to keep doing so on a planet by 1950.
with a finite size, finite resources, and a human popula-
tion whose size and per capita resource use are grow-
ing exponentially? We do not know the answer to this Environmental changes caused by disturbances
important question. can allow opportunist species to gain a foothold. How-
ever, once established, their populations may crash
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Can we continue expanding the
earth’s carrying capacity for humans? Cast your vote online at
because of unfavorable changes in environmental con-
ditions or invasion by more competitive species. This
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11. helps explain why most r-selected or opportunist
species go through irregular and unstable boom-and-
Reproductive Patterns: Opportunists bust cycles in their population size.
and Competitors At the other extreme are competitor or K-selected
Some species have a large number of small offspring species (Figure 16-14 and Figure 16-15, right). They
and give them little parental care; other species have a
few larger offspring and take care of them until they
can reproduce.
Carrying capacity
Species use different reproductive patterns to help K
ensure their survival. Species with a capacity for a high
rate of population increase (r) are called r-selected K species;
species (Figure 6-14 and Figure 6-15, left). Such species experience
K selection
reproduce early and put most of their energy into re-
Number of individuals
Little or no parental care and protection of offspring High parental care and protection of offspring
Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age Most offspring survive to reproductive age
Adapted to unstable climate and environmental conditions Adapted to stable climate and environmental conditions
High population growth rate (r) Lower population growth rate (r)
Population size fluctuates wildly above and below carrying Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying
capacity (K) capacity (K)
Figure 6-15 Natural capital: generalized characteristics of r-selected (opportunist) species and K-
selected (competitor) species. Many species have characteristics between these two extremes.
tend to reproduce late in life and have a small number The reproductive pattern of a species may give it a
of offspring with fairly long life spans. Typically the temporary advantage, but the availability of a suitable
offspring of such species develop inside their mothers habitat for individuals of a population in a particular area
(where they are safe), are born fairly large, mature determines its ultimate population size. No matter how
slowly, and are cared for and protected by one or both fast a species can reproduce, there can be no more
parents until they reach reproductive age. This repro- dandelions than there is dandelion habitat and no
ductive pattern results in a few big and strong individ- more zebras than there is zebra habitat in a particular
uals that can compete for resources and reproduce a area.
few young to begin the cycle again.
Such species are called K-selected species because
they tend to do well in competitive conditions when Explore survivorship curves, showing how certain
species differ in their typical lifespans, at Environmental
their population size is near the carrying capacity (K)
ScienceNow.
of their environment. Their populations typically fol-
low a logistic growth curve (Figure 6-11).
Most large mammals (such as elephants, whales,
and humans), birds of prey, and large and long-lived
plants (such as the saguaro cactus, and most tropical 6-6 HUMAN IMPACTS ON
rain forest trees) are K-selected species. Many K- ECOSYSTEMS: LEARNING FROM
selected species—especially those with long genera- NATURE
tion times and low reproductive rates like elephants,
rhinoceroses, and sharks—are prone to extinction. Human Modification of Natural
Most organisms have reproductive patterns be- Ecosystems: Our Big Footprints
tween the extremes of r-selected species and K- We have used technology to alter nature to meet our
selected species, or they change from one extreme to growing needs and wants in eight major ways that
the other under certain environmental conditions. In threaten the survival of many other species and
agriculture we raise both r-selected species (crops) and ultimately could reduce the quality of life for our own
K-selected species (livestock). species.
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pu nt
gy
En Sol
la rol
tio
n
rs
e
rie in
ve
io
tablished scientifically. This principle is based on the 4. Many conservationists consider the practice of catch-
commonsense idea behind many adages such as “Bet- ing sharks, removing their fins, and then throwing the
ter safe than sorry,” “Look before you leap,” “First, do live shark back into the water to die cruel and unethical.
no harm,” and “Slow down for speed bumps.” Others support this practice because they say sharks do
As an analogy, we know that eating too much of not experience pain, have no inherent right to exist as a
species, and bite or kill a few people each year. Do you
certain types of foods and not getting enough exercise
believe we have an ethical obligation to treat sharks hu-
can greatly increase our chances of a heart attack, dia- manely? Explain.
betes, and other disorders. The exact connections be-
tween these health problems, chemicals in various 5. How would you reply to someone who argues that
foods, exercise, and genetics are still under study and (a) we should not worry about our effects on natural sys-
tems because succession will heal the wounds of human
often debated. People with such conditions could use
activities and restore the balance of nature, (b) efforts to
this uncertainty and unpredictability as an excuse to
preserve natural systems are not worthwhile because na-
continue overeating and not exercising. In reality, the ture is largely unpredictable, and (c) because there is no
wise course is to eat better and exercise more to help balance in nature and no stability in species diversity we
prevent potentially serious health problems. should cut down diverse old-growth forests and replace
Recently, the precautionary principle has served them with tree farms?
as the basis of several international environmental
6. Why are pest species likely to be extreme r-selected
treaties. For example, a global treaty developed by 122 species? Why are many endangered species likely to be
countries in 2000 seeks to ban or phase out 12 persistent extreme K-selected species?
organic pollutants (POPs).
Some analysts point out that we should be selective 7. A bumper sticker reads, “Nature always bats last and
owns the stadium.” What does this mean in ecological
in applying the precautionary principle. Although we
terms? What is its lesson for the human species?
need to project possible unintended effects carefully,
we can never predict all of the unintended effects of our 8. Identify aspects of your lifestyle that follow or violate
actions and technologies. We must always be willing to each of the four sustainability principles shown in Fig-
take some risks. Otherwise, we would stifle creativity ures 6-18 and 6-19 (p. 126). Would you be willing to
and innovation and severely limit the development of change aspects of your lifestyle that violate these sustain-
ability principles? List the three most important ways
new technologies and products.
you could do so.
In Chapter 7, we will apply the principles of popu-
lation dynamics and sustainability discussed in this
chapter to the growth of the human population. In LEARNING ONLINE
Chapters 8 and 9, we apply those principles to under- The website for this book includes review questions for
stand the earth’s terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
and to consider how to help sustain them. a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
We cannot command nature except by obeying her. InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
SIR FRANCIS BACON Visit
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
Then choose Chapter 6, and select a learning resource. For
CRITICAL THINKING access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
1. Some homeowners in Florida believe they should have and summaries, register and log in to
the right to kill any alligator found on their property.
Others argue against this policy, noting that alligators are
a threatened species, and that housing developments at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
have invaded the habitats of alligators, not the other way card in the front of your book.
around. Others go further and believe the American alli-
gator species has an inherent right to exist. What is your
opinion on this issue? Explain. Active Graphing
2. How would you respond to someone who claims it is Visit http://esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 to
not important to protect areas of temperate and polar explore the graphing exercise for this chapter.
biomes because most of the world’s biodiversity is found
in the tropics?
3. How would you determine whether a particular
species found in a given area is a keystone species?
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The problems to be faced are vast and complex, but come 7-1 FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN
down to this: 6.5 billion people are breeding exponentially. POPULATION SIZE
The process of fulfilling their wants and needs is stripping
earth of its biotic capacity to produce life; a climactic burst of
Human Population History: An Overview
consumption by a single species is overwhelming the skies,
earth, waters, and fauna. We have postponed reaching the limits of disease,
PAUL HAWKEN food, water, and energy supplies on human
population growth mostly by taking over much
This chapter looks at the factors that affect the growth of the earth and sharply reducing death rates.
of the human population and the distribution of peo- For most of history, the human population grew slowly
ple between urban and rural areas. It addresses the (Figure 1-1, left part of curve, p. 5). But about 200 years
following questions: ago, our population growth took off (Figure 1-1, right
part of curve, and Figure 1-5, p. 9).
■ How is population size affected by birth, death, Three major reasons explain this development.
fertility, and migration rates? First, thanks to our highly complex brain and tool-
■ How is population size affected by the percentage using abilities, humans developed the ability to expand
of males and females at each age level? into diverse new habitats and different climate zones.
Second, the emergence of early and modern agri-
■ How can we slow population growth?
culture allowed more people to be fed per unit of land
■ What success have India and China had in slowing area. This increase in the carrying capacity of land al-
population growth? lowed our population to grow.
■ How is the world’s population distributed be- Third, we have managed to put off reaching the
tween rural and urban areas, and what factors de- limits of disease, food, water, and energy supplies on
termine how urban areas develop? overall population growth. We have used better sani-
tation and developed antibiotics and vaccines to help
■ What are the major resource and environmental
control infectious disease agents, and we have tapped
problems faced by urban areas?
into concentrated sources of energy (fossil fuels).
■ How do transportation systems shape urban These changes allowed births to exceed deaths.
areas and growth, and what are the advantages Can the world’s life-support systems sustain the
and disadvantages of various forms of 8–11 billion people projected to be around when this
transportation? century ends? At what average level of resource con-
■ How can cities be made more sustainable and sumption will they live?
more desirable places to live?
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Average crude birth rate Average crude death rate Exponential population growth has not disap-
World 21 peared but rather has declined to a slower rate. The rate
9 of the world’s annual population growth (natural in-
All developed 11 crease) dropped by almost half between 1963 and 2005,
countries 10 from 2.2% to 1.2%. This is good news. Nevertheless,
All developing 23
during the same period the population base doubled
countries 8 from 3.2 billion to almost 6.5 billion. The drop in the
Developing rate of population increase is somewhat like learning
27
countries 9 that a truck heading straight at you has slowed from
(w/o China)
100 kilometers per hour (kph) to 45 kph while its
weight has more than doubled.
Africa 38
Although an exponential growth rate of 1.2% may
15 seem small, consider this: During 2005, it added about
Latin 78 million people to the world’s population, compared
22
America 6 to 69 million in 1963 when the world’s population
Asia 20
growth reached its peak. This increase is roughly equal
7 to adding another New York City every month, a
Oceania 17
Germany every year, and a United States every 3.7
7 years.
United 14
There is a big difference between exponential pop-
States 8 ulation growth rates in developed and developing
North 14
countries. In 2005, the population of developed coun-
America 8 tries was growing at a rate of 0.1% per year. That of the
Europe 10
developing countries was 1.5% per year—15 times
11 faster.
As a result of these trends, the population of the
Figure 7-2 Average crude birth and death rates for various developed countries, currently 1.2 billion, is expected
groupings of countries in 2005. (Data from Population to change little in the next 50 years. In contrast, the
Reference Bureau)
population of the developing countries is projected to
rise steadily from 5.3 billion in 2005 to 8 billion in 2050
and then to level off by the end of this century (Fig-
people in a population in a given year) in their analyses. ure 1-5, p. 9). The six nations expected to produce most
Figure 7-2 shows the estimated crude birth and death of this growth are, in order, India, China, Pakistan,
rates for various parts of the world in 2005. Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Indonesia.
China—1.3 billion in 2005, or one of every five
Population Growth Today: Slowing people in the world—and India—1.1 billion—are the
but Still Growing world’s most populous countries. Together they have
37% of the world’s population. The United States—296
The rate at which the world’s population is increasing
million people in 2005—has the world’s third largest
has slowed, but the population continues to grow
population but only 4.6% of its people.
fairly rapidly.
Birth rates and death rates are coming down world-
wide, but death rates have fallen more sharply than Can you guess what regions of the world will likely have
birth rates. As a result, more births are occurring than the greatest population increases by 2025? Find out at
deaths: Every time your heart beats, 2.4 more babies Environmental ScienceNow.
are added to the world’s population. At this rate, we
are sharing the earth and its resources with 214,000
more people per day—97% of them in developing Doubling Time
countries. Doubling time is how long it takes for a
The rate of the world’s annual population change population growing at a specified rate to double
usually is expressed as a percentage: its size.
One measure of population growth is doubling time:
Annual rate of
Birth rate Death rate
natural population
the time (usually in years) it takes for a population
100
change (%) 1,000 persons growing at a specified rate to double its size. A quick
Birth rate Death rate way to calculate doubling time is to use the rule of 70:
10 70/percentage growth rate doubling time in years.
Population (billions)
Medium
8 8.9
Declining Fertility Rates: Fewer Babies 7
Low
per Woman 7.2
6
The average number of children that a woman
5
bears has dropped sharply since 1950, but is not low
enough to stabilize the world’s population in the near 4
future. 3
Fertility is the number of births that occur to an indi-
2
vidual woman or in a population. Two types of fertility 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
rates affect a country’s population size and growth rate. Year
The first type, replacement-level fertility, is the
Figure 7-3 Global outlook: United Nations world population
number of children a couple must bear to replace
projections to 2050, assuming the world’s total fertility rate is 2.6
themselves. It is slightly higher than two children per (high), 2.1 (medium), or 1.5 (low) children per woman. The most
couple (2.1 in developed countries and as high as 2.5 in likely projection is the medium one—8.9 billion people by 2050.
some developing countries), mostly because some fe- (Data from United Nations, World Population Prospects: The
male children die before reaching their reproductive 2000 Revision, 2001)
years.
Does reaching replacement-level fertility bring an
immediate halt in population growth? No, because so dren per woman. Since then, it has generally declined,
many future parents are alive. If each of today’s cou- remaining at or below replacement level since 1972.
ples had an average of 2.1 children and their children The drop in the TFR has led to a decline in the rate
also had 2.1 children, the world’s population would of population growth in the United States. But the coun-
continue to grow for 50 years or more (assuming death try’s population is still growing faster than that of any
rates do not rise). other developed country and is not close to leveling off.
The second type of fertility rate, the total fertility Nearly 2.9 million people were added to the U.S.
rate (TFR), is the average number of children a woman population in 2005. About 59% of this growth occurred
typically has during her reproductive years. In 2005, because births outnumbered deaths; the rest came from
the average global TFR was 2.7 children per woman: legal and illegal immigration.
1.6 in developed countries (down from 2.5 in 1950) and According to U.S. Census Bureau, the U.S. popu-
3.0 in developing countries (down from 6.5 in 1950). lation is likely to increase from 296 million in 2005 to
Although the decline in TFR in developing countries is 457 million by 2050 and then to 571 million by 2100. In
impressive, this level of fertility remains far above the contrast, population growth has slowed in other major
replacement level of 2.1.
How many of us are likely to be here in 2050? An-
swer: 7.2–10.6 billion people, depending on the world’s
projected average TFR (Figure 7-3). The medium pro-
4.0
jection is 8.9 billion people. About 97% of this growth is
3.5
projected to take place in developing countries, where
Births per woman
3.0
acute poverty (living on less than $1 per day) is a way
2.5
of life for about 1.4 billion people. 2.1
2.0
1.5 Baby boom Replacement
Case Study: Fertility Rates 1.0 (1946–64) level
in the United States
0.5
Population growth in the United States has slowed 0
but is not close to leveling off. 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
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15%
High school
graduates 83%
10%
Homes with
flush toilets 98%
developed countries since 1950, most of
which are expected to have declining Homes with 2%
populations after 2010. Because of its electricity 99%
high per capita rate of resource use, each
addition to the U.S. population has an Living in
10%
enormous environmental impact (Fig- suburbs 52%
ure 1-7, p. 11, and Figure 3 in Sci- 1900
ence Supplement 2 at the end of Hourly manufacturing job
$3
2000
this book). In addition to the al- wage (adjusted for inflation) $15
most fourfold increase in popu-
lation growth, some amazing Homicides per
1.2
changes in lifestyles took place in the 100,000 people 5.8
United States during the 20th century
(Figure 7-5).
Factors Affecting Birth Rates paid employment outside the home. In developing
and Fertility Rates countries, women with no education generally have
The number of children women have is affected by the two more children than women with a secondary
cost of raising and educating children, educational school education.
and employment opportunities for women, infant Another factor is the infant mortality rate. In areas
deaths, marriage age, and availability of with low infant mortality rates, people tend to have a
contraceptives and abortions. smaller number of children because fewer children die
at an early age.
Many factors affect a country’s average birth rate and
Average age at marriage (or, more precisely, the av-
TFR. One is the importance of children as a part of the la-
erage age at which women have their first child) also
bor force. Proportions of children working tend to be
plays a role. Women normally have fewer children
higher in developing countries—especially in rural ar-
when their average age at marriage is 25 or older.
eas, where children begin working to help raise crops
Birth rates and TFRs are also affected by the avail-
at an early age.
ability of legal abortions. Each year about 190 million
Another economic factor is the cost of raising and
women become pregnant. The United Nations and the
educating children. Birth and fertility rates tend to
World Bank estimate that 46 million of these women
be lower in developed countries, where raising chil-
get abortions—26 million legal and 20 million illegal
dren is much more costly because they do not enter the
(and often unsafe).
labor force until they are in their late teens or twenties.
The availability of reliable birth control methods (Fig-
The availability of private and public pension systems
ure 7-6) allows women to control the number and spac-
affects how many children couples have. Pensions re-
ing of the children they have. Religious beliefs, traditions,
duce parents’ need to have many children to help sup-
and cultural norms also play a role. In some countries,
port them in old age.
these factors favor large families and strongly oppose
Urbanization plays a role. People living in urban
abortion and some forms of birth control.
areas usually have better access to family planning ser-
vices and tend to have fewer children than those living
in rural areas, where children are often needed to per- Factors Affecting Death Rates
form essential tasks. Death rates have declined because of increased food
Another important factor is the educational and em- supplies, better nutrition, advances in medicine,
ployment opportunities available for women. TFRs tend to improved sanitation and personal hygiene, and safer
be low when women have access to education and water supplies.
The rapid growth of the world’s population over the Extremely Effective
past 100 years is not the result of a rise in the crude
Total abstinence
birth rate. Instead, it largely reflects a decline in crude 100%
death rates, especially in developing countries. Sterilization 99.6%
More people started living longer and fewer in-
fants died because of increased food supplies and dis- Vaginal ring
98–99%
tribution, better nutrition, medical advances such as
immunizations and antibiotics, improved sanitation, Highly Effective
and safer water supplies (which curtailed the spread IUD with slow-release
of many infectious diseases). hormones 98%
Two useful indicators of the overall health of peo- IUD plus spermicide
98%
ple in a country or region are life expectancy (the aver- Vaginal pouch
age number of years a newborn infant can expect to live) (“female condom”) 97%
and the infant mortality rate (the number of babies out IUD
95%
of every 1,000 born who die before their first birthday).
Condom (good brand)
Great news. The global life expectancy at birth in- plus spermicide 95%
creased from 48 years to 67 years (76 years in devel-
Oral contraceptive 93%
oped countries and 65 years in developing countries)
between 1955 and 2005; it is projected to reach 74 by
Effective
2050. Between 1900 and 2005, life expectancy in the
United States increased from 47 to 78 years and is pro- Cervical cap 89%
jected to reach 82 years by 2050.
Bad news. In the world’s poorest countries, life ex- Condom (good brand)
86%
pectancy is 49 years or less. In many African countries, Diaphragm plus
life expectancy is expected to fall further because of spermicide 84%
Rhythm method (Billings,
more deaths from AIDS. Sympto-Thermal) 84%
Infant mortality is viewed as the best single Vaginal sponge impreg-
measure of a society’s quality of life because it reflects nated with spermicide 83%
a country’s general level of nutrition and health care. A
Spermicide (foam) 82%
high infant mortality rate usually indicates insufficient
food (undernutrition), poor nutrition (malnutrition),
Moderately Effective
and a high incidence of infectious disease (usually
Spermicide (creams,
from contaminated drinking water and weakened dis- jellies, suppositories) 75%
ease resistance from undernutrition and malnutrition). Rhythm method (daily
Good news. Between 1965 and 2005, the world’s in- temperature readings) 74%
fant mortality rate dropped from 20 (per 1,000 live Withdrawal 74%
births) to 6.5 in developed countries and from 118 to 61
in developing countries. Condom (cheap brand)
70%
Bad news. At least 7.6 million infants (most in de-
veloping countries) die of preventable causes during Unreliable
their first year of life—an average of 21,000 mostly un-
Douche
necessary infant deaths per day. This is equivalent to 40%
55 jumbo jets, each loaded with 400 infants younger Chance (no method) 10%
than age 1, crashing each day with no survivors!
The U.S. infant mortality rate declined from 165 in Figure 7-6 Typical effectiveness rates of birth control methods
1900 to 6.6 in 2005. This sharp decline was a major in the United States. Percentages are based on the number of
factor in the marked increase in U.S. average life ex- undesired pregnancies per 100 couples using a specific
pectancy during this period. method as their sole form of birth control for a year. For example,
Some 46 countries (most in Europe) had lower in- an effectiveness rating of 93% for oral contraceptives means
that for every 100 women using the pill regularly for one year, 7
fant mortality rates than the United States in 2005. will get pregnant. Effectiveness rates tend to be lower in devel-
Three factors helped keep the U.S. infant mortality rate oping countries, primarily because of lack of education. Glob-
relatively high: inadequate health care for poor women ally, 39% of the world’s people using contraception rely on steril-
during pregnancy and for their babies after birth, drug ad- ization (32% of females and 7% of males), followed by intrauter-
diction among pregnant women, and a high birth rate ine devices (IUDs; 22%), the pill (14%), and male condoms
(7%). Preferences in the United States are female sterilization
among teenagers. Although the United States has the (26%), the pill (25%), male condoms (19%), and male steriliza-
highest teenage birth rate of any developed country, tion (10%). (Data from Alan Guttmacher Institute, Henry J. Kaiser
the rate dropped by 40% between 1991 and 2002. Family Foundation, and the United Nations Population Division)
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Economics and Politics Case Study: There is also support for efforts to sharply reduce
U.S. Immigration illegal immigration. Some remain concerned that a
Immigration has played, and continues to play, a crackdown on the country’s 8–10 million illegal immi-
major role in the growth and cultural diversity of the grants might lead to discrimination against legal
U.S. population. immigrants.
Proponents of reducing immigration argue that it
Since 1820, the United States has admitted almost
would allow the United States to stabilize its popula-
twice as many immigrants and refugees as all other
tion sooner and help reduce the country’s enormous
countries combined! The number of legal immigrants
environmental impact. The public strongly supports
(including refugees) has varied during different peri-
this position. In a January 2002 Gallup poll, 58% of
ods because of changes in immigration laws and rates
people polled believed that immigration rates should
of economic growth (Figure 7-7). Currently, legal and
be reduced (up from 45% in January 2001). A 1993
illegal immigration account for about 41% of the coun-
Hispanic Research Group survey found that 89% of
try’s annual population growth.
Hispanic Americans supported an immediate morato-
Between 1820 and 1960, most legal immigrants to
rium on immigration.
the United States came from Europe. Since 1960, most
Others oppose reducing current levels of legal im-
have come from Latin America (53%) and Asia (25%),
migration. They argue that it would diminish the
followed by Europe (14%). Latinos (67% of them from
United States’ historical role as a place of opportunity
Mexico) made up 14% of the U.S. population in 2005.
for the world’s poor and oppressed. In addition, immi-
By 2050, Latinos are projected to account for one of
grants pay taxes, take many menial and low-paying
every four people in the United States.
jobs that most other Americans shun, open businesses,
In 1995, the U.S. Commission on Immigration
and create jobs. Moreover, according to the U.S.
Reform recommended reducing the number of legal
Census Bureau, after 2020 higher immigration levels
immigrants from about 900,000 to 700,000 per year for
will be needed to supply enough workers as baby
a transition period and then to 550,000 per year. Some
boomers retire.
analysts want to limit legal immigration to 20% of the
country’s annual population growth. They would
accept new entrants only if they can support them- x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should immigration into the
United States (or the country where you live) be reduced?
selves, arguing that providing immigrants with public
Cast your vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com
services makes the United States a magnet for the /miller11.
world’s poor.
1,800
Age-Structure Diagrams
1,600 The number of people in young, middle, and older
1,400 1907 age groups determines how fast populations grow or
1914 decline.
1,200 New laws
restrict As mentioned earlier, even if the replacement-level
1,000 immigration fertility rate of 2.1 were magically achieved globally
800 tomorrow, the world’s population would keep grow-
Great ing for at least another 50 years (assuming no large in-
600
Depression crease in the death rate). This results mostly from the
400 age structure: the distribution of males and females in
200 each age group in the world’s population.
Population experts (demographers) construct a
0
1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010 population age-structure diagram by plotting the per-
centages or numbers of males and females in the total
Year
population in each of three age categories: prereproduc-
Figure 7-7 Legal immigration to the United States, 1820–2002. The tive (ages 0–14), reproductive (ages 15–44), and post-
large increase in immigration since 1989 resulted mostly from the reproductive (ages 45 and older). Figure 7-8 presents
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, which granted legal
generalized age-structure diagrams for countries with
status to illegal immigrants who could show they had been living in
the country for several years. In 2005, almost one in eight people rapid, slow, zero, and negative population growth
in the United States was born in another country. (Data from U.S. rates. Which of these figures best represents the coun-
Immigration and Naturalization Service) try where you live?
Active Figure 7-8 Generalized population age-structure diagrams for countries with rapid population growth
(1.5–3%), slow population growth (0.3–1.4%), a stable population (0–0.2%), and a declining population. Popu-
lations with a large proportion of its people in the prereproductive ages of 0–14 (at left) have a large potential
for rapid population growth. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Data
from Population Reference Bureau)
Effects of Age Structure through the country’s age structure, as shown in Fig-
on Population Growth ure 7-10 (p. 136).
The number of people younger than age 15 is the Baby boomers now represent nearly half of all
major factor determining a country’s future adult Americans. As a result, they dominate the popu-
population growth. lation’s demand for goods and services. They are also
playing increasingly important roles in deciding who
Any country with many people younger than age 15
gets elected and what laws are passed. Baby boomers
(represented by a wide base in Figure 7-8, far left) has a
who created the youth market in their teens and twen-
powerful built-in momentum to increase its popula-
ties are now creating the 50-something market and
tion size unless death rates rise sharply. The number of
will soon move on to create a 60-something market. In
births rises even if women have only one or two chil-
2011, the first baby boomers will turn 65, and the num-
dren because a large number of girls will soon be mov-
ber of Americans older than age 65 will consequently
ing into their reproductive years.
grow sharply through 2029.
What is perhaps the world’s most important pop-
According to some analysts, the retirement of
ulation statistic? Twenty-nine percent of the people on the
baby boomers is likely to create a shortage of workers
planet were younger than 15 years old in 2005. These 1.9
in the United States unless immigrant workers replace
billion young people are poised to move into their
some of them. Retired baby boomers are likely to use
prime reproductive years. In developing countries, the
their political clout to force the smaller number of peo-
number is even higher: 32%, compared with 17% in
ple in the baby-bust generation that followed them
developed countries. We live in a demographically di-
(Figure 7-4) to pay higher income, health-care, and
vided world, as shown by population data for the
Social Security taxes.
United States, Brazil, and Nigeria (Figure 7-9, p. 136).
In other respects, the baby-bust generation should
have an easier time than the baby-boom generation.
Fewer people will be competing for educational op-
Using Age-Structure Diagrams to Make
portunities, jobs, and services. Also, labor shortages
Population and Economic Projections
may drive up their wages, at least for jobs requiring
Changes in the distribution of a country’s age groups education or technical training beyond high school.
have long-lasting economic and social impacts. As these projections illustrate, any booms or busts
Between 1946 and 1964, the United States had a baby in the age structure of a population create social and
boom that added 79 million people to its population. economic changes that ripple through a society for
Over time, this group looks like a bulge moving up decades.
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80 80
Females + Males Females + Males Females 80 Males Females Males
+ 80
+
70 70 70
70
60 60
60 60
50 50
50 50
40 40
40 40
30
30 30 30
20
20 20 20
10
10 10 10
24 24 24
20 20 20 20
16 0 16 0 16 0 16
0 8 12 12 12 12
1955 4
1985 48 2015 48 2035 48
84 ns 84 ns 84 ns 84 ns
16
12
M illio 16
12
Millio 16
12
M illio 16
12
Mi
llio
20 20
24 24 20 24 20
Active Figure 7-10 Tracking the baby-boom generation in the United States. See an animation based on this
figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Data from Population Reference Bureau and U.S. Census Bureau)
Population Decline from a Rising well as volunteer teachers and health-care and social
Death Rate: The AIDS Tragedy workers to help compensate for the missing young-
A large number of deaths from AIDS disrupts a adult generation.
country’s social and economic structure by removing
large numbers of young adults from its age structure.
7-3 SOLUTIONS: INFLUENCING
Between 2000 and 2050, AIDS is projected to cause the
POPULATION SIZE
premature deaths of 278 million people in 53 coun-
tries—including 38 countries in Africa. These prema-
Economics: The Demographic Transition
ture deaths are almost equal to the entire current popu-
lation of the United States. Read this paragraph again, As counties become economically developed, their
and think hard about the enormity of this tragedy. birth and death rates tend to decline.
Unlike hunger and malnutrition, which kill mostly Demographers have closely examined the birth and
infants and children, AIDS kills many young adults. death rates of western European countries that became
This change in the young-adult age structure of a coun- industrialized during the 19th century. From these
try has a number of harmful effects. First, it produces a data they have developed a hypothesis of population
sharp drop in average life expectancy. In 8 African change known as the demographic transition: As
countries, where 16–39% of the adult population is in- countries become industrialized, first their death rates
fected with HIV, life expectancy could drop to 34–40 and then their birth rates decline. This transition takes
years. place in four distinct stages (Figure 7-11).
Second, it leads to a loss of a country’s most produc- Some economists believe that today’s developing
tive young adult workers and trained personnel such countries will make the demographic transition over
as scientists, farmers, engineers, teachers, and govern- the next few decades. Other population analysts fear
ment, business, and health-care workers. As a result, that the still-rapid population growth in many devel-
the number of productive adults available to support oping countries will outstrip economic growth and
the young and the elderly and to grow food and pro- overwhelm some local life-support systems. As a con-
vide essential services declines sharply. sequence, many of these countries could become
Analysts have called for the international commu- caught in a demographic trap at stage 2, the transition
nity—especially developed countries—to develop and stage. This is now happening as death rates rise in a
fund a massive program to help countries ravaged by number of developing countries, especially in Africa.
AIDS in Africa and elsewhere. This program would Indeed, countries in Africa being ravaged by the
have two major goals. First, it would reduce the HIV/AIDS epidemic are falling back to stage 1.
spread of HIV through a combination of improved ed- Analysts also point out that some of the conditions
ucation and health care. Second, it would provide fi- that allowed developed countries to develop in the
nancial assistance for education and health care as past are not available to many of today’s developing
80 High
70
(number per 1,000 per year)
Birth rate and death rate
60
50 Birth rate
40
30
20 Death rate
10
Total population Low
0
Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative
Growth rate over time
Active Figure 7-11 Generalized model of the demographic transition. There is uncertainty over whether this
model will apply to some of today’s developing countries. See an animation based on this figure and take a
short quiz on the concept.
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-MILR11.2500.CH07.128-153 8/10/05 11:30 AM Page 138
countries. One problem is a shortage of skilled work- could prevent an estimated 5.8 million births per year
ers needed to produce the high-tech products neces- and more than 5 million abortions per year!
sary to compete in today’s global economy. Another is Some analysts call for expanding family planning
a lack of capital and other resources that allow rapid programs to include teenagers and sexually active un-
economic development. married women, who are excluded from many exist-
Two other problems hinder economic develop- ing programs. For teenagers, many advocate much
ment in many developing countries. The first obstacle greater emphasis on abstinence.
is a sharp rise in their debt to developed countries. Another suggestion is to develop programs that
Such countries devote much of their income to pay- educate men about the importance of having fewer
ing the interest on their debts. This leaves too little children and taking more responsibility for raising
money for improving social, health, and environmen- them. Proponents also call for greatly increased re-
tal conditions. search on developing more effective and more accept-
A second problem is that developing countries able birth control methods for men.
now receive less economic assistance from developed Finally, a number of analysts urge pro-choice
countries. Indeed, since the mid-1980s, developing and pro-life groups to join forces in greatly reducing
countries have paid developed countries $40–50 bil- unplanned births and abortions, especially among
lion per year (mostly in debt interest) more than they teenagers.
have received from these countries.
Empowering Women: Ensuring Education,
Explore the effects of economic development on birth Jobs, and Human Rights
and death rates and population growth at Environmental Women tend to have fewer children if they are
ScienceNow. educated, hold a paying job outside the home, and do
not have their human rights suppressed.
Three key factors lead women to have fewer and
Family Planning: Planning for Babies Works
healthier children: education, paying jobs outside the
Family planning has been a major factor in reducing home, and living in societies where their rights are not
the number of births and abortions throughout most suppressed.
of the world. Women make up roughly half of the world’s pop-
Family planning provides educational and clinical ulation. They do almost all of the world’s domestic
services that help couples choose how many children work and child care for little or no pay. In addition,
to have and when to have them. Such programs vary they provide more unpaid health care than all of the
from culture to culture, but most provide information world’s organized health services combined.
on birth spacing, birth control, and health care for Women also do 60–80% of the work associated
pregnant women and infants. with growing food, gathering fuelwood, and hauling
Family planning has helped increase the propor- water in rural areas of Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
tion of married women in developing countries who As one Brazilian woman put it, “For poor women the
use modern forms of contraception from 10% of mar- only holiday is when you are asleep.”
ried women of reproductive age in the 1960s to 51% of Globally, women account for two-thirds of all
these women in 2005. In addition, family planning is hours worked but receive only 10% of the world’s in-
responsible for at least 55% of the recent drop in TFRs come, and they own less than 2% of the world’s land.
in developing countries, from 6 in 1960 to 3.0 in 2005. In most developing countries, women do not have the
Family planning has also reduced the number of legal legal right to own land or to borrow money. Women
and illegal abortions performed each year and lowered also make up 70% of the world’s poor and 60% of the
the risk of maternal and fetal death from pregnancy. world’s illiterate adults.
Despite such successes, several problems remain. According to Thorya Obaid, executive director of
First, according to John Bongaarts of the Population the United Nations Population Agency, “Many women
Council and the United Nations Population Fund, 42% in the developing world are trapped in poverty by illit-
of all pregnancies in developing countries are un- eracy, poor health, and unwanted high fertility. All of
planned and 26% end with abortion. Second, an esti- these contribute to environmental degradation and
mated 150 million women in developing countries tighten the grip of poverty. If we are serious about
want to limit the number and determine the spacing of sustainable development, we must break this vicious
their children, but they lack access to contraceptive cycle.”
services. According to the United Nations, extending That means giving women everywhere full legal
family planning services to these women and to others rights and the opportunity to become educated and
who will soon be entering their reproductive years earn income outside the home. Achieving these goals
would slow population growth, promote human rights 7-4 SLOWING POPULATION GROWTH
and freedom, reduce poverty, and slow environmental IN INDIA AND CHINA
degradation—a win–win result.
Empowering women by seeking gender equality Case Study: India
will require some major social changes. Although it For more than five decades, India has tried to control
will be difficult to achieve in male-dominated soci- its population growth with only modest success.
eties, it can be done.
The world’s first national family planning program be-
Good news. An increasing number of women in de-
gan in India in 1952, when its population was nearly
veloping countries are taking charge of their lives and
400 million. In 2005, after 53 years of population control
reproductive behavior—they are not waiting for the
efforts, India was the world’s second most populous
slow processes of education and cultural change. Such
country, with a population of 1.1 billion.
bottom-up change by individual women will play an
In 1952, India added 5 million people to its popula-
important role in stabilizing population and providing
tion. In 2005, it added 18 million. Figure 7-12 compares
women with equal rights.
demographic data for India and China.
India faces a number of already serious poverty,
Solutions: Reducing Population Growth malnutrition, and environmental problems that could
Experience suggests that the best way to slow worsen as its population continues to grow rapidly. By
population growth is a combination of investing in global standards, one of every four people in India is
family planning, reducing poverty, and elevating the poor. Nearly half of the country’s labor force is unem-
status of women. ployed or can find only occasional work.
India currently is self-sufficient in food grain pro-
In 1994, the United Nations held its third Conference
duction. Nevertheless, 40% of its population and more
on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt. One
than half of its children suffer from malnutrition,
of the conference’s goals was to encourage action to
mostly because of poverty.
stabilize the world’s population at 7.8 billion by 2050
Furthermore, India faces critical resource and en-
instead of the projected 8.9 billion.
vironmental problems. With 17% of the world’s people,
The major goals of the resulting population plan,
it has just 2.3% of the world’s land resources and 2% of
endorsed by 180 governments, are to do the following
the world’s forests. About half of the country’s cropland
by 2015:
is degraded as a result of soil erosion, waterlogging,
■ Provide universal access to family planning
services and reproductive health care
Percentage India
■ Improve health care for infants, children, and preg- 17%
of world China
20%
nant women population
■ Develop and implement national popula- Population 1.1 billion
1.3 billion
tion polices
Population (2050) 1.44 billion
■ Improve the status of women and expand (estimated) 1.63 billion
educational and job opportunities for young
Illiteracy (% of adults) 47%
women 17%
■ Provide more education, espe- Population under age 15 (%) 36%
cially for girls and women 21%
Population growth rate (%) 1.6%
■ Increase the involvement of men 0.6%
in child-rearing responsibilities and
family planning Total fertility rate 3.0 children per women (down from 5.3 in 1970)
1.7 children per women (down from 5.7 in 1972)
■ Sharply reduce poverty 64
Infant mortality rate
■ Sharply reduce unsustainable patterns of 27
production and consumption 62 years
Life expectancy
The experiences of Japan, Thailand, South 72 years
Korea, Taiwan, Iran, and China indicate that a
Percentage living 81
country can achieve or come close to replace- below $2 per day 47
ment-level fertility within a decade or two.
Such experiences also suggest that the best way GDP PPP per capita $2,880
$4,980
to slow population growth is through the com-
bination of investing in family planning, reducing Figure 7-12 Global outlook: basic demographic data for India and China in
poverty, and elevating the status of women. 2005. (Data from United Nations and Population Reference Bureau)
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salinization, overgrazing, and deforestation. In addi- In China (as in India), there is a strong preference
tion, more than two-thirds of its water is seriously pol- for male children because of the lack of a real social se-
luted and sanitation services often are inadequate. curity system. A folk saying goes, “Rear a son, and pro-
India’s huge and growing middle class is larger tect yourself in old age.” Many pregnant women use
than the entire U.S. population. As these members of ultrasound to determine the gender of their fetus and
the middle class increase their resource use per person, often get an abortion if it is female. The result: a grow-
India’s ecological footprint will expand and increase ing gender imbalance in China’s population, with a pro-
the pressure on the country’s and the earth’s natural jected 30–40 million surplus of men expected by 2020.
capital. China has 20% of the world’s population, but only
Without its long-standing family planning pro- 7% of the world’s fresh water and cropland, 4% of its
gram, India’s population and environmental problems forests, and 2% of its oil. Soil erosion in China is seri-
would be growing even faster. Still, to its supporters ous and apparently getting worse.
the results of the program have proved disappointing Population experts expect China’s population to
for several reasons: poor planning, bureaucratic ineffi- peak around 2040, then begin a slow decline. This pro-
ciency, the low status of women (despite constitutional jection has led some members of China’s parliament to
guarantees of equality), extreme poverty, and lack of call for amending the country’s one-child policy so
administrative and financial support. that some urban couples can have a second child. The
The government has provided information about goal would be to provide more workers to help sup-
the advantages of small families for years. Even so, port China’s aging population.
Indian women have an average of 3.0 children. Most China’s economy is growing at one of the world’s
poor couples still believe they need many children to highest rates as the country undergoes rapid industri-
do work and care for them in old age. The country’s alization. Its burgeoning middle class will consume
strong cultural preference for male children also means more resources per person, increase China’s ecological
some couples keep having children until they produce footprint, and increase the strain on the country’s and
one or more boys. The result: Even though 90% of the earth’s natural capital.
Indian couples know of at least one modern birth con- What lesson can other countries learn from China?
trol method, only 43% actually use one. They should try to curb population growth before they
must choose between mass starvation and coercive
measures that severely restrict human freedom.
Case Study: China
Since 1970, China has used a government-enforced
program to cut its birth rate in half and sharply reduce
its fertility rate. 7-5 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION:
URBANIZATION AND URBAN
Since 1970, China has made impressive efforts to feed
GROWTH
its people and bring its population growth under con-
trol. Between 1972 and 2005, the country cut its crude
Factors Affecting Urban Growth: Moving
birth rate in half and trimmed its TFR from 5.7 to 1.6
to the City
children per woman (see Figure 7-12).
To achieve its sharp drop in fertility, China has es- Urban populations are growing rapidly throughout
tablished the world’s most extensive, intrusive, and the world, and many cities in developing countries
strict population control program. Couples are have become centers of poverty.
strongly urged to postpone marriage and to have no Almost half of the world’s people live in densely popu-
more than one child. Married couples who pledge to lated urban areas. Rural people are pulled to urban areas
have no more than one child receive extra food, larger in search of jobs, food, housing, a better life, entertain-
pensions, better housing, free medical care, salary ment, and freedom from religious, racial, and political
bonuses, free school tuition for their child, and prefer- conflicts. Some are also pushed from rural areas into ur-
ential treatment in employment when their child en- ban areas by factors such as poverty, lack of land to
ters the job market. Couples who break their pledge grow food, declining agricultural jobs, famine, and war.
lose such benefits. Five major trends are important in understanding
The government also provides married couples the problems and challenges of urban growth. First,
with ready access to free sterilization, contraceptives, the proportion of the global population living in urban areas
and abortion. As a consequence, 86% of married women is increasing. Between 1850 and 2005, the percentage of
in China use modern contraception. In the 1960s, gov- people living in urban areas increased from 2% to 48%.
ernment officials realized that the only alternative to According to UN projections, 60% of the world’s peo-
strict population control was mass starvation. ple will live in urban areas by 2030. Thus, between
Karachi
10.4 million Dhaka
16.2 million 13.2 million
22.8 million Beijing
10.8 million
11.7 million
Tokyo
New York 26.5 million
Los Angeles 16.8 million Cairo
27.2 million
13.3 million 17.9 million 10.5 million Mumbai
11.5 million Osaka
14.5 million (Bombay) Calcutta 11.0 million
16.5 million 13.3 million 11.0 million
Mexico City 16.7 million
18.3 million Sao Paulo 22.6 million Manila
20.4 million 18.3 million Lagos 10.1 million
21.2 million 12.2 million Delhi Jakarta 11.5 million
24.4 million 13.0 million 11.4 million
20.9 million 17.3 million
Key Shanghai
2004 (estimated) Buenos Aires 12.8 million
2015 (projected) 12.1 million 13.6 million
13.2 million
Figure 7-13 Global outlook: major urban areas throughout the world based on satellite images of the earth at
night that show city lights. Currently, the 48% of the world’s people living in urban areas occupy about 2% of
the earth’s land area. Note that most of the world’s urban areas are found along the coasts of continents, and
most of Africa and much of the interior of South America, Asia, and Australia are dark at night. This figure also
shows the populations of the world’s 18 megacities with 10 or more million people in 2004, and their projected
populations in 2015. All but four are located in developing countries. (Data from National Geophysics Data
Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and United Nations)
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Seattle
Portland Minneapolis
Boise
Boston
Chicago
Salt Lake
City New York
Provo Denver Kansas
City Cincinnati
St. Louis Washington, D.C.
San Francisco
Fresno Nashville
Las Vegas Tulsa Raleigh
Charlotte
Los Memphis
Angeles Wilmington
Phoenix Atlanta
Dallas Myrtle Beach
San Diego
Tucson
Austin Houston
Orlando
Laredo
Naples
McAllen
Figure 7-15 Major urban areas in the United States based on satellite images of the earth at night that show
city lights (top). About 8 out of 10 Americans live in urban areas that occupy about 1.7% of the land area of the
lower 48 states. Areas with names in white are the fastest-growing metropolitan areas. Nearly half (48%) of
Americans live in consolidated metropolitan areas with 1 million or more people that are projected to grow and
merge into huge urban areas shown as shaded areas in the bottom map. (Data from National Geophysical
Data Center/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Census Bureau)
ronmental problems in the United States have been re- surrounding countryside—frequently prime farmland
duced significantly. Most people have better working or forests—and increases dependence on cars. The
and housing conditions, and air and water quality result is a far-flung hodgepodge of housing develop-
have improved. Better sanitation, public water sup- ments, shopping malls, parking lots, and office com-
plies, and medical care have slashed death rates and plexes—loosely connected by multilane highways and
the prevalence of sickness from malnutrition and freeways. Urban sprawl is the product of increased
infectious diseases. Concentrating most of the popula- prosperity, ample and affordable land, automobiles,
tion in urban areas has also helped protect the coun- cheap gasoline, and poor urban planning.
try’s biodiversity by reducing the destruction and Figure 7-17 (p. 144) shows some of the undesirable
degradation of wildlife habitat. consequences of urban sprawl. Sprawl has increased
However, a number of U.S. cities—especially travel time in automobiles, decreased energy efficiency,
older ones—have deteriorating services and aging in- increased urban flooding problems, and destroyed
frastructures (streets, schools, bridges, housing, and prime cropland, forests, open space, and wetlands. It
sewers). Many face budget crunches from rising costs as has also led to the economic death of many central
some businesses and people move to the suburbs or cities.
exurbs areas and reduce revenues from property taxes. To pay for heavily mortgaged houses and cars,
There is also rising poverty in the centers of many older adults in a typical suburban family spend most of their
cities, where unemployment rates are typically 50% or nonworking hours driving to and from work or run-
higher. ning errands over a vast suburban landscape. Many
have little energy and time left for their children or
themselves, or getting to know their neighbors. On the
Urban Sprawl
other hand, many people prefer living in sprawling
Where land is ample and affordable, urban areas tend exurbs that are not dependent on a central city for jobs,
to sprawl outward, swallowing up the surrounding shopping, or entertainment.
countryside.
A major problem in the United States and some other
countries with lots of room for expansion is urban
sprawl (Figure 7-16). Growth of low-density develop- Examine how the San Francisco Bay area grew in popula-
tion between 1900 and 1990 at Environmental ScienceNow.
ment on the edges of cities and towns gobbles up the
1952 1967
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Decreased natural
sewage treatment
Figure 7-17 Natural capital degradation: some undesirable impacts of urban sprawl or car-dependent
development. Do you live in an area suffering from urban sprawl?
ward (Figure 7-16) , they destroy rural cropland, fertile deeper wells drilled. This activity can deprive rural
soil, forests, wetlands, and wildlife habitats. At the and wild areas of surface water and deplete ground-
same time, most provide little of the food they use. water faster than it is replenished.
From an environmental standpoint, urban areas are Flooding also tends to be greater in central cities
somewhat like gigantic vacuum cleaners, sucking up and their suburbs, sometimes because they are often
much of the world’s matter, energy, and living re- built on floodplain areas or along low-lying coastal ar-
sources and spewing out pollution, wastes, and heat. eas subject to natural flooding. Covering land with
As a consequence, they have large ecological foot- buildings, asphalt, and concrete can also cause precipi-
prints that extend far beyond their boundaries. If you tation to run off quickly and overload storm drains. In
live in a city, you can calculate its ecological footprint addition, urban development and sprawl often de-
by going to the website www.redefiningprogress.org/. stroys or degrades wetlands that act as natural sponges
Also, see the Guest Essay on this topic by Michael Cain to help absorb excess water. Many of the world’s
on this chapter’s website. largest cities face another threat: They are located in
In urban areas, most trees, shrubs, or other plants coastal areas (Figure 7-13) that could be flooded some-
are destroyed to make way for buildings, roads, and time in this century if sea levels rise as projected due to
parking lots. As a result, most cities do not benefit global warming.
from vegetation that might otherwise absorb air pollu- Because of their high population densities and
tants, give off oxygen, help to cool the air through high resource consumption, urban dwellers produce
transpiration, provide shade, reduce soil erosion, muf- most of the world’s air pollution, water pollution, and
fle noise, provide wildlife habitats, and give aesthetic solid and hazardous wastes. Pollutant levels in urban
pleasure. As one observer remarked, “Most cities are areas are generally higher than in rural areas because
places where they cut down most of the trees and then pollution is produced in a smaller area and cannot be
name the streets after them.” dispersed and diluted as readily as pollution produced
As cities grow and their water demands increase, in rural areas. In addition, high population densities in
expensive reservoirs and canals must be built and urban areas can increase the spread of infectious diseases
Inputs Outputs
Waste heat
Food
Air pollutants
Water
Water pollutants
Raw
materials Greenhouse gases
Information Ideas
Figure 7-18 Natural capital degradation: urban areas are rarely sustainable systems. The typical city
depends on large nonurban areas for huge inputs of matter and energy resources and for large outputs of
waste matter and heat. According to an analysis by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees, an area 58 times
as large as that of London is needed to supply its residents with resources. They estimate that meeting the
needs of all the world’s people at the same rate of resource use as that of London would take at least three
more earths.
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Permanent damage
begins after 8-hour
exposure
Figure 7-19 Noise levels (in decibel-A [dbA] sound pressure units) of some common sounds. You are being ex-
posed to a sound level high enough to cause permanent hearing damage if you need to raise your voice to be
heard above the racket, if a noise causes your ears to ring, or if nearby speech seems muffled. Prolonged exposure
to lower noise levels and occasional loud sounds may not damage your hearing but can greatly increase internal
stress. Noise pollution can be reduced by modifying noisy activities and devices, shielding noisy devices or
processes, shielding workers or other receivers from the noise, moving noisy operations or things away from peo-
ple, and using antinoise (a technology that cancels out one noise with another).
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Tr a d e - O f f s
Rapid Rail
Advantages Disadvantages
Figure 7-24 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of rapid rail systems between urban
areas. Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage that you think are the most
important.
Solutions
Smart Growth Tools
Taxes
Zoning
Tax land, not buildings
Encourage mixed use
Tax land on value of actual use (such
Concentrate development as forest and agriculture) instead of
along mass transportation highest value as developed land
routes
Environmental impact
analysis Revitalization and New Growth
Integrated regional Revitalize existing towns and cities
planning
Build well-planned new towns and
State and national planning villages within cities
Figure 7-25 Solutions: smart growth or new urbanism tools used to prevent and control
urban growth and sprawl. Critical thinking: which five of the tools do you believe are the most
important ways to prevent or control urban sprawl?
Solutions: Making Cities More Sustainable Guest Essay on this topic by David Orr on the website
and Desirable Places to Live for this chapter.
An ecocity allows people to walk, bike, or take A more environmentally sustainable city, called an
mass transit for most of their travel. It recycles and ecocity or green city, emphasizes the following goals:
reuses most of its wastes, grows much of its own ■ Preventing pollution and reducing waste
food, and protects biodiversity by preserving ■ Using energy and matter resources efficiently
surrounding land.
■ Recycling, reusing, and composting at least 60% of
According to most environmentalists and urban plan-
all municipal solid waste
ners, our primary problem is not urbanization but
rather our failure to make cities more sustainable and ■ Using solar and other locally available, renewable
livable. They call for us to make new and existing ur- energy resources
ban areas more self-reliant, sustainable, and enjoyable ■ Protecting and encouraging biodiversity by pre-
places to live through good ecological design. See the serving surrounding land
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Case Study: Curitiba, Brazil—One of the Figure 7-26 Solutions: bus system in Curitiba, Brazil. This system
moves large numbers of passengers around rapidly because each
World’s Most Sustainable Major Cities
of the five major spokes has two express lanes used only by buses.
One of the world’s most livable and sustainable major Double- and triple-length bus sections are hooked together as needed,
cities is Curitiba, Brazil, with more than 2.5 million and boarding is facilitated by the use of extra-wide doors and raised
people. tubes that allow passengers to pay before entering the bus (top left).
In Curitiba, virtually all households have electric- 7. If you were in charge of Mexico City, what are the
ity, drinking water, and trash collection. About 95% of three most important things you would do?
its citizens can read and write, and 83% of adults have 8. Do you believe the United States or the country where
at least a high school education. All schoolchildren you live should develop a comprehensive and integrated
study ecology. mass transit system over the next 20 years, including
This global model of urban planning and sustain- building an efficient rapid-rail network for travel within
ability is the brainchild of architect and former college and between its major cities? How would you pay for
teacher Jaime Lerner, who has served as Curitiba’s such a system?
mayor three times since 1969. Under his leadership, 9. If you own a car or hope to own one, what conditions,
the municipal government dedicated itself to two if any, would encourage you to rely less on the automo-
goals. First, it sought solutions to problems that are bile and to travel to school or work by bicycle, on foot, by
simple, innovative, fast, cheap, and fun. Second, the mass transit, or by a carpool or vanpool?
government vowed to be honest, accountable, and 10. Some analysts suggest phasing out federal, state,
open to public scrutiny. and government subsidies that encourage sprawl from
An exciting challenge during this century will be building roads, single-family housing, and large malls
to reshape existing cities and design new ones like and superstores. These would be replaced by subsidies
Curitiba that are more livable and sustainable and that encourage walking and bicycle paths, multifamily
have a lower environmental impact. housing, high-density residential development, and
development with a mix of housing, shops, and offices
The city is not an ecological monstrosity. It is rather the place (mixed-use development). Do you support this ap-
where both the problems and the opportunities of modern proach? Explain.
technological civilization are most potent and visible. 11. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List
PETER SELF the three most important features of your (a) population
policy and (b) urban policy.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Why is it rational for a poor couple in a developing
LEARNING ONLINE
country such as India to have four or five children? What The website for this book includes review questions for
changes might induce such a couple to consider their be- the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
havior irrational? a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
2. Identify a major local, national, or global environmen- references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
tal problem, and describe the role of population growth InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
in this problem. Visit
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8 Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Ecosystem Approach Biodiversity
Land
Forest
Renewal
CASE STUDY wolves would attack their cattle and sheep; one en-
raged rancher said that the idea was “like reintroduc-
Reintroducing Wolves ing smallpox.” Other objections came from hunters
to Yellowstone who feared the wolves would kill too many big-game
animals, and from mining and logging companies that
At one time, the gray wolf, also known as the eastern worried the government would halt their operations
timber wolf (Figure 8-1), roamed over most of North on wolf-populated federal lands.
America. Then between 1850 and 1900, an estimated Since 1995, federal wildlife officials have caught
2 million wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned by gray wolves in Canada and relocated them in
ranchers, hunters, and government employees. The Yellowstone National Park and northern Idaho. By
idea was to make the West and the 2005, about 850 gray wolves lived
Great Plains safe for livestock and in or around these two areas.
for big-game animals prized by With wolves around, elk are
hunters. gathering less near streams and
It worked. When Congress rivers. Their diminished pres-
passed the U.S. Endangered ence has spurred the growth of
Species Act in 1973, only about aspen and willow trees that at-
400–500 gray wolves remained in tract beavers. And leftovers of elk
the lower 48 states, primarily in killed by wolves are an impor-
Minnesota and Michigan. In 1974, tant food source for grizzly bears.
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service The wolves have also cut
(USFWS) listed the gray wolf as coyote populations in half. This
endangered in all 48 lower states has increased populations of
except Minnesota. smaller animals such as ground
Ecologists recognize the im- squirrels and foxes hunted by
Tom Kitchin/Tom Stack & Associates
portant role this keystone predator coyotes, providing more food for
species once played in parts of the eagles and hawks. Between 1995
West and the Great Plains. These and 2002, the wolves also killed
wolves culled herds of bison, elk, 792 sheep, 278 cattle, and 62
caribou, and mule deer, and kept dogs in the Northern Rockies.
down coyote populations. They In 2004, the U.S. Fish and
also provided uneaten meat for Wildlife Service (USFWS)
scavengers such as ravens, bald Figure 8-1 Natural capital restoration: the gray proposed removing wolves
eagles, ermines, and foxes. wolf. Ranchers, hunters, miners, and loggers have from protection under the
In recent years, herds of elk, vigorously opposed efforts to return this keystone Endangered Species Act in Idaho
moose, and antelope have ex- species to its former habitat in the Yellowstone Na- and Montana. Private citizens in
tional Park—which is bigger than the U.S. states of
panded. Their larger numbers these states could then kill
Delaware and Rhode Island combined. Wolves were
have devastated some vegetation, reintroduced beginning in 1995 and now number wolves that attack livestock or
increased erosion, and threatened around 850. pets on private lands. Conserva-
the niches of other wildlife species. tionists say this action is prema-
Reintroducing a keystone species such as the gray ture, warning that it could undermine one of the na-
wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way to help tion’s most successful conservation efforts.
sustain the biodiversity of the ecosystem and prevent Population growth, economic development, and
further environmental degradation. poverty are exerting increasing pressure on the
In 1987, the USFWS proposed reintroducing gray world’s forests, grasslands, parks, wilderness, oceans,
wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem. The sugges- rivers, and other storehouses of biodiversity, a topic
tion brought angry protests. Some ranchers feared the explored in this chapter.
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and Greenland). Most of this damage has come from The Ecosystem Approach The Species Approach
filling in wetlands and converting grasslands and
forests to crop fields and urban areas. The 2005 UN
Goal Goal
Millennium Report, prepared by nearly 1,400 experts,
found that human activities are causing massive dam- Protect populations of Protect species from
species in their natural premature extinction
age to the earth’s natural capital and laid out common- habitats
sense strategies for protecting the earth’s biodiversity.
About 82% of temperate deciduous forests have
been cleared, fragmented, and dominated because
their soils and climate are very favorable for growing
food and urban development. Temperate grasslands, Strategy Strategies
temperate rain forests, and tropical dry forests have Preserve sufficient areas • Identify endangered
also been greatly disturbed by human activities. of habitats in different species
In the United States, at least 95% of the virgin biomes and aquatic
• Protect their critical
systems
forests in the lower 48 states have been logged for lum- habitats
ber and to make room for agriculture, housing, and in-
dustry. In addition, 98% of the tallgrass prairie in the
Midwest and Great Plains has disappeared, and 99%
of California’s native grassland and 85% of its original Tactics Tactics
redwood forests are gone. • Protect habitat areas • Legally protect
through private purchase endangered species
Human activities are also degrading the earth’s or government action
aquatic biodiversity. About half of the world’s wetlands • Manage habitat
• Eliminate or reduce
(including half of U.S. wetlands) were lost during the • Propagate endangered
populations of nonnative
last century. An estimated 27% of the world’s diverse species in captivity
species from protected
coral reefs have been severely damaged. By 2050, an- areas • Reintroduce species into
suitable habitats
other 70% may be severely damaged or eliminated. • Manage protected areas
Three-fourths of the world’s 200 commercially to sustain native species
valuable marine fish species are either overfished or • Restore degraded
fished to their estimated sustainable yield. According ecosystems
to a 2003 report by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Pol-
icy, about 40% of U.S. commercial fish stocks are de- Figure 8-3 Solutions: goals, strategies, and tactics for pro-
pleted or overfished. tecting biodiversity.
Human activities also contribute to the premature
extinction of species. Biologists estimate that the current
global extinction rate of species is at least 100 times Biodiversity researchers contend that we should act to
and probably 1,000–10,000 times what it was before preserve the earth’s overall diversity because its genes,
humans existed. These threats to the world’s biodiver- species, ecosystems, and ecological processes have
sity are projected to increase sharply during the next two types of value. First, they have intrinsic value be-
few decades. cause these components of biodiversity exist, regard-
Figure 8-3 outlines the goals, strategies, and tactics less of their use to us. Second, they have instrumental
for preserving and restoring the terrestrial ecosystems value because of their usefulness to us.
and aquatic systems that provide habitats and re- Two major types of instrumental values exist. One
sources for the world’s species (as discussed in this consists of use values that benefit us in the form of eco-
chapter) and preventing the premature extinction of nomic goods and services, ecological services, recre-
species (as discussed in Chapter 9). ation, scientific information, and preserving options
for such uses in the future. The other type consists of
nonuse values. For example, there is existence value—
Examine the details on how human activities are threatening knowing that a redwood forest, wilderness, or endan-
biodiversity around the world at Environmental ScienceNow.
gered species (Figure 8-4) exists, even if we will never
see it or get direct use from it. Aesthetic value is another
nonuse value—many people appreciate a tree, a forest,
Science, Economics, and Ethics: Why Should a wild species (Figure 8-5), or a vista because of its
We Care about Biodiversity? beauty. Bequest value, a third type of nonuse value, is
Biodiversity should be protected from degradation by based on the willingness of some people to pay to pro-
human activities because it exists and because of its tect some forms of natural capital to ensure their avail-
usefulness to us and other species. ability for use by future generations.
age fotostock/SuperStock
© Ernest Manewal/SuperStock
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Figure 8-6 Natural capital: national forests, national parks, and wildlife refuges managed by the U.S. federal
government. U.S. citizens jointly own these and other public lands. (Data from U.S. Geological Survey)
the National Park Service (NPS). It includes 58 major The most restricted public lands are 660 roadless
parks (mostly in the West, Figure 5-21, p. 94) and 331 areas that make up the National Wilderness Preservation
national recreation areas, monuments, memorials, bat- System. These areas lie within the national parks, na-
tlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, sea- tional wildlife refuges, national forests, and national
shores, and lakeshores. Only camping, hiking, sport resource lands and are managed by the agencies in
fishing, and boating can take place in the national charge of those lands. Most of these areas are open
parks, whereas sport hunting, mining, and oil and gas only for recreational activities such as hiking, sport
drilling are allowed in national recreation areas. fishing, camping, and nonmotorized boating.
Science, Economics, and Politics: Managing ■ Continue mining on public lands under the provi-
U.S. Public Lands sions of the 1872 Mining Law, which allows mining
Since the 1800s, controversy has swirled over how interests to pay no royalties to taxpayers for hard-rock
U.S. public lands should be used because of the minerals they remove
valuable resources they contain. ■ Repeal the Endangered Species Act or modify it to
Many federal public lands contain valuable oil, natural allow economic factors to override protection of en-
gas, coal, timber, and mineral resources. Since the dangered and threatened species
1800s, debates have focused on how the resources on ■ Redefine government-protected wetlands so that
these lands should be used and managed. about half of them would no longer be protected
Most conservation biologists, environmental econ- ■ Prevent individuals or groups from legally
omists, and many free-market economists believe that challenging these uses of public land for private fi-
four principles should govern use of public land: nancial gain
■ Protecting biodiversity, wildlife habitats, and the
ecological functioning of public land ecosystems x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should much more of U.S. public
lands (or government-owned lands in the country where you
should be the primary goal.
live) be opened up to the extraction of timber, mineral, and
■ No one should receive subsidies or tax breaks for energy resources? Cast your vote online at http://biology
using or extracting resources on public lands. .brookscole.com/miller11.
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Ecological Economic
Science and Economics: Types
Services Services
of Forest Management
Highway Highway
Cleared plots
for grazing
Cleared plots
for agriculture
Old growth
Figure 8-10 Natural capital degradation: Building roads into previously inaccessible forests
paves the way to fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.
Once loggers reach a forest area, they use a variety A clear-cutting variation that can allow a more
of methods to harvest the trees (Figure 8-11, p. 162). sustainable timber yield without widespread destruc-
With selective cutting, intermediate-aged or mature tion is strip cutting (Figure 8-11e). It involves clear-
trees in an uneven-aged forest are cut singly or in cutting a strip of trees along the contour of the land,
small groups (Figure 8-11a). with the corridor narrow enough to allow natural re-
Some tree species that grow best in full or moder- generation within a few years. After regeneration, log-
ate sunlight are cleared completely in one or several gers cut another strip above the first, and so on. This
cuttings by shelterwood cutting (Figure 8-11b), seed-tree approach allows clear-cutting of a forest in narrow
cutting (Figure 8-11c), or clear-cutting (in which all trees strips over several decades with minimal damage.
on a site are removed in a single cut; Figures 8-11d and
8-12, p. 163). Figure 8-13 (p. 163) lists the advantages
and disadvantages of clear-cutting. Science: Harmful Environmental Effects
of Deforestation
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should conventional clear-
cutting of trees on publicly owned lands be banned except
Cutting down large areas of forests reduces
biodiversity and the ecological services forests
for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth? provide, and it can contribute to regional and global
Cast your vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11. climate change.
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Cut 2
Cut 1
Uncut
Cut
Cut
Cut
Uncut 1 year ago
3–5 years ago
e. Strip Cutting 6–10 years ago
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structed under the premise that natural services are developed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).
free. We can’t afford that luxury any more.” Home Depot, Lowes, Andersen, and other major sell-
Why have we not changed our accounting system ers of wood products in the United States have also
to reflect these losses? One reason is that the eco- agreed to sell only wood certified as being sustainably
nomic savings provided by conserving forests (and grown by independent groups such as the FSC (to the
other parts of nature) benefit everyone now and in degree that certified wood is available).
the future, whereas the profits made by exploiting
them are immediate and benefit a relatively small
group of individuals. A second reason is that many
current government subsidies and tax incentives sup- 8-4 FOREST RESOURCES
port destruction and degradation of forests and other AND MANAGEMENT IN THE
ecosystems for short-term economic gain. Also, most UNITED STATES
people are unaware of the value of the ecological ser-
vices and income provided by forests and other parts U.S. Forests: Encouraging News
of nature. U.S. forests cover more area than they did in 1920,
Another way to encourage sustainable use of more wood is grown than is cut, and the country has
forests is to establish and use methods to evaluate tim- set aside large areas of protected forests.
ber that has been grown sustainably, as discussed next. Forests cover about 30% of the U.S. land area, provid-
ing habitats for more than 80% of the country’s
Solutions: Certifying Sustainably wildlife species and supplying about two-thirds of the
Grown Timber nation’s total surface water.
Good news. Forests (including tree plantations) in
Organizations have developed standards for
the United States cover more area than they did in
certifying that timber has been harvested sustainably
1920. Many of the old-growth forests that were cleared
and that wood products have been produced from
or partially cleared between 1620 and 1960 have
sustainably harvested timber.
grown back naturally through secondary ecological
Collins Pine owns and manages a large area of produc- succession as fairly diverse second-growth (and in
tive timberland in northeastern California. Since 1940, some cases third-growth) forests in every region of the
the company has used selective cutting to help main- United States, except much of the West. In 1995, envi-
tain the ecological, economic, and social sustainability ronmental writer Bill McKibben cited forest regrowth
of its timberland. in the United States—especially in the East—as “the
Since 1993, Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) great environmental story of the United States, and in
has evaluated the company’s timber production. SCS, some ways the whole world.”
which is part of the nonprofit Forest Stewardship Every year more wood is grown in the United
Council (FSC), was formed to develop a list of environ- States than is cut, and each year the total area planted
mentally sound practices for use in certifying timber with trees increases. By 2000, protected forests ac-
and products made from such timber. counted for 40% of the country’s total forest area,
Each year, SCS evaluates Collins Pine’s landhold- mostly in the national forests (Figure 5-19, bottom,
ings to ensure that cutting has not exceeded long-term p. 93).
forest regeneration, roads and harvesting systems Bad news. Since the mid-1960s, an increasing area
have not caused unreasonable ecological damage, soils of the nation’s remaining old-growth and fairly di-
are not damaged, downed wood (boles) and standing verse second-growth forests has been clear-cut and
dead trees (snags) are left to provide wildlife habitat, replaced with biologically simplified tree plantations.
and the company is a good employer and a good stew- According to biodiversity researchers, this practice re-
ard of its land and water resources. duces overall forest biodiversity and disrupts eco-
In 2001, the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) system processes such as energy flow and chemical
called on the world’s five largest companies that har- cycling. Some environmentally concerned citizens
vest and process timber and buy wood products to have protested the cutting down of ancient trees and
adopt the FSC’s sustainable forest management princi- forests (see Individuals Matter, p. 166).
ples. According to the WWF, doing so would halt vir-
tually all logging of old-growth forests yet still meet
the world’s industrial wood and wood fiber needs us- Science: Fires and U.S. Forests
ing one-fifth of the world’s forests. Forest fires can burn away flammable underbrush and
In 2002, Mitsubishi, one of the world’s largest small trees, burn large trees and leap from treetop to
forestry companies, announced that third parties treetop, or burn flammable materials found under the
would certify its forestry operations using standards ground.
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“Butterfly” is the After seeing the destruction and rounding forest, she persuaded
nickname given to climbing one of these magnificent Pacific Lumber MAXXAM to save
Julia Hill. This trees, Butterfly ended up staying in her tree (called Luna) and a 60-
young woman the tree for two years to publicize meter (200-foot) buffer zone
INDIVIDUALS
MATTER spent two years of what was happening and help save around it. Not too long after
her life on a small the surrounding trees. She became a she descended from her perch,
platform near the top of a giant red- symbol of the protest and during someone used a chainsaw to seri-
wood tree in California to protest her stay used a cell phone to com- ously damage the tree. Cables and
the clear-cutting of a forest of these municate with members of the mass steel plates are now used to pre-
ancient trees, some of them more media throughout the world to help serve it.
than 1,000 years old. develop public support for saving But maybe Butterfly and the
She and other protesters were the trees. earth did not lose. A book she
illegally occupying these trees as a Can you imagine spending two wrote about her stand, and her
form of nonviolent civil disobedience, years of your life in a tree on a plat- subsequent travels to campuses
similar to that used decades ago by form not much bigger than a king- all over the world, have inspired
Mahatma Gandhi in his efforts to sized bed, hovering 55 meters (180 a number of young people to
end the British occupation of India. feet) above the ground and endur- stand up for protecting biodivers-
Butterfly had never participated in ing high winds, intense rainstorms, ity and other environmental
any environmental protest or act of snow, and ice? And Butterfly was causes.
civil disobedience. not living in a quiet pristine forest. Butterfly led others by follow-
Initially, she went to the site to All round her was noise from ing in the tradition of Gandhi,
express her belief that it was wrong trucks, chainsaws, and helicopters who said, “My life is my message.”
to cut down these ancient giants for trying to scare her into returning to Would you spend a day or a
short-term economic gain, even if the ground. week of your life protesting some-
you own them. She planned to stay Although Butterfly lost her thing that you believed to be
for only a few days. courageous battle to save the sur- wrong?
Three types of fires can affect forest ecosystems. Occasional surface fires have a number of ecologi-
Surface fires (Figure 8-16, left) usually burn only under- cal benefits. They burn away flammable ground mate-
growth and leaf litter on the forest floor. They may kill rial and help prevent more destructive fires. They also
seedlings and small trees but spare most mature trees release valuable mineral nutrients (tied up in slowly
and allow most wild animals to escape. decomposing litter and undergrowth), stimulate the
David J. Moorhead, The University of Georgia www.forestryimages.org
© age fotostock/SuperStock
Figure 8-16 Surface fires, such as this one in Tifton, Georgia (left), usually burn undergrowth and leaf litter on
a forest floor. They can help prevent more destructive crown fires (right) by removing flammable ground
material. Sometimes carefully controlled surface fires are deliberately set to prevent buildup of flammable
ground material in forests.
germination of certain tree seeds (such as those of the forests and people. One approach is to set small, con-
giant sequoia and jack pine), and help control tained surface fires or clear out (thin) flammable small
pathogens and insects. In addition, wildlife species trees and underbrush in the highest-risk forest areas.
such as deer, moose, elk, muskrat, woodcock, and Such prescribed fires require careful planning and moni-
quail depend on occasional surface fires to maintain toring to keep them from getting out of control.
their habitats and provide food in the form of vegeta- Another strategy is to allow many fires in national
tion that sprouts after fires. parks, national forests, and wilderness areas to burn
Some extremely hot fires, called crown fires (Fig- and thereby remove flammable underbrush and
ure 8-16, right), may start on the ground but eventu- smaller trees as long as the fires do not threaten human
ally burn whole trees and leap from treetop to treetop. structures and life. A third approach is to protect
They usually occur in forests that have not experi- houses or other buildings in fire-prone areas by thin-
enced surface fires for several decades, which allows ning a zone of about 46 meters (200 feet) around them
dead wood, leaves, and other flammable ground litter and eliminating the use of flammable materials such as
to accumulate. These rapidly burning fires can destroy wooden roofs.
most vegetation, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion, and In 2003, the U.S. Congress passed the Healthy
burn or damage human structures in their paths. Forests Restoration Act. Under this law, timber compa-
Sometimes surface fires go underground and burn nies are allowed to cut down economically valuable
partially decayed leaves or peat. Such ground fires are medium-size and large trees in most national forests in
most common in northern peat bogs. They may smol- return for clearing away smaller, more fire-prone trees
der for days or weeks and are difficult to detect and and underbrush. The law also exempts most thinning
extinguish. projects from environmental reviews and appeals cur-
rently required by forest protection laws.
According to biologists and many forest fire scien-
Solutions: Reducing Forest Damage
tists, this law is likely to increase the chances of severe
from Fire
forest fires for two reasons. First, removing the most
To reduce fire damage, we can set controlled fire-resistant large trees—the ones that are valuable to
surface fires to prevent buildup of flammable timber companies—encourages dense growth of
material, allow fires on public lands to burn highly flammable young trees and underbrush. Sec-
unless they threaten human structures and lives, ond, removing the large and medium trees leaves be-
and clear small areas around buildings in areas hind highly flammable slash. Many of the worst fires
subject to fire. in U.S. history—including some of those during the
In the United States, the Smokey Bear educational 1990s—burned through cleared forest areas containing
campaign undertaken by the Forest Service and the slash.
National Advertising Council has prevented countless Fire scientists agree that some national forests
forest fires. It has also saved many lives and prevented need thinning to reduce the chances of catastrophic
billions of dollars in losses of trees, wildlife, and hu- fires, but suggest focusing on two goals. The first goal
man structures. would be to reduce ground-level fuel and vegetation
At the same time, this educational program has in dry forest types and leave widely spaced medium
convinced much of the public that all forest fires are and large trees that are the most fire resistant and thus
bad and should be prevented or put out. Ecologists can help forest recovery after a fire. These trees also
warn that trying to prevent all forest fires increases the provide critical wildlife habitat, especially as standing
likelihood of destructive crown fires by allowing accu- dead trees (snags) and logs where many animals live.
mulation of highly flammable underbrush and smaller The second goal would emphasize clearing of flamma-
trees in some forests. ble vegetation around individual homes and buildings
According to the U.S. Forest Service, severe fires and near communities that are especially vulnerable to
could threaten 40% of all federal forest lands, mainly wildfire.
through fuel buildup from past rigorous fire protec- Critics of the Healthy Forests Restoration Act say
tion programs (the Smokey Bear era), increased log- that these goals could be accomplished at a much
ging in the 1980s that left behind highly flammable lower cost to taxpayers by giving grants to communi-
logging debris (called slash), and greater public use of ties that seem especially vulnerable to wildfires for
federal forest lands. In addition, an estimated 40 mil- thinning forests and protecting homes and buildings
lion people now live in remote forested areas or areas in their areas.
populated by dry chaparral vegetation with a high
wildfire risk. x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do you support repealing or
modifying the Healthy Forests Restoration Act? Cast your vote
Ecologists and forest fire experts have proposed
several strategies for reducing fire-related harm to online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
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Economics and Politics: Causes of Tropical colonize tropical forests by giving them title to land
Deforestation and Degradation that they clear. This practice can help reduce poverty
The primary causes of tropical deforestation and but may lead to environmental degradation unless the
degradation are population growth, poverty, new settlers are taught how to use such forests more
environmentally harmful government subsidies, debts sustainably, which is rarely done. In addition, interna-
owed to developed countries, and failure to value tional lending agencies encourage developing coun-
their ecological services. tries to borrow huge sums of money from developed
Tropical deforestation results from a number of inter-
connected primary and secondary causes (Figure 8-20).
Population growth and poverty combine to drive sub-
sistence farmers and the landless poor to tropical
forests, where they try to grow enough food to survive.
• Oil drilling
Government subsidies can accelerate deforestation by • Mining
making timber or other tropical forest resources • Flooding from dams
such as land for cattle grazing cheap, relative to • Tree plantations
• Cattle ranching
the economic value of the ecological services • Cash crops
the forests provide. • Settler farming
Governments in Indonesia, Mexico, • Fires
and Brazil also encourage the poor to • Logging
• Roads
Secondary Causes
• Not valuing
ecological services
• Exports
• Government policies
Figure 8-20 Natural capital degradation: major • Poverty
interconnected causes of the destruction and • Population growth
degradation of tropical forests. The importance of
specific secondary causes varies in different parts Basic Causes
of the world.
countries to finance projects such as roads, mines, log- crop growing and rain erosion, the nutrient-poor trop-
ging operations, oil drilling, and dams in tropical ical soil is depleted of nutrients. Then the settlers move
forests. Most countries also fail to value the ecological on to newly cleared land.
services of their forests (Figure 8-7, left). In some areas—especially Africa and Latin Amer-
The depletion and degradation of a tropical forest ica—large sections of tropical forest are cleared for
begin when a road is cut deep into the forest interior raising cash crops such as sugarcane, bananas, pineap-
for logging and settlement (Figure 8-10). Loggers then ples, strawberries, soybeans, and coffee—mostly for
use selective cutting to remove the best timber. Many export to developed countries. Tropical forests are also
other trees are toppled in the process because of their cleared for mining and oil drilling and to build dams
shallow roots and the network of vines connecting on rivers that flood large areas of the forest.
trees in the forest’s canopy. Although timber exports to Healthy rain forests do not burn. But increased
developed countries contribute significantly to tropi- burning (Figure 8-19), logging, settlements, grazing,
cal forest depletion and degradation, domestic use and farming along roads built in these forests results
accounts for more than 80% of the trees cut in develop- in patchy fragments of forest (Figure 8-10, right).
ing countries. When these areas dry out, they are readily ignited by
After the best timber has been removed, timber lightning and burned by farmers and ranchers. In ad-
companies often sell the land to ranchers. Within a few dition to destroying and degrading biodiversity, their
years, they typically overgraze it and sell it to settlers combustion releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
who have migrated to the forest hoping to grow into the atmosphere.
enough food to survive. Then they move their land-
degrading ranching operations to another forest area.
Solutions: Reducing Tropical Deforestation
According to a 2004 report by the Center for Interna-
and Degradation
tional Forestry Research, the rapid spread of cattle
ranching poses the biggest threat to the Amazon’s There are a number of ways to slow and reduce
tropical forests. the deforestation and degradation of tropical
The settlers cut most of the remaining trees, burn forests.
the debris after it has dried, and plant crops in the Analysts have suggested various ways to protect
cleared patches. They can also endanger some wild tropical forests and use them more sustainably (Fig-
species by hunting them for meat. After a few years of ure 8-21). One method is to help new settlers in tropical
Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention Restoration
Reduce poverty Concentrate farming and Figure 8-21 Solutions: ways to pro-
ranching on already-cleared tect tropical forests and use them more
Slow population growth areas sustainably. Critical thinking: which
three of these solutions do you believe
are the most important?
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© RADU SIGHETI/Reuters/Corbis
group are to establish tree nurs- the UN Africa Prize for Leadership, and the
eries, raise seedlings, and plant 2004 Nobel Peace Prize. After years of being
and protect a tree for each of harassed, beaten, and jailed for opposing gov-
Kenya’s 34 million people. By 2004, ernment policies, she was elected to Kenya’s
the 50,000 members of this grass- parliament as a member of the Green Party in
roots group had established 6,000 2002. In 2003, she was appointed Assistant
Minister for Environment and Natural Resources.
village nurseries and planted and
protected more than 30 million
trees.
The success of this project has I don’t really know why I care so same voice that is speaking to
sparked the creation of similar much. I just have something inside everyone on this planet, at least
programs in more than 30 other me that tells me that there is a everybody who seems to be con-
African countries. According to this problem and I have got to do some- cerned about the fate of the world,
inspiring leader: thing about it. And I’m sure it’s the the fate of this planet.
forests learn how to practice small-scale sustainable Unfortunately, according to a 1999 study by the
agriculture and forestry. Another method is to sustain- World Bank and the Worldwide Fund for Nature, only
ably harvest some of the renewable resources such as 1% of the parks in developing countries receive protec-
fruits and nuts in rain forests. tion. Local people invade most of them in search of
We can also use debt-for-nature swaps to make it fi- wood, cropland, game animals, and other natural
nancially attractive for countries to protect their tropi- products for their daily survival. Loggers, miners, and
cal forests. In such a swap, participating countries act wildlife poachers (who kill animals to obtain and sell
as custodians of protected forest reserves in return for items such as rhino horns, elephant tusks, and furs)
foreign aid or debt relief. Another important tool is us- also operate in many of these parks. Park services in
ing an international system for evaluating and certify- developing countries typically have too little money
ing tropical timber produced by sustainable methods. and too few personnel to fight these invasions, either
Loggers can also use gentler methods for harvest- by force or by education.
ing trees. For example, cutting canopy vines (lianas) be- Another problem is that most national parks are
fore felling a tree can reduce damage to neighboring too small to sustain many large-animal species. Also,
trees by 20–40%, and using the least obstructed paths to many parks suffer from invasions by nonnative
remove the logs can halve the damage to other trees. In species that can reduce the populations of native
addition, governments and individuals can mount ef- species and cause ecological disruption.
forts to reforest and rehabilitate degraded tropical
forests and watersheds (see Individuals Matter, above).
Another suggestion is to clamp down on illegal logging. Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National Parks
National parks in the United States face
many threats.
The U.S. national park system, established in 1912, in-
8-6 NATIONAL PARKS
cludes 58 national parks (sometimes called the coun-
try’s crown jewels; Figure 5-21, p. 94), most of them
Global Outlook: Threats to National Parks
in the West (Figure 8-6). State, county, and city parks
Countries have established more than 1,100 national supplement these national parks. Most state parks are
parks, but most are threatened by human activities. located near urban areas and receive about twice as
Today, more than 1,100 national parks larger than 10 many visitors per year as the national parks.
square kilometers (4 square miles) each are located in Popularity is one of the biggest problems of na-
more than 120 countries. tional and state parks in the United States. During the
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Figure 8-25 Solutions: the adaptive ecosystem management Climb the mountains and get their good tidings. Na-
process. ture’s peace will flow into you as the sunshine into the
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Active Figure 8-26 Endangered natural capital: 25 hot spots identified by ecologists as important but en-
dangered centers of biodiversity that contain a large number of endemic plant and animal species found
nowhere else. Recent research has added nine additional hot spots to this list. See an animation based on this
figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Data from Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation
International)
trees. The winds will blow their freshness into you, and and to protect them as centers for evolution in response to
the storms their energy, while cares will drop off like mostly unpredictable changes in environmental condi-
autumn leaves. tions. In other words, wilderness is a biodiversity and
wildness bank and an eco-insurance policy.
Even those who never use the wilderness areas
Some analysts also believe wilderness should
may want to know they are there, a feeling expressed
be preserved because the wild species it contains have
by novelist Wallace Stegner:
a right to exist (or struggle to exist) and play their roles
Save a piece of country . . . and it does not matter in in the earth’s ongoing saga of biological evolution and
the slightest that only a few people every year will go ecological processes, without human interference.
into it. This is precisely its value. . . . We simply need
that wild country available to us, even if we never do Science and Politics Case Study: Wilderness
more than drive to its edge and look in. For it can be a Protection in the United States
means of reassuring ourselves of our sanity as crea- Only a small percentage of the land area of the United
tures, a part of the geography of hope. States has been protected as wilderness.
Some critics oppose protecting wilderness for its In the United States, conservationists have been trying
scenic and recreational value for a small number of to save wild areas from development since 1900. Over-
people. They believe this policy to be an outmoded all, they have fought a losing battle. Not until 1964 did
concept that keeps some areas of the planet from being Congress pass the Wilderness Act. It allowed the gov-
economically useful to humans. ernment to protect undeveloped tracts of public land
Most biologists disagree. To them, the most impor- from development as part of the National Wilderness
tant reasons for protecting wilderness and other areas Preservation System.
from exploitation and degradation are to preserve their The area of protected wilderness in the United
biodiversity as a vital part of the earth’s natural capital States increased tenfold between 1970 and 2000. Even
so, only 4.6% of U.S. land is protected as wilderness— 8-8 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
almost three-fourths of it in Alaska. Only 1.8% of the
land area of the lower 48 states is protected, most of it Science: Rehabilitating and Restoring
in the West. In other words, Americans have reserved Damaged Ecosystems
98% of the continental United States to be used as they Scientists have developed a number of techniques for
see fit and have protected only 2% as wilderness. Ac- rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems and
cording to a 1999 study by the World Conservation creating artificial ecosystems.
Union, the United States ranks 42nd among nations in
Almost every natural place on the earth has been
terms of terrestrial area protected as wilderness, and
affected or degraded to some degree by human activi-
Canada is in 36th place.
ties. Much of the harm we have inflicted on nature is at
In addition, only 4 of the 413 wilderness areas in
least partially reversible through ecological restora-
the lower 48 states are larger than 4,000 square kilome-
tion: the process of repairing damage caused by hu-
ters (1,500 square miles). Also, the system includes
mans to the biodiversity and dynamics of natural
only 81 of the country’s 233 distinct ecosystems. Most
ecosystems. Examples include replanting forests,
wilderness areas in the lower 48 states are threatened
restoring grasslands, restoring wetlands and stream
habitat islands in a sea of development.
banks, reclaiming urban industrial areas (brown-
Almost 400,000 square kilometers (150,000 square
fields), reintroducing native species (p. 154), removing
miles) in scattered blocks of public lands could qual-
invasive species, and freeing river flows by removing
ify for designation as wilderness—about 60% of it in
dams.
the national forests. For two decades, these areas have
Farmer and philosopher Wendell Berry says we
been temporarily protected while they were evalu-
should try to answer three questions in deciding
ated for wilderness protection. Wilderness supporters
whether and how to modify or rehabilitate natural
would like to see all of them protected as part of the
ecosystems. First, what is here? Second, what will na-
wilderness system. This is unlikely because of the po-
ture permit us to do here? Third, what will nature help
litical strength of industries that see these areas as re-
us do here? An important strategy is to mimic nature
sources for increased profits and short-term economic
and natural processes and ideally let nature do most
growth.
of the work, usually through secondary ecological
Figure 8-27 lists some ways you can help sustain
succession.
the earth’s terrestrial biodiversity.
By studying how natural ecosystems recover, sci-
entists are learning how to speed up repair operations
using a variety of approaches. They include the fol-
W h a t C a n Yo u D o ? lowing measures:
■ Restoration: trying to return a particular degraded
Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity
habitat or ecosystem to a condition as similar as possi-
ble to its natural state. Unfortunately, lack of knowl-
edge about the previous composition of a degraded
• Plant trees and take care of them.
area can make it impossible to restore an area to its
• Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products. earlier state.
• Buy wood and wood products made from trees
■ Rehabilitation: attempts to turn a degraded ecosys-
that have been grown sustainably. tem back into a functional or useful ecosystem with-
out trying to restore it to its original condition.
• Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of
forest or grassland near your home. ■ Replacement: replacing a degraded ecosystem with
another type of ecosystem. For example, a productive
• When building a home, save all the trees and as
much natural vegetation and soil as possible. pasture or tree farm may replace a degraded forest.
■ Creating artificial ecosystems: for example, the cre-
• Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants
natural to the area instead of having a ation of artificial wetlands.
monoculture lawn.
Researchers have suggested four basic science-
• Live in town because suburban sprawl reduces based principles for carrying out ecological restoration.
biodiversity.
■ Mimic nature and natural processes and ideally let
nature do most of the work, usually through sec-
Figure 8-27 Individuals matter: ways to help sustain terres- ondary ecological succession (Figure 8-28, p. 178).
trial biodiversity. Critical thinking: which two of these actions do
you believe are the most important? Which things in this list do ■ Recreate important ecological niches that have
you plan to do? been lost.
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■ Rely on pioneer species, keystone species (p. 154), Costa Rica is the site of one of the world’s largest
foundation species, and natural ecological succession ecological restoration projects. In the lowlands of its Gua-
to facilitate the restoration process. nacaste National Park (Figure 8-24), a small tropical
■ Control or remove harmful nonnative species. dry deciduous forest has been burned, degraded, and
fragmented by large-scale conversion to cattle ranches
Some analysts worry that environmental resto-
and farms.
ration could encourage continuing environmental de-
Today, it is being restored and relinked to the rain
struction and degradation by suggesting that any
forest on adjacent mountain slopes. The goal is to elim-
ecological harm we do can be undone. Some go further
inate damaging nonnative grass and cattle and reestab-
and say that we do not understand the incredible com-
lish a tropical dry forest ecosystem over the next
plexity of ecosystems well enough to restore or man-
100–300 years.
age damaged natural ecosystems.
Daniel Janzen, professor of biology at the Univer-
Restorationists agree that restoration should not
sity of Pennsylvania and a leader in the field of
be used as an excuse for environmental destruction.
restoration ecology, has helped galvanize international
But they point out that so far we have been able to
support and has raised more than $10 million for this
protect or preserve no more than about 7% of nature
restoration project. He recognizes that ecological
from the effects of human activities. Ecological
restoration and protection of the park will fail unless
restoration is badly needed for much of the world’s
the people in the surrounding area believe they will
ecosystems that we have already damaged. They also
benefit from such efforts. Janzen’s vision to have the
point out that if a restored ecosystem differs from the
nearly 40,000 people who live near the park become an
original system, it is better than nothing, and that in-
essential part of the restoration of the degraded forest,
creased experience will improve the effectiveness of
a concept he calls biocultural restoration.
ecological restoration.
By actively participating in the project, local resi-
dents reap educational, economic, and environmental
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should we mount a massive
effort to restore ecosystems we have degraded even though it
benefits. Local farmers make money by sowing large
areas with tree seeds and planting seedlings started in
will be quite costly? Cast your vote online at http://biology
.brookscole.com/miller11. Janzen’s lab. Local grade school, high school, and uni-
versity students and citizens’ groups study the park’s
ecology and visit it on field trips. The park’s location
Science Case Study: Ecological Restoration near the Pan American Highway makes it an ideal area
of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica for eco-tourism, which stimulates the local economy.
A degraded tropical dry forest in Costa Rica is being The project also serves as a training ground in
restored in a cooperative project between tropical tropical forest restoration for scientists from all over
ecologists and local people. the world. Research scientists working on the project
give guest classroom lectures and lead some of the the open sea because of the greater variety of produc-
field trips. ers, habitats, and nursery areas in coastal areas. Third,
In a few decades, today’s children will be run- biodiversity is higher in the bottom region of the ocean
ning the park and the local political system. If they than in the surface region because of the greater variety
understand the ecological importance of their local of habitats and food sources on the ocean bottom.
environment, they are more likely to protect and sus- We should care about aquatic biodiversity because
tain its biological resources. Janzen believes that edu- it helps keep us alive and supports our economies.
cation, awareness, and involvement—not guards and Marine systems provide a variety of important ecolog-
fences—are the best ways to restore degraded ecosys- ical and economic services (Figure 5-25, p. 97), as do
tems and protect largely intact ecosystems from un- freshwater systems (Figure 5-34, p. 104).
sustainable use.
Natural Capital Degradation: Major Human
Impacts on Aquatic Biodiversity
8-9 SUSTAINING AQUATIC Humans have destroyed or degraded a large
BIODIVERSITY proportion of the world’s coastal wetlands, coral reefs,
mangroves, and ocean bottom, and overfished many
Science: What Do We Know marine and freshwater species.
about Aquatic Biodiversity?
The greatest threat to the biodiversity of the world’s
We know fairly little about the biodiversity oceans is loss and degradation of habitats, as summa-
of the world’s marine and freshwater systems that rized in Figure 5-33, p. 103. For example, more than
provides us with important economic and ecological one-fourth of the world’s diverse coral reefs have been
services. severely damaged, mostly by human activities, and
Although ocean water covers about 71% of the earth’s another 70% of these reefs may be severely damaged
surface, we have explored only about 5% of the or eliminated by 2050.
earth’s global ocean and know relatively little about Many sea-bottom habitats are also being degraded
its biodiversity and how it works. We also know rela- and destroyed by dredging operations and trawler
tively little about freshwater biodiversity. Scientific boats, which, like giant submerged bulldozers, drag
investigation of poorly understood marine and fresh- huge nets weighted down with heavy chains and steel
water aquatic systems is a research frontier whose plates over ocean bottoms to harvest bottom fish and
study could result in immense ecological and eco- shellfish. Each year, thousands of trawlers scrape and
nomic benefits. disturb an area of ocean bottom about 150 times larger
Scientists have established three general patterns than the area of forests clear-cut each year (Figure 8-29).
of marine biodiversity. First, the greatest marine biodi- In 2004, some 1,134 scientists signed a statement urging
versity occurs in coral reefs, estuaries, and the deep-sea the United Nations to declare a moratorium on bottom
floor. Second, biodiversity is higher near coasts than in trawling on the high seas.
Peter J. Auster/National Undersea Research Center
Peter J. Auster/National Undersea Research Center
Figure 8-29 Natural capital degradation: area of ocean bottom before (left) and after (right) a trawler net
scraped it like a gigantic plow. These ocean floor communities can take decades or centuries to recover.
According to marine scientist Elliot Norse, “Bottom trawling is probably the largest human-caused disturbance
to the biosphere.” Trawler fishers disagree, claiming that ocean bottom life recovers after trawling.
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Studies indicate that about three-fourths of the and threatened aquatic species, as discussed in Chapter 9.
world’s 200 commercially valuable marine fish species We can also establish protected marine sanctuaries.
(40% in U.S. waters) are either overfished or fished to Since 1986, the World Conservation Union has helped
their estimated sustainable yield. One result of the in- establish a global system of marine protected areas
creasingly efficient global hunt for fish is that big fish (MPAs), mostly at the national level. Approximately 90
in many populations of commercially valuable species of the world’s 350 biosphere reserves include coastal
are becoming scarce. Smaller fish are the next targets, or marine habitats. In 2004, Australia’s Great Barrier
as the fishing industry has begun working its way Reef—the world’s largest living structure—became
down marine food webs. This practice can reduce the the world’s biggest marine protected area when the
breeding stock needed for recovery of depleted government banned fishing and shipping on one-third
species, unravel food webs, and disrupt marine ecosys- of the reef.
tems. Today, we throw away almost one-third of the Scientific studies show that within fully protected
fish we catch because they are gathered unintention- marine reserves, fish populations double, fish size
ally in our harvest of commercially valuable species. grows by almost one-third, fish reproduction triples,
According to marine biologists, at least 1,200 ma- and species diversity increases by almost one-fourth.
rine species have become extinct in the past few hun- Furthermore, this improvement happens within two
dred years, and many thousands of additional marine to four years after strict protection begins and lasts for
species could disappear during this century. Indeed, decades.
fish are threatened with extinction by human activities more Unfortunately, less than 0.01% of the world’s
than any other group of species. And, freshwater animals ocean area consists of fully protected marine reserves.
are disappearing five times faster than land animals. In the United States, the total area of fully protected
marine habitat is only 130 square kilometers (50 square
miles). In other words, we have failed to strictly protect
Science, Education, and Politics: Why Is It
99.9% of the world’s ocean area from human exploitation.
Difficult to Protect Marine Biodiversity?
Also, many current marine sanctuaries are too small to
Coastal development, the invisibility and vastness of protect most of the species within them and do not
the world’s oceans, citizen unawareness, and lack of provide adequate protection from pollution that flows
legal jurisdiction hinder protection of marine into coastal waters as a result of land use.
biodiversity. In 1997, a group of international marine scientists
Protecting marine biodiversity is difficult for several called for governments to increase fully protected ma-
reasons. One problem is rapidly growing coastal de- rine reserves to at least 20% of the ocean’s surface by
velopment and the accompanying massive inputs of 2020. A 2003 study by the Pew Fisheries Commission
sediment and other wastes from land into coastal wa- recommended establishing many more protected ma-
ter. This practice harms shore-hugging species and rine reserves in U.S. coastal waters and connecting
threatens biologically diverse and highly productive them with protected corridors so that fish can move
coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs, marshes, and back and forth between such areas.
mangrove forest swamps. We can also establish integrated coastal management
Another problem is that much of the damage to in which fishermen, scientists, conservationists, citi-
the oceans and other bodies of water is not visible to zens, business interests, developers, and politicians
most people. Also, many people incorrectly view the collaborate to identify shared problems and goals.
seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb an al- Then they attempt to develop workable and cost-effec-
most infinite amount of waste and pollution. tive solutions that preserve biodiversity and environ-
Finally, most of the world’s ocean area lies outside mental quality while meeting economic and social
the legal jurisdiction of any country. Thus, it is an needs, ideally using adaptive ecosystem management
open-access resource, subject to overexploitation be- (Figure 8-25). Currently, more than 100 integrated
cause of the tragedy of the commons. coastal management programs are being developed
throughout the world, including the Chesapeake Bay
in the United States.
Solutions: Protecting and Sustaining
Another important strategy is to protect existing
Marine Biodiversity
coastal and inland wetlands from being destroyed or
Marine biodiversity can be sustained by protecting degraded. We can also prevent overfishing. Figure 8-30
endangered species, establishing protected lists potential measures for managing global fisheries
sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing more sustainably and protecting marine biodiversity.
water pollution, and preventing overfishing. Most of these approaches rely on some sort of govern-
There are several ways to protect and sustain marine ment regulation. Finally, we can regulate and prevent
biodiversity. For example, we can protect endangered aquatic pollution, as discussed in Chapter 11.
Solutions
Managing Fisheries
Figure 8-30 Solutions: ways to manage fisheries more sustainably and protect marine biodiver-
sity. Critical thinking: which five of these actions do you believe are the most important?
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can make conservation efforts more precise and cost- 4. In the early 1990s, Miguel Sanchez, a subsistence
effective. farmer in Costa Rica, was offered $600,000 by a hotel de-
veloper for a piece of land that he and his family had
■ Determine the world’s marine hot spots and assign them
been using sustainably for many years. The land con-
the same priority for immediate action as for those on land. tained an old-growth rain forest and a black sand beach
■ Concentrate on protecting and restoring everywhere the in an area under rapid development. Sanchez refused the
world’s lakes and river systems, which are the most threat- offer. What would you have done if you were a poor sub-
ened ecosystems of all. sistence farmer in Miguel Sanchez’s position? Explain
your decision.
■ Ensure that the full range of the earth’s terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems is included in a global conservation 5. Should there be a ban on the use of off-road motorized
strategy. vehicles and snowmobiles on all public lands in the
United States or in the country where you live? Explain.
■ Make conservation profitable. This involves finding
ways to raise the income of people who live in or near 6. Are you in favor of establishing more wilderness areas
nature reserves so they can become partners in their in the United States, especially in the lower 48 states (or
protection and sustainable use. in the country where you live)? Explain. What might be
some drawbacks of this move?
■ Initiate ecological restoration products worldwide to
heal some of the damage we have done and increase 7. If ecosystems are undergoing constant change, why
the share of the earth’s land and water allotted to the should we (a) establish and protect nature reserves and
(b) carry out ecological restoration?
rest of nature.
8. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List
According to Wilson, such a conservation strategy the three most important features of your policies for us-
would cost about $30 billion per year—an amount that ing and managing (a) forests, (b) parks, and (c) aquatic
could be provided by a penny tax per cup of coffee. biodiversity.
This strategy for protecting the earth’s precious
biodiversity will not be implemented without bottom-
up political pressure on elected officials from individ- LEARNING ONLINE
ual citizens and groups. It will also require cooperation The website for this book includes review questions for
among key people in government, the private sector, the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
science, and engineering using adaptive ecosystem a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
management (Figure 8-25). references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging Visit
to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong,
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
we may begin to use it with love and respect.
ALDO LEOPOLD Then choose Chapter 8, and select a learning resource. For
access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
and summaries, register and log in to
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Explain why you agree or disagree with (a) the four
principles that biologists and some economists have sug- at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
gested for using public land in the United States (p. 159) card in the front of your book.
and (b) the nine suggestions made by developers and re-
source extractors for managing and using U.S. public
land (p. 159). Active Graphing
2. Explain why you agree or disagree with each of the Visit http://esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 to
proposals for providing more sustainable use of forests explore the graphing exercise for this chapter.
throughout the world, listed in Figure 8-15, p. 164. Which
two of these proposals do you believe are the most im-
portant? Explain.
3. Should developed countries provide most of the
money to preserve remaining tropical forests in develop-
ing countries? Explain.
9 Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach
Population
Control
Biodiversity
The last word in ignorance is the person who says of an ani- logical roles in the biological communities where it is
mal or plant: “What good is it?” . . . If the land mechanism found.
as a whole is good, then every part of it is good, whether we In biological extinction, a species is no longer found
understand it or not. . . . Harmony with land is like harmony anywhere on the earth (Figure 9-2 and Case Study,
with a friend; you cannot cherish his right hand and chop off
p. 183). Biological extinction is forever.
his left.
ALDO LEOPOLD
Science: Endangered and Threatened Species—
This chapter looks at the problem of premature extinc- Ecological Smoke Alarms
tion of species by human activities and ways to reduce An endangered species could soon become extinct; a
this threat to the world’s biodiversity. It addresses the threatened species is likely to become extinct.
following questions: Biologists classify species heading toward biological
■ How do biologists estimate extinction rates, and extinction as either endangered or threatened (Figure 9-3,
how do human activities affect these rates? p. 186). An endangered species has so few individual
survivors that the species could soon become extinct
■ Why should we care about protecting wild over all or most of its natural range. A threatened spe-
species? cies (also known as a vulnerable species) is still abun-
■ Which human activities endanger wildlife? dant in its natural range but because of declining num-
bers is likely to become endangered in the near future.
■ How can we help prevent premature extinction of
Some species have characteristics that make them
species?
especially vulnerable to ecological and biological
■ What is reconciliation ecology, and how can it help extinction (Figure 9-4, p. 188). As biodiversity expert
prevent premature extinction of species? Edward O. Wilson puts it, “the first animal species to
go are the big, the slow, the tasty, and those with valu-
able parts such as tusks and skins.”
KEY IDEAS One 2000 study found that human activities
■
threaten several types of species with premature
The current rate of extinction is at least 1,000 to
extinction (Figure 9-5, p. 188). Another 2000 survey by
10,000 times the rate before humans arrived on earth,
the Nature Conservancy and the Association for Biodi-
and it is expected to increase in the future.
versity Information found that about one-third of the
■ The greatest threat to a species is the loss and 21,000 plant and animal species in the United States
degradation of the place where it lives, followed by are vulnerable to premature extinction.
the accidental or deliberate introduction of harmful
nonnative species.
Science: Estimating Extinction Rates
■ One of the world’s most far-reaching and controver-
sial environmental laws is the U.S. Endangered Scientists use measurements and models to estimate
Species Act, which was passed in 1973. extinction rates.
■
Biologists estimate that more than 99.9% of all species
Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to
that have ever existed are now extinct because of a
share the places that we dominate with other species.
combination of background extinctions, mass extinc-
tions, and mass depletions taking place over thousands
to millions of years. Biologists also talk of an extinction
spasm, wherein large numbers of species are lost over a
9-1 SPECIES EXTINCTION
period of a few centuries or at most 1,000 years.
Biologists trying to catalog extinctions have three
Science: Three Types of Species Extinction
problems. First, the extinction of a species typically
Species can become extinct locally, ecologically, or takes such a long time that it is not easy to document.
globally. Second, we have identified only 1.4–1.8 million of the
Biologists distinguish among three levels of species ex- world’s estimated 5–100 million species. Third, we
tinction. Local extinction occurs when a species is no know little about most of the species we have identified.
longer found in an area it once inhabited but is still The truth is that we do not know how many
found elsewhere in the world. Most local extinctions species become extinct each year mostly because of
involve losses of one or more populations of species. our activities. Scientists simply do the best they can
Ecological extinction occurs when so few members with the tools they have to estimate past and projected
of a species are left that it can no longer play its eco- future extinction rates.
One approach is to study records documenting the rived. This amounts to an annual extinction rate of at
rate at which mammals and birds have become extinct least 0.1% to 1% per year.
since humans arrived and comparing that rate with the How many species are we losing prematurely
fossil records of such extinctions prior to our arrival. To each year? The answer depends on how many species
project future extinction rates, biologists may observe are on the earth. Assuming that the extinction rate is
how the number of species present increases with the 0.1%, we lose 5,000 species per year if there are 5 mil-
size of an area. This species–area relationship suggests lion species on earth, 14,000 species if there are 14 mil-
that on average a 90% loss of habitat causes the extinc- lion species (biologists’ current best guess), and
tion of 50% of the species living in that habitat. 100,000 species if there are 100 million species.
Scientists also use models to estimate the risk that Most biologists would consider the premature
a particular species will become endangered or extinct loss of 1 million species over 100–200 years to be an ex-
within a certain period of time, based on factors such tinction crisis or spasm that, if it continued, would
as trends in population size, changes in habitat avail- lead to a mass depletion or even a mass extinction. At
ability, and interactions with other species. Estimates an extinction rate of 0.1% per year, the time it would
of extinction rates can vary because differing assump- take to lose 1 million species would be 200 years if
tions are made about the earth’s total number of there were a total of 5 million species, 71 years with a
species, the proportion of these species that are found total of 14 million species, and 10 years with 100 mil-
in tropical forests, the rate at which tropical forests are lion species.
being cleared, and the reliability of the methods used According to researchers Edward O. Wilson and
to make these estimates. Stuart Primm, at a 1% extinction rate, at least one-fifth
of the world’s current animal and plant species could
be gone by 2030 and half could vanish by the end
Science: Effects of Human Activities
of this century. In the words of biodiversity expert
on Extinction Rates
Norman Myers, “Within just a few human genera-
Biologists estimate that the current rate of extinction is tions, we shall—in the absence of greatly expanded
at least 1,000 to 10,000 times the rate before humans conservation efforts—impoverish the biosphere to an
arrived on earth. extent that will persist for at least 200,000 human gen-
In due time, all species become extinct. Nevertheless, erations or twenty times longer than the period since
considerable evidence indicates that humans are has- humans emerged as a species.”
tening the final exit for a growing number of species. Most biologists consider extinction rates of
Before we came on the scene, the estimated extinction 0.1%–1% to be conservative estimates for several rea-
rate was roughly one extinct species per million sons. First, both the rate of species loss and the extent
species on earth annually. This amounted to an annual of biodiversity loss are likely to increase during the
extinction rate of about 0.0001% per year. next 50–100 years because of the projected growth of
Using the methods just described, biologists con- the world’s human population and resource use per
servatively estimate that the current rate of extinction person. In other words, the size of our already large
is at least 1,000 to 10,000 times the rate before we ar- ecological footprint (Figure 1-7, p. 11, and Figure 2 in
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Grizzly bear Kirkland’s warbler White top pitcher plant Arabian oryx African elephant
Mojave desert tortoise Swallowtail butterfly Humpback chub Golden lion tamarin Siberian tiger
West Virginia spring Giant panda Whooping crane Knowlton cactus Blue whale
salamander
Mountain gorilla Pine barrens Swamp pink Hawksbill sea turtle El Segunda blue butterfly
tree frog
Figure 9-3 Endangered natural capital: species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction
largely because of human activities. Almost 30,000 of the world’s species and 1,260 of those in the United
States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct. Most biologists believe the actual number of
species at risk is much larger.
Florida manatee Northern spotted owl Gray wolf Florida panther Bannerman’s turaco
Devil’s hole pupfish Snow leopard Symphonia Black-footed ferret Utah prairie dog
Ghost bat California condor Black lace cactus Black rhinoceros Oahu tree snail
Science Supplement 2 at the end of this book) is likely the emergence of new species. Thus, in addition to in-
to increase. creasing the rate of extinction, we may be limiting the
Second, current and projected extinction rates are long-term recovery of biodiversity by reducing the
much higher than the global average in parts of the rate of speciation for some types of species. In other
world that are endangered centers of the world’s bio- words, we are creating a speciation crisis. See the Guest
diversity. Conservation biologists urge us to focus our Essay by Normal Myers on this topic on the website
efforts on slowing the much higher rates of extinction for this chapter.
in such hot spots (Figure 8-26, p. 176) as the best and Some people—but few biologists—say the current
quickest way to protect much of the earth’s biodiver- estimated extinction rates are too high and are based on
sity from being lost prematurely. inadequate data and models. Researchers agree that
Third, we are eliminating, degrading, and simpli- their estimates of extinction rates are based on inade-
fying many biologically diverse environments—such quate data and sampling. They are continually striving
as tropical forests, tropical coral reefs, wetlands, and to get better data and improve the models they use to
estuaries—that serve as potential colonization sites for estimate extinction rates.
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Rosy periwinkle
Pacific yew
Cathranthus roseus,
Taxus brevifolia,
Rauvolfia Madagascar
Pacific Northwest
Rauvolfia sepentina, Hodgkin's disease,
Ovarian cancer
Southeast Asia lymphocytic leukemia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication Neem tree
Foxglove Cinchona Azadirachta indica,
Digitalis purpurea, Cinchona ledogeriana, India
Europe South America Treatment of many
Digitalis for heart failure Quinine for malaria treatment diseases, insecticide,
spermicide
Figure 9-6 Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many
of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten
leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. Approximately 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identi-
fied by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite
their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical
forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal
properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced syn-
thetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
spend more than three times as many hours watching Some people distinguish between the survival
wildlife—doing nature photography and bird watch- rights of plants and those of animals, mostly for practi-
ing, for example—as they spend watching movies or cal reasons. Poet Alan Watts once said he was a vege-
professional sporting events. tarian “because cows scream louder than carrots.”
Conservation biologist Michael Soulé estimates Other people distinguish among various types of
that one male lion living to age 7 generates $515,000 in species. For example, they might think little about get-
eco-tourist dollars in Kenya but only $1,000 if it is killed ting rid of the world’s mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats,
for its skin. Similarly, over a lifetime of 60 years, a or disease-causing bacteria.
Kenyan elephant is worth about $1 million in eco- Some conservation biologists caution us not to
tourist revenue—many times more than its tusks are focus primarily on protecting relatively large organ-
worth when they are sold illegally for their ivory. isms—the plants and animals we can see and are
Eco-tourism should not cause ecological damage familiar with. They remind us that the true foundation
but some of it does. The website for this chapter lists of the earth’s ecosystems and ecological processes are
some guidelines for evaluating eco-tours. invisible bacteria and the algae, fungi, and other
microorganisms that decompose the bodies of larger
organisms and recycle the nutrients needed by all life.
Ethics: The Intrinsic Value
of Wild Species
Some believe that each wild species has an inherent
right to exist. 9-3 CAUSES OF PREMATURE
EXTINCTION OF WILD SPECIES
Some people believe that each wild species has intrin-
sic or existence value based on its inherent right to exist
Science: Habitat Loss and Degradation—
and play its ecological roles, regardless of its useful-
Remember HIPPO
ness to humans. According to this view, we have an
ethical responsibility to protect species from becoming The greatest threat to a species is the loss and
prematurely extinct as a result of human activities, and degradation of the place where it lives.
to prevent the degradation of the world’s ecosystems Figure 9-7 (p. 190) shows the basic and secondary
and its overall biodiversity. causes of the endangerment and premature extinction
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Habitat
Overfishing Pollution
loss
Secondary Causes
of wild species. Conservation biologists sometimes are especially vulnerable to the introduction of nonna-
summarize the main secondary factors leading to pre- tive species and pollution.
mature extinction using the acronym HIPPO: Habitat
destruction and fragmentation, Invasive (alien) spe-
Science: Habitat Fragmentation
cies, Population growth (too many people consuming
too many resources), Pollution, and Overharvesting. Species are more vulnerable to extinction when their
According to biodiversity researchers, the greatest habitats are divided into smaller, more isolated
threat to wild species is habitat loss (Figure 9-8), degra- patches.
dation, and fragmentation. Many species have a hard Habitat fragmentation occurs when a large, continuous
time surviving when we take over their ecological area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into
“house” and their food supplies and make them smaller, more scattered, and isolated patches or “habi-
homeless. tat islands.” This process divides populations of a
Deforestation of tropical forests is the greatest species into smaller and more isolated groups that are
eliminator of species, followed by the destruction of more vulnerable to predators, competitive species, dis-
coral reefs and wetlands, plowing of grasslands, and ease, and catastrophic events such as a storm or fire.
pollution of streams, lakes, and oceans. Globally, tem- Also, it creates barriers that limit the abilities of some
perate biomes have been affected more by habitat loss species to disperse and colonize new areas, get enough
and degradation than have tropical biomes because of to eat, and find mates.
widespread development in temperate countries over
the past 200 years. Development is currently shifting
to many tropical biomes. See how serious the habitat fragmentation problem is for
Island species—many of them endemic species elephants, tigers, and rhinos at Environmental ScienceNow.
found nowhere else on earth—are especially vulnera-
ble to extinction when their habitats are destroyed, de-
Science Case Study: A Disturbing Message
graded, or fragmented (Figure 9-9, p. 192). Any habitat
from the Birds
surrounded by a different one can be viewed as a habi-
tat island for most of the species that live there. Most Human activities are causing serious declines in the
national parks and other protected areas are habitat is- populations of many bird species.
lands, many of them encircled by potentially damag- Approximately 70% of the world’s 9,800 known bird
ing logging, mining, energy extraction, and industrial species are declining in numbers, and roughly one of
activities. Freshwater lakes are also habitat islands that every six bird species is threatened with extinction,
Former range
Probable range 1600
Range today
Range today (34,000–54,000 left)
Active Figure 9-8 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as
the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s
human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See
an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept. (Data from International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
mostly because of habitat loss and fragmentation. A biome, respond quickly to environmental changes in
2002 National Audubon Society study found that one- their habitats, and are easy to track and count.
fourth of all U.S. bird species are declining in numbers In addition, birds play important ecological roles.
or are at risk of disappearing. Figure 9-10 (p. 192) shows They help control populations of rodents and insects
the 10 most threatened U.S. songbird species. (which decimate many tree species), pollinate a vari-
Conservation biologists view this decline of bird ety of flowering plants, spread plants throughout
species with alarm. Why? Birds are excellent environ- their habitats by consuming and excreting plant seeds,
mental indicators because they live in every climate and and scavenge dead animals. Conservation biologists
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Cerulean warbler Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Black-capped vireo Golden-cheeked warbler
Florida scrub jay California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler
Figure 9-10 Threatened natural capital: the 10 most threatened species of U.S. songbirds according to a
2002 study by the National Audubon Society. Most of these species are vulnerable because of habitat loss and
fragmentation from human activities. Almost 1,200 species—12% of the world’s 9,800 known bird species—
may face premature extinction from human activities during this century. (Data from National Audubon Society)
Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar
(Giant toad) (Feral pig)
Sea lamprey Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon
(attached to lake trout) (Rock dove)
Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae
Figure 9-11 Threats to natural capital: some nonnative species that have been deliberately or accidentally
introduced into the United States.
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In 1950, an estimated 100,000 tigers existed in the bushmeat trade is also increasing in Southeast Asia,
world. Despite international protection, fewer than the Caribbean, and Central and South America.
7,500 tigers now remain in the wild, about 4,000 of So what is the big deal? After all, people have to
them in India. Bengal tigers are at risk because a tiger eat. For most of our existence, humans have survived
fur sells for $100,000 in Tokyo. With the body parts of by hunting and gathering wild species.
a single tiger worth $5,000–20,000, it is not surprising The problem is that bushmeat hunting has caused
that illegal hunting has skyrocketed, especially in the local extinction of many animals in parts of West
India. Without emergency action to curtail poaching Africa and has driven one species—Miss Waldron’s red
and preserve their habitat, few if any tigers may be left colobus monkey—to complete extinction. It is also a
in the wild within 20 years. factor in greatly reducing gorilla, orangutan (Figure 8-4,
As commercially valuable species become endan- p. 157), and chimpanzee populations.
gered, their black market demand soars. This increases This practice also threatens forest carnivores such
their chances of premature extinction from poaching. as crowned eagles and leopards by depleting their
For poachers, the money they can make far outweighs main prey species. The forest itself is changed because
the small risk of being caught, fined, and imprisoned. of the decrease in seed-dispersing animals—those con-
nections again.
Economics Case Study: The Rising Demand
for Bushmeat in Africa Economics and Ethics: Killing Predators
Rapid population growth in parts of Africa has and Pest Control
increased the number of people hunting wild Killing predators that bother us or cause economic
animals for food or for sale of their meat to losses threatens some species with premature
restaurants. extinction.
Indigenous people in much of West and Central Africa People often try to exterminate species that compete
have sustainably hunted wildlife for bushmeat, a source with them for food and game animals. For example,
of food, for centuries. But in the last two decades bush- African farmers kill large numbers of elephants to
meat hunting in some areas has skyrocketed as local keep them from trampling and eating food crops. Each
people try to provide food for a rapidly growing popu- year, U.S. government animal control agents shoot,
lation and to supply restaurants (Figure 9-15). The poison, or trap thousands of coyotes, prairie dogs,
wolves, bobcats, and other species that prey on live-
stock, on species prized by game hunters, on crops, or
on fish raised in aquaculture ponds.
Since 1929, U.S. ranchers and government agen-
cies have poisoned 99% of North America’s prairie
dogs (Figure 9-3) because horses and cattle sometimes
step into the burrows and break their legs. This prac-
tice has also nearly wiped out the endangered black-
footed ferret (Figure 9-3; about 600 left in the wild),
which preyed on the prairie dog.
acinth macaw smuggled out of Brazil. During its life- may bring about rapid climate change during this cen-
time, a single macaw left in the wild might yield as tury. This could change the habitats of many species
much as $165,000 in tourist income. A 1992 study sug- and accelerate the extinction of some species.
gested that keeping a pet bird indoors for more than Pollution threatens populations and species in a
10 years doubles a person’s chances of getting lung number of ways. Unintended effects of pesticides
cancer from inhaling tiny particles of bird dander. threatens some species with extinction. According to
Other wild species whose populations are de- the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, each year pesticides
pleted because of the pet trade include amphibians, kill about one-fifth of the United States’ beneficial hon-
reptiles, mammals, and tropical fish (taken mostly eybee colonies, more than 67 million birds, and 6–14
from the coral reefs of Indonesia and the Philippines). million fish. They also threaten one-fifth of the coun-
Divers catch tropical fish by using plastic squeeze bot- try’s endangered and threatened species.
tles of cyanide to stun them. For each fish caught alive, During the 1950s and 1960s, populations of fish-
many more die. In addition, the cyanide solution kills eating birds such as the osprey, cormorant, brown peli-
the coral animals that create the reef, which is a center can, and bald eagle plummeted. A chemical derived
for marine biodiversity. from the pesticide DDT, when biologically magnified
Things do not have to be this way. Pilai Poonswad in food webs (Figure 9-16), made the birds’ eggshells
decided to do something about poachers taking horn- so fragile they could not reproduce successfully. Also
bills—large, beautiful, and rare birds—from a rain for- hard hit were such predatory birds as the prairie fal-
est in Thailand. She visited the poachers in their vil- con, sparrow hawk, and peregrine falcon, which help
lages and showed them why the birds are worth more control rabbits, ground squirrels, and other crop
alive than dead. Today, some ex-poachers are earning eaters. Good news: Since the U.S. ban on DDT in 1972,
much more money by taking eco-tourists into the forest most of these species have made a comeback.
to see these magnificent birds. Because of
their vested financial interest in preserv-
ing the hornbills, they help protect them
from poachers.
Some exotic plants, especially or- DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
chids and cacti, are endangered because 25 ppm
they are gathered (often illegally) and
sold to collectors to decorate houses, of-
fices, and landscapes. A collector may DDT in large
fish (needle fish)
pay $5,000 for a single rare orchid. A ma- 2 ppm
ture crested saguaro cactus can earn cac-
tus rustlers as much as $15,000. DDT in small
Clearly, collecting exotic pets and fish (minnows)
plants kills large numbers of them and 0.5 ppm
endangers many of these species and oth-
ers that depend on them. Are such collec-
tors lovers or haters of the species they DDT in
collect? Should we leave most exotic zooplankton
0.04 ppm
species in the wild?
DDT in water
Science: Climate Change 0.000003 ppm,
or 3 ppt
and Pollution
Projected climate change and exposure
to pollutants such as pesticides can Figure 9-16 Natural capital degradation: bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
threaten some species with premature DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a
extinction. food chain or web, the accumulated DDT can be biologically magnified in the bodies
of animals at each higher trophic level. The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of
In the past, most natural climate changes organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary near
have taken place over long periods of Long Island Sound in New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up from the water
time—giving species more time to adapt and retains one unit of DDT, a small fish eating thousands of zooplankton (which feed
or evolve into new species to cope with on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large
fish that eats 10 of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and
the change. Considerable evidence indi- each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of
cates that human activities such as green- units. Dots represent DDT, and arrows show small losses of DDT through respiration
house gas emissions and deforestation and excretion.
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Figure 9-17 Threatened natural capital: biodiversity hot spots in the United States. The shaded areas con-
tain the largest concentrations of rare and potentially endangered species. (Data from State Natural Heritage
Programs, the Nature Conservancy, and Association for Biodiversity Information)
a plan to help the species recover. By 2004, only one- plans represent political compromises that do not pro-
fourth of the species on the endangered and threat- tect the species or make inadequate provisions for its
ened list had active plans. Most of the other plans recovery.
existed only on paper, mostly because of political op- The ESA also requires that all commercial ship-
position and limited funds. ments of wildlife and wildlife products enter or leave
In 1982, Congress amended the ESA to allow the the country through one of nine designated ports. Few
secretary of the interior to use habitat conservation plans illegal shipments are confiscated (Figure 9-18) because
(HCP). They are designed to strike a com-
promise between the interests of private
landowners and those of endangered and
threatened species, with the goal of not
reducing the recovery chances of a pro-
tected species.
With an HCP, landowners, develop-
ers, or loggers are allowed to destroy
some critical habitat in exchange for tak-
ing steps to protect members of the
species. Such measures might include
Steve Hillebrand/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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■ Allowing the secretary of the interior to permit a 200,000 projects evaluated by the USFWS have been
listed species to become extinct without trying to save blocked or canceled as a result of the ESA.
it and to determine whether a species should be A study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
listed. recommended three major changes to make the ESA
■ Allowing the secretary of the interior to give any more scientifically sound and effective:
state, county, or landowner permanent exemption ■ Greatly increase the meager funding for imple-
from the law, with no requirement for public notifica- menting the act.
tion or comment.
■ Develop recovery plans more quickly.
Other critics would go further and do away with ■ When a species is first listed, establish a core of its
this act. Because this step is politically unpopular with survival habitat as a temporary emergency measure
the American public, most efforts are designed to that could support the species for 25–50 years.
weaken the act and reduce its meager funding.
Most biologists and wildlife conservationists be-
lieve the ESA should be changed to emphasize protect-
Science: Should the Endangered Species Act
ing and sustaining biological diversity and ecological
Be Strengthened?
functioning rather than focusing mostly on saving indi-
According to most conservation biologists, the vidual species. This new ecosystems approach would
Endangered Species Act should be strengthened and follow three principles:
modified to develop a new system to protect and
sustain the country’s biodiversity.
■ Find out what species and ecosystems the country
has.
Most conservation biologists and wildlife scientists
agree that the ESA has some deficiencies and needs to
■ Locate and protect the most endangered ecosys-
be simplified and streamlined. But they contend that tems (Figure 9-17) and species.
the ESA has not been a failure (Case Study, below). ■ Provide private landowners who agree to help pro-
They also contest the charge that the ESA has tect specific endangered ecosystems with significant
caused severe economic losses. According to govern- financial incentives (tax breaks and write-offs) and
ment records, since 1979 only 0.05% of the almost technical help.
Critics of the ESA threatened. Not surprisingly, it also has managed to stabilize or im-
call it an expensive takes decades to bring a species in prove the conditions of almost 40%
failure because critical condition back to the point of the listed species on a shoestring
only 37 species where it can be removed from the budget.
CASE STUDY have been re- list. Expecting the ESA—which has Yes, the act can be improved and
moved from the been in existence only since 1973—to federal regulators have sometimes
endangered list. Most biologists quickly repair the biological deple- been too heavy handed in enforcing
agree that the act needs strengthen- tion of many decades is unrealistic. it. But instead of gutting or doing
ing and modification, but insist that Third, the conditions of almost away with the ESA, biologists call
it has not been a failure, for four 40% of the listed species are stable for it to be strengthened and modi-
reasons. or improving. A hospital emergency fied to help protect ecosystems and
First, species are listed only room taking only the most desper- the nation’s overall biodiversity.
when they face serious danger of ate cases and then stabilizing or im- Some critics say that only 20% of
extinction. This is like setting up a proving the condition of 40% of its the endangered species are stable or
poorly funded hospital emergency patients would be considered an as- improving. If correct, the ESA is still
room that takes only the most des- tounding success. an incredible bargain.
perate cases, often with little hope Fourth, the ESA budget was only
for recovery, and saying it should be $58 million in 2005—about what the
Critical Thinking
shut down because it has not saved Department of Defense spends in a
enough patients. little more than an hour or 20¢ per Should the budget for the Endan-
Second, it takes decades for most year per U.S. citizen. To its support- gered Species Act be drastically in-
species to become endangered or ers, it seems amazing that the ESA creased? Explain.
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aquariums have not served as effective gene banks for in places where people live, work, or play. In other
endangered marine species, especially marine mam- words, we need to learn how to share the spaces we
mals that need large volumes of water. dominate with other species.
Instead of seeing zoos and aquariums as sanctuar-
ies, some critics claim that most of them imprison
Science and Stewardshp: Implementing
once-wild animals. They also contend that zoos and
Reconciliation Ecology
aquariums can foster the notion that we do not need to
preserve large numbers of wild species in their natural Some people are finding creative ways to practice
habitats. reconciliation ecology in their neighborhoods and
Other people criticize zoos and aquariums for cities.
putting on shows in which animals wear clothes, ride Practicing reconciliation ecology begins by looking at
bicycles, or perform tricks. They see such exhibitions the habitats we prefer. Given a choice, most people
as fostering the idea that the animals exist primarily to prefer a grassy and fairly open habitat with a few scat-
entertain us and, in the process, raise money for their tered trees and many people prefer to live near a
keepers. stream, lake, river, or ocean. We also love flowers.
Regardless of their benefits and drawbacks, zoos, The problem is that most species do not like what
aquariums, and botanical gardens are not biologically we like or cannot survive in the habitats we prefer. No
or economically feasible solutions for most of the wonder so few of them live with us.
world’s current endangered species and the much So what do we do? Reconciliation ecology goes far
larger number of species expected to be threatened over beyond efforts to attract birds to backyards. For exam-
the next few decades. ple, providing a self-sustaining habitat for a butterfly
species may require 20 or so neighbors to band to-
gether. Maintaining a habitat for an insect-eating bat
species could help keep down mosquitoes and other
9-6 RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY
pesky insects in a neighborhood.
Some monoculture grass yards could be replaced
Science and Stewardshp:
with diverse yards using plant species adapted to local
Reconciliation Ecology
climates that are selected to attract certain species. This
Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways would make neighborhoods more interesting, keep
to share the places that we dominate with other down insect pests, and require less use of noisy and
species. polluting lawnmowers.
In 2003, ecologist Michael L. Rosenzweig wrote a book Communities could have contests and awards for
entitled Win-Win Ecology: How Earth’s Species Can Sur- people who design the most biodiverse and species-
vive in the Midst of Human Enterprise. Rosenzweig friendly yards and gardens. Signs could describe the
strongly supports the eight-point program of Edward type of ecosystem being mimicked and the species be-
O. Wilson to help save the earth’s natural habitats by ing protected as a way to educate and encourage exper-
establishing and protecting nature reserves (p. 181). iments by other people. Some creative person might be
He also supports the species protection strategies dis- able to design more biologically diverse golf courses
cussed in this chapter. But he contends that, in the long and cemeteries. People have already worked together
run, these approaches will fail for two reasons. to help preserve bluebirds within human-dominated
First, current reserves are devoted to saving only habitats (Science Spotlight, p. 204).
about 7% of the world’s terrestrial area. To Rosenzweig, San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park is a large oasis
the real challenge is to help sustain wild species in the of gardens and trees in the midst of a major city. It is a
human-dominated portion of nature that makes up good example of reconciliation ecology because it was
97% of the planet’s terrestrial ecological “cake,” exclud- designed and planted by humans who transformed it
ing polar and other uninhabitable areas. from a system of sand dunes.
Second, setting aside funds and refuges and pass- The Department of Defense controls about 10 mil-
ing laws to protect endangered and threatened species lion hectares (25 million acres) of land in the United
are essentially desperate attempts to save species that States. Perhaps some of this land could serve as labora-
are in deep trouble. They can help a few species, but tories for developing and testing reconciliation ecol-
the real challenge is learning how to keep more species ogy ideas. Some college campuses and schools might
away from the brink of extinction. also serve as reconciliation ecology laboratories. How
Rosenzweig suggests that we develop a new form about yours?
of conservation biology, called reconciliation ecology. Clearly, protecting the species that make up part of
This science focuses on inventing, establishing, and the earth’s biodiversity from premature extinction is a
maintaining new habitats to conserve species diversity difficult, controversial, and challenging responsibility.
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Here is some bad starlings and house sparrows—like In 1979, the North American
news: Populations to nest in tree holes and take them Bluebird Society was founded to
of bluebirds in away from bluebirds. To make mat- spread the word and encourage
much of the east- ters worse, starlings eat blueberries people to use the bluebird boxes on
SCIENCE ern United States that bluebirds need to survive dur- their properties and to keep house
SPOTLIGHT are declining, for ing the winter. cats away from nesting bluebirds.
two reasons. Good news: People have come Now bluebird numbers are building
First, these birds nest in tree up with a creative way to help back up.
holes of a certain size. In the past, save the bluebird. They have de- Restoration ecology works! Per-
dead and dying trees provided signed nest boxes with holes large haps you might want to consider a
plenty of these holes. Today, timber enough to accommodate bluebirds career in this exciting new field.
companies often cut down all of the but too small for starlings. Because
Critical Thinking
trees, and many homeowners mani- house sparrows like shallow boxes,
cure their property by removing they made the bluebird boxes Can you come up with a reconcilia-
dead and dying trees. deep enough to make them un- tion project to help protect a threat-
Second, two aggressive, abun- attractive nesting sites for the ened bird or other species in your
dant, and nonnative bird species— sparrows. neighborhood or school?
• Do not but furs, ivory products, and other 3. Make a log of your own consumption of all products
materials made from endangered or threatened for a single day. Relate your level and types of consump-
animal species.
tion to the decline of wildlife species and the increased
• Do not buy wood and paper products destruction and degradation of wildlife habitats in the
produced by cutting remaining old-growth United States (or the country where you live), in tropical
forests in the tropics. forests, and in aquatic ecosystems.
• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, 4. Do you accept the ethical position that each species has
and other animals that are taken from the wild.
the inherent right to survive without human interference,
• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants regardless of whether it serves any useful purpose for
that are taken from the wild. humans? Explain. Would you extend this right to the
Anopheles mosquito, which transmits malaria, and to in-
fectious bacteria? Explain.
Figure 9-21 Individuals matter: ways to help prevent the pre- 5. Your lawn and house are invaded by fire ants, which
mature extinction of species. Critical thinking: which two of can cause painful bites. What would you do?
these actions do you believe are the most important? Which of
the actions do you plan to do? 6. Which of the following statements best describes your
feelings toward wildlife:
(a) As long as it stays in its space, wildlife is okay.
Figure 9-21 lists some things you can do to help pre-
(b) As long as I do not need its space, wildlife is
vent the premature extinction of species. okay.
(c) I have the right to use wildlife habitat to meet my
We know what to do. Perhaps we will act in time. own needs.
EDWARD O. WILSON (d) When you have seen one redwood tree, fox, ele-
phant, or some other form of wildlife, you have
seen them all, so lock up a few of each species in a
CRITICAL THINKING zoo or wildlife park and do not worry about pro-
1. How can (a) population growth, (b) poverty, and tecting the rest.
(c) affluence increase the premature extinction of wild (e) Wildlife should be protected.
species?
7. List your three favorite species. Why are they your fa-
2. Discuss your gut-level reaction to the following state- vorites? Are they cute and cuddly looking, like the giant
ment: “Eventually, all species become extinct. Thus, it panda and the koala? Do they have humanlike qualities,
like apes or penguins that walk upright? Are they large, LEARNING ONLINE
like elephants or blue whales? Are they beautiful, like
tigers and monarch butterflies? Are any of them plants? The website for this book includes review questions for
Are any of them species such as bats, sharks, snakes, or the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
spiders that many people fear? Are any of them microor- a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
ganisms that help keep you alive? Reflect on what your references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
choice of favorite species tells you about your attitudes InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
toward most wildlife. Visit
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
8. Environmental groups in a heavily forested state want
to restrict logging in some areas to save the habitat of an Then choose Chapter 9, and select a learning resource. For
endangered squirrel. Timber company officials argue that access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter outlines
the well-being of one type of squirrel is not as important and summaries, register and log in to
as the well-being of the many families who would be af-
fected if the restriction causes the company to lay off
hundreds of workers. If you had the power to decide this at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
issue, what would you do and why? Can you come up card in the front of your book.
with a compromise?
9. Congratulations! You are in charge of preventing Active Graphing
the premature extinction of the world’s existing spe-
cies from human activities. What would be the three Visit http://esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 to
major components of your program to accomplish this explore the graphing exercise for this chapter.
goal?
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Food
Production
Pest
Control
Soil
Renewal
Anthony Bannister/CORBIS
these grains with various types of beans and meat
such as beef, chicken, pork, and fish. are crushed and used in veg-
The conventional approach to food production etable dip in Thailand, lightly
presents two problems. First, most of the poor cannot toasted butterflies are a fa-
afford to eat meat. Second, modern agriculture has a vorite food in Bali, black ant
greater harmful environmental impact than any other larvae are served in tacos in
human activity. Mexico, and French-fried
Some analysts recommend greatly increased culti- ants are sold and eaten like peanuts on the streets of
vation of less widely known plants to partially over- Bogota, Colombia. Other examples are fried scorpions
come these problems. One possibility is the winged in peanut sauce, giant waterbugs tucked inside corn
bean (Figure 10-1), a fast-growing, protein-rich plant tamales, and a powder made from crickets and worms
found in New Guinea and Southeast Asia. Its edible that is used to flavor foods.
winged pods, spinach-like leaves, tendrils, and seeds A few cooks and chefs are having “critter tasting”
contain as much protein as soybeans. The seeds can be parties. Numerous websites provide bug menus, bug
ground into flour or used to make a caffeine-free bev- nutritional information, and phone numbers for dis-
erage that tastes like coffee. tributors of edible bugs.
This plant has so many different edible parts that Most of these insects are low-carbohydrate, low-
it has been called a supermarket on a stalk. It also needs fat sources of food and are 58–78% protein by weight—
little fertilizer because of nitrogen-fixing nodules in its three to four times the level found in protein-rich foods
roots—a trait that reduces the harmful environmental such as beef, fish, chicken, or eggs. Consuming more of
effects of cultivating it as a source of food. these plentiful insects would help reduce malnutrition
Some edible insects—called microlivestock—are and lessen the large environmental impact of produc-
also important potential sources of protein, vitamins, ing conventional forms of meat.
and minerals in many parts of the world. There are Rapidly growing and reproducing edible bugs
about 1,500 edible insect species. could be produced in small “bug farms” with little or
One example is Mopani no need for water, fertilizers, and pesticides. Indeed,
(Figure 10-2)—emperor people could have a small container for producing
moth caterpillars—one of their favorite bugs in a garage, basement, or back yard.
several insects eaten in Why don’t we depend more on animals such as
South Africa. This food is so protein-rich insects and plants such as the winged
popular that the caterpillars bean? One problem is persuading farmers to assume
the financial risk of cultivating new types of food
Sir Ghillean Prance/Visuals Unlimited
There are two spiritual dangers in not owning a farm. One is We depend on three systems for our food supply. Crop-
the danger of supposing that breakfast comes from the grocery, lands mostly produce grains and provide about 77% of
and the other that heat comes from the furnace. the world’s food. Rangelands produce meat, mostly
ALDO LEOPOLD from grazing livestock, and supply about 16% of the
world’s food. Oceanic fisheries supply about 7% of the
This chapter examines how food is produced and the world’s food.
resulting environmental effects, ways to control soil Since 1950, there has been a staggering increase in
erosion, and methods for controlling populations of global food production from all three systems. The
pests. It addresses the following questions: growth occurred because of technological advances
■ How is the world’s food produced? such as increased use of tractors and farm machinery
and high-tech fishing boats and gear; inorganic chemi-
■ How are green revolution and traditional methods cal fertilizers; irrigation; pesticides; high-yield vari-
used to raise crops? eties of wheat, rice, and corn; densely populated feed-
■ How are soils being degraded and eroded, and lots and enclosed pens for raising cattle, pigs, and
what can be done to reduce these losses? chickens; and aquaculture ponds and ocean cages for
■ How much has food production increased, how raising some types of fish and shellfish.
serious is malnutrition, and what are the environ- We face important challenges in increasing food
mental effects of producing food? production without causing serious environmental
harm. To feed the 8.9 billion people projected to exist
■ How can we increase production of crops, meat, in 2050, we must produce and equitably distribute
and fish and shellfish? more food than has been produced since agriculture
■ How do government policies affect food began about 10,000 years ago, and do so in an environ-
production? mentally sustainable manner.
■ How can we design and shift to more sustainable Can we achieve this goal? Some analysts say we
or organic agricultural systems? can, mostly by using genetic engineering (Figure 4-11,
p. 75). Others have doubts. They are concerned that
environmental degradation, pollution, lack of water
for irrigation, overgrazing by livestock, overfishing,
KEY IDEAS and loss of vital ecological services may limit future
■ Food production from croplands, rangelands, and food production.
ocean fisheries has increased dramatically since 1950. We also face the challenge of sharply reducing
■ Soil is eroding faster than it is forming on more than poverty. One out of every five people does not have
one-third of the world’s cropland, and much of this enough land to grow food or enough money to buy
land also suffers from salt buildup and waterlogging. enough food—regardless of how much is available.
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the world’s food and about 6% of the protein in the hu- tries. It involves growing cash crops (such as bananas,
man diet. coffee, soybeans, sugarcane, cocoa, and vegetables) on
large monoculture plantations, mostly for sale in devel-
oped countries.
Science: Industrial and Traditional
An increasing amount of livestock production in
Food Production
developed countries is industrialized. Large numbers
About 80% of the world’s food supply is produced by of cattle are brought to densely populated feedlots,
industrialized agriculture and 20% by subsistence where they are fattened up for about 4 months before
agriculture. slaughter. Most pigs and chickens in developed coun-
There are two major types of agricultural systems: in- tries spend their lives in densely populated pens and
dustrialized and traditional. Industrialized agriculture, cages and eat mostly grain grown on cropland.
or high-input agriculture, uses large amounts of fossil Traditional agriculture consists of two main types,
fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesti- which together are practiced by 2.7 billion people (42%
cides to produce single crops (monocultures) or live- of the world’s people) in developing countries, and
stock animals for sale. Practiced on one-fourth of all provide about one-fifth of the world’s food supply.
cropland, mostly in developed countries (Figure 10-3), Traditional subsistence agriculture uses mostly hu-
this form of agriculture has spread since the mid-1960s man labor and draft animals to produce only enough
to some developing countries. crops or livestock for a farm family’s survival. In tradi-
Plantation agriculture is a form of industrialized tional intensive agriculture, farmers increase their in-
agriculture used primarily in tropical developing coun- puts of human and draft-animal labor, fertilizer, and
Figure 10-3 Global outlook: locations of the world’s principal types of food production. Excluding
Antarctica and Greenland, agricultural systems cover almost one-third of the earth’s land surface.
Figure 10-4 Natural capital: ecological and economic ser- Science and Economics Case Study: Industrial
vices provided by croplands. Food Production in the United States
The United States uses industrialized agriculture to
produce about 17% of the world’s grain in a very
water to obtain a higher yield per area of cultivated efficient manner.
land. They produce enough food to feed their families In the United States, industrialized farming has
and to sell for income. evolved into agribusiness, as big companies and larger
Croplands, like natural ecosystems, provide eco- family-owned farms have taken control of almost
logical and economic services (Figure 10-4). Indeed, three-fourths of U.S. food production.
agriculture is the world’s largest industry, providing a In total annual sales, agriculture is bigger than the
living for one of every five people. country’s automotive, steel, and housing industries
combined. It generates about 18% of the nation’s gross
domestic product and almost one-fifth of all jobs in the
Science: Using Green Revolutions to Increase
private sector, employing more people than any other
Food Production
industry. With only 0.3% of the world’s farm labor
Since 1950, most of the increase in global food force, U.S. farms produce about 17% of the world’s
production has come from using high-input grain and nearly half of its grain exports.
agriculture to produce more crops on each unit Since 1950, U.S. farmers have used green revolu-
of land. tion techniques to more than double the yield of key
Farmers can produce more food by farming more land crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans without culti-
or getting higher yields per unit of area from existing vating more land. Such increases in the yield per
cropland. Since 1950, most of the increase in global hectare of key crops have kept large areas of forests,
food production has come from increased yields per grasslands, wetlands, and easily erodible land from
unit of area of cropland in a process called the green being converted to farmland.
revolution. In addition, the country’s agricultural system has
The green revolution involves three steps. First, de- become increasingly efficient. While the U.S. output
velop and plant monocultures of selectively bred or ge- of crops, meat, and dairy products has been increas-
netically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops ing steadily since 1975, the major inputs of labor and
such as rice, wheat, and corn. Second, produce high resources—with the exception of pesticides—to pro-
yields by using large inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and duce each unit of that output have fallen steadily
water. Third, increase the number of crops grown per since 1950.
year on a plot of land through multiple cropping. This industrialization of agriculture has been
This high-input approach dramatically increased made possible by the availability of cheap energy, most
crop yields in most developed countries between 1950 of it from oil. Putting food on the table consumes about
and 1970 in what is called the first green revolution (Fig- 17% of all commercial energy used in the United States
ure 10-5, blue shading, p. 210). each year (Figure 10-7, p. 211). The input of energy
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Figure 10-5 Global outlook: countries whose crop yields per unit of land area increased during the two green
revolutions. The first (blue) took place in developed countries between 1950 and 1970; the second (green) has
occurred since 1967 in developing countries with enough rainfall or irrigation capacity. Several agricultural re-
search centers and gene or seed banks (red dots) play a key role in developing high-yield crop varieties.
Figure 10-7 In the United States, industrialized agriculture uses about 17% of all commercial energy.
Food travels an average 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) from farm to table. (Data from David Pimentel
and Worldwatch Institute)
needed to produce a unit of food has fallen consider- are planted together. Low-input polyculture offers a
ably, so that today most plant crops in the United States number of advantages. There is less need for fertilizer
provide more food energy than the energy used to and water because root systems at different depths in
grow them. the soil capture nutrients and moisture efficiently. This
Energy efficiency is much lower if we look at the practice provides more protection from wind and wa-
whole U.S. food system. Considering the energy used ter erosion because the soil is covered with crops year-
to grow, store, process, package, transport, refrigerate, round. Insecticides are rarely needed because multiple
and cook all plant and animal food, about 10 units of habitats are created for natural predators of crop-
nonrenewable fossil fuel energy are needed to put 1 unit of eating insects. Also, there is little or no need for herbi-
food energy on the table. By comparison, every unit of cides because weeds have trouble competing with the
energy from human labor in traditional subsistence multitude of crop plants. The diversity of crops raised
farming provides at least 1 unit of food energy and as provides insurance against bad weather. Polyculture is
many as 10 units of food energy using traditional in- a way of growing food by copying nature.
tensive farming. Recent ecological research has shown that, on av-
erage, low-input polyculture produces higher yields
per hectare of land than high-input monoculture. For
Global Outlook: Traditional Agriculture
example, a 2001 study by ecologists Peter Reich and
Many traditional farmers in developing countries use David Tilman found that carefully controlled polycul-
low-input agriculture to produce a variety of crops on ture plots with 16 different species of plants consis-
each plot of land. tently outproduced plots with 9, 4, or only 1 type of
Traditional farmers in developing countries today plant species.
grow about one-fifth of the world’s food on about
three-fourths of its cultivated land. Many traditional
farmers grow several crops on the same plot simulta-
10-2 SOIL EROSION
neously, a practice known as interplanting. Such crop
AND DEGRADATION
diversity reduces the chance of losing most or all of the
year’s food supply to pests, bad weather, and other
Science: Causes of Soil Erosion
misfortunes.
Interplanting strategies vary. Polyvarietal cultiva- Water, wind, and people cause soil erosion.
tion involves planting a plot with several genetic vari- Most people in developed countries get their food
eties of the same crop. In intercropping, two or more from grocery stores, fast-food chains, and restaurants.
different crops are grown at the same time on a plot— But ultimately all food comes from the earth or soil—the
for example, a carbohydrate-rich grain that uses soil base of life. This explains why preserving the world’s
nitrogen and a nitrogen-fixing plant (legume) that puts topsoil (Figure 3-21, p. 51) is the key to producing
it back. In agroforestry, or alley cropping, crops and enough food to feed the world’s growing population.
trees are grown together. Land degradation occurs when natural or human-
A fourth type of interplanting is polyculture, in induced processes decrease the ability of land to sup-
which many different plants maturing at various times port crops, livestock, or wild species in the future. One
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Figure 10-8 Natural capital degradation: erosion of vital top- Science: Global Soil Erosion
soil from irrigated cropland in Arizona. Soil is eroding faster than it is forming on more than
one-third of the world’s cropland.
type of land degradation is soil erosion: the movement A 1992 joint survey by the United Nations (UN)
of soil components, especially surface litter and top- Environment Programme and the World Resources
soil, from one place to another. The two main agents of Institute estimated that topsoil is eroding faster than it
erosion are flowing water and wind, with water causing forms on about 38% of the world’s cropland (Fig-
most soil erosion (Figure 10-8). ure 10-10). According to a 2000 study by the Consulta-
Some soil erosion is natural; some is caused by hu- tive Group on International Agricultural Research, soil
man activities. In undisturbed vegetated ecosystems, erosion and degradation have reduced food produc-
the roots of plants help anchor the soil, and usually tion on 16% of the world’s cropland. See the Guest
soil is not lost faster than it forms. Soil becomes more Essay on soil erosion by David Pimentel on the web-
vulnerable to erosion through human activities that site for this chapter.
destroy plant cover, including farming, logging, con- Some analysts contend that erosion estimates are
struction, overgrazing by livestock, off-road vehicle overstated because they underestimate the abilities of
use, and deliberate burning of vegetation. some local farmers to restore degraded land. The UN
More severe gully erosion (Figure 10-9) occurs Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) also points
when rivulets of fast-flowing water join together and out that much of the eroded topsoil does not go far and
Ron Giling/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Figure 10-10 Natural capital degradation: global soil erosion. (Data from UN Environment Programme and
the World Resources Institute)
is deposited farther down a slope, valley, or plain. In These efforts to slow soil erosion are an important
some places, the loss in crop yields in one area could step and, since 1985, have cut soil losses on U.S. crop-
be offset by increased yields elsewhere. land by about two-thirds. However, effective soil con-
servation is practiced today on only half of all U.S.
agricultural land and on half of the country’s most
Science Case Study: Soil Erosion
erodible cropland.
in the United States
Soil in the United States is eroding faster than it forms
on most cropland, but since 1987, erosion has been cut Science: Desertification
by about two-thirds. About one-third of the world’s land has lost some
Bad news. According to the Natural Resources Conser- of its productivity from a combination of drought
vation Service, soil on cultivated land in the United and human activities that reduce or degrade
States is eroding about 16 times faster than it can form. topsoil.
Erosion rates are even higher in heavily farmed re- In desertification, the productive potential of drylands
gions. The Great Plains, for example, has lost one-third (arid or semiarid land) falls by 10% or more because of
or more of its topsoil in the 150 years since it was first a combination of natural climate change that causes
plowed. prolonged drought and human activities that reduce
Good news. Of the world’s major food-producing or degrade topsoil. The process can be moderate (a
nations, only the United States is sharply reducing 10–25% drop in productivity), severe (a 25–50% drop),
some of its soil losses through a combination of plant- or very severe (a drop of 50% or more, usually creating
ing crops without disturbing the soil and government- huge gullies and sand dunes). Only in extreme cases
sponsored soil conservation programs. does desertification lead to what we call desert.
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Figure 10-11 Natural capital degradation: desertification of arid and semiarid lands. It is caused by a
combination of prolonged drought and human activities that expose soil to erosion. (Data from UN Environment
Programme and Harold E. Drengue)
Over thousands of years the earth’s deserts have forms of planting, irrigation, and mining that leave be-
expanded and contracted, mostly because of natural hind barren soil. We can also restore land suffering
climate changes. However, human activities can accel- from desertification by planting trees and grasses that
erate desertification in some parts of the world (Fig- anchor soil and hold water, establishing windbreaks,
ure 10-11). and growing trees and crops together (agroforestry).
According to a 2004 report by the United Nations,
an area the size of Brazil and 12 times the size of
Science: Salinization and Waterlogging
Texas has become desertified in the past 50 years.
of Soils
Each year since 1990 about 6 million hectares (15 mil-
lion acres) of land has become degraded and less Repeated irrigation can reduce crop productivity by
fertile from desertification. According to a 2003 UN salt buildup in the soil and waterlogging of crop plants.
conference on desertification, one-third of the world’s The one-fifth of the world’s cropland that is irrigated
land and 70% of all drylands are suffering from the ef- produces almost 40% of the world’s food. But irrigation
fects of desertification. UN officials estimate that this has a downside. Most irrigation water is a dilute solu-
loss of soil productivity threatens the livelihoods of at tion of various salts, picked up as the water flows over
least 250 million people in 110 countries (70 in Africa). or through soil and rocks. Irrigation water not absorbed
China is facing serious desertification, as its portion of into the soil evaporates, leaving behind a thin crust of
the Gobi Desert expanded by an area half the size dissolved salts (such as sodium chloride) in the topsoil.
of Pennsylvania between 1994 and 1999. Repeated annual applications of irrigation water
Figure 10-12 summarizes the major causes and lead to the gradual accumulation of salts in the upper
consequences of desertification. We cannot control soil layers, a process called salinization (Figure 10-13).
when or where prolonged droughts may occur, but we It stunts crop growth, lowers crop yields, and eventu-
can reduce overgrazing, deforestation, and destructive ally kills plants and ruins the land.
Causes Consequences
Overgrazing Worsening drought
Deforestation Famine
Transpiration
Evaporation
Evaporation Figure 10-14 Natural capital degradation: Because of high
Evaporation evaporation, poor drainage, and severe salinization, white alka-
line salts have displaced crops that once grew on this heavily
irrigated land in Colorado.
Solutions
Soil Salinization
Prevention Cleanup
Waterlogging
Reduce irrigation Flushing soil
(expensive and
wastes water)
Less permeable
clay layer
Figure 10-13 Natural capital degradation: Salinization and Figure 10-15 Solutions: methods for preventing and cleaning
waterlogging of soil on irrigated land without adequate up soil salinization. Critical thinking: which two of these solu-
drainage can decrease crop yields. tions do you believe are the most important?
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Another problem with irrigation is waterlogging up and down (Figure 10-16b). Each row acts as a small
(Figure 10-13). Farmers often apply large amounts dam to help hold soil and to slow water runoff.
of irrigation water to leach salts deeper into the soil. Strip cropping (Figure 10-16b) involves planting
Without adequate drainage, water may accumulate alternating strips of a row crop (such as corn or cotton)
underground and gradually raise the water table. and another crop that completely covers the soil (such
Saline water then envelops the deep roots of plants, as a grass or a grass–legume mixture). The cover crop
lowering their productivity and killing them after pro- traps soil that erodes from the row crop, catches and
longed exposure. At least one-tenth of the world’s irri- reduces water runoff, and helps prevent the spread of
gated land suffers from waterlogging, and the problem pests and plant diseases.
is getting worse. Another way to reduce erosion is to leave crop
residues on the land after the crops are harvested.
Farmers can also plant cover crops such as alfalfa,
clover, or rye immediately after harvest to help protect
10-3 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
and hold the soil.
THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION
Another method for slowing erosion is alley crop-
ping or agroforestry, in which one or more crops are
Science: Conservation Tillage
planted together in strips or alleys between trees
Modern farm machinery can plant crops without and shrubs that can provide fruit or fuelwood (Fig-
disturbing the soil. ure 10-16c). The trees or shrubs provide shade (which
Soil conservation involves using a variety of ways to reduces water loss by evaporation) and help retain
reduce soil erosion and restore soil fertility, mostly by and slowly release soil moisture. They also can pro-
keeping the soil covered with vegetation. vide fruit, fuelwood, and trimmings that can be used
Eliminating plowing and tilling is the key to re- as mulch (green manure) for the crops and as fodder
ducing erosion and restoring healthy soil. Many U.S. for livestock.
farmers use conservation-tillage farming, which dis- Some farmers establish windbreaks, or shelter-
turbs the soil as little as possible while planting crops. belts, of trees (Figure 10-16d) to reduce wind erosion,
With minimum-tillage farming, the soil is not dis- help retain soil moisture, supply wood for fuel, and
turbed over the winter. At planting time, special tillers provide habitats for birds, pest-eating and pollinating
break up and loosen the subsurface soil without turn- insects, and other animals.
ing over the topsoil, previous crop residues, or any
cover vegetation. In no-till farming, special planting
Science: Organic Fertilizers
machines inject seeds, fertilizers, and weed killers (her-
bicides) into thin slits made in the unplowed soil and Soil conservation can reduce the loss of soil nutrients,
then smooth over the cut. and applying inorganic and organic fertilizers can
In 2004, farmers used conservation tillage on help restore lost nutrients.
about 45% of U.S. cropland. The U.S. Department of The best way to maintain soil fertility is through soil
Agriculture (USDA) estimates that using conservation conservation. The next best option is to restore some of
tillage on 80% of U.S. cropland would reduce soil ero- the plant nutrients that have been washed, blown, or
sion by at least half. Conservation tillage also has great leached out of soil or removed by repeated crop har-
potential to reduce soil erosion and raise crop yields in vesting.
the Middle East and in Africa. Fertilizers are used to partially restore lost plant
nutrients. Farmers can use organic fertilizer from
plant and animal materials or commercial inorganic
Science: Other Methods for Reducing
fertilizer produced from various minerals.
Soil Erosion
Several types of organic fertilizers are available.
Farmers have developed a number of ways to grow One is animal manure: the dung and urine of cattle,
crops that reduce soil erosion. horses, poultry, and other farm animals. It improves
Figure 10-16 shows some of the methods farmers have soil structure, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates
used to reduce soil erosion. Terracing can reduce soil beneficial soil bacteria and fungi.
erosion on steep slopes by converting the land into a A second type of organic fertilizer called green
series of broad, nearly level terraces that run across the manure consists of freshly cut or growing green vege-
land’s contours (Figure 10-16a). This practice retains tation that is plowed into the soil to increase the or-
water for crops at each level and reduces soil erosion ganic matter and humus available to the next crop. A
by controlling runoff. third type is compost, produced when microorganisms
Contour farming involves plowing and planting in soil break down organic matter such as leaves, food
crops in rows across the slope of the land rather than wastes, paper, and wood in the presence of oxygen.
Figure 10-16 Solutions: In addition to conservation tillage, soil conservation methods include (a) terracing,
(b) contour planting and strip cropping, (c) alley cropping or agroforestry, and (d) windbreaks.
Crops such as corn, tobacco, and cotton can de- tilizers can run off the land and pollute nearby bodies
plete nutrients (especially nitrogen) in the topsoil if of water.
they are planted on the same land several years in a These fertilizers can replace depleted inorganic
row. Crop rotation provides one way to reduce these nutrients, but they do not replace organic matter.
losses. Farmers plant areas or strips with nutrient- Thus, for healthy soil, both inorganic and organic fer-
depleting crops one year. The next year, they plant the tilizers should be used.
same areas with legumes whose root nodules add ni-
trogen to the soil. In addition to helping restore soil
nutrients, this method reduces erosion by keeping the 10-4 FOOD PRODUCTION, NUTRITION,
soil covered with vegetation. AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
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400
2,000
1,500
300
1,000
250
500
200
0 150
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year Year
Total World Grain Production World Grain Production per Capita ™
Figure 10-17 Global outlook: total worldwide grain production of wheat, corn, and rice (left), and per capita
grain production (right), 1950–2004. In order, the world’s three largest grain-producing countries are China,
the United States, and India. (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Worldwatch Institute, UN Food and
Agriculture Organization, and Earth Policy Institute)
Good news. We produce more than enough food to trition resulting from deficiencies of protein, calories,
meet the basic nutritional needs of every person on the and other key nutrients (Figure 1-12, p. 15).
earth. Bad news. One of every six people in developing Good news. According to the FAO, the average
countries is not getting enough to eat because food is daily food intake in calories per person in the world
not distributed equally among the world’s people. and in developing countries rose sharply between 1961
Such unequal distribution occurs because of differ- and 2004, and it is projected to continue increasing
ences in soil, climate, political and economic power, through 2030. Also, the estimated number of chroni-
and average income per person. cally undernourished or malnourished people fell
Most agricultural experts agree that the root cause from 918 million in 1970 to 825 million in 2001—about
of hunger and malnutrition is and will continue to be 95% of them in developing countries.
poverty, which prevent poor people from growing or Bad news. One of every six people in developing
buying enough food regardless of how much is avail- countries (including about one of every three children
able. Other factors are war and corruption, which younger than age 5) is chronically undernourished or
make it hard for poor people to have access to food malnourished. The FAO estimates that each year at
that they or others produce. least 5.5 million people die prematurely from undernu-
trition, malnutrition, and increased susceptibility to
normally nonfatal infectious diseases (such as measles
Science: Chronic Hunger
and diarrhea) because of their weakened condition.
and Malnutrition
Each day at least 15,100 people—80% of them children
Some people cannot grow or buy enough food younger than age 5—die prematurely from these causes
to meet their basic energy needs. Others do not get related to poverty.
enough protein and other key nutrients.
To maintain good health and resist disease, we need
Science: Not Getting Enough Vitamins
fairly large amounts of macronutrients (such as protein,
and Minerals
carbohydrates, and fats), as well as smaller amounts of
micronutrients consisting of various vitamins (such as One of every three persons has a deficiency of one or
A, C, and E) and minerals (such as iron, iodine, and more vitamins and minerals, especially vitamin A,
calcium). iron, and iodine.
People who cannot grow or buy enough food to According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
meet their basic energy needs suffer from chronic un- one out of every three people suffers from a deficiency
dernutrition. Chronically undernourished children of one or more vitamins and minerals. The most wide-
are likely to suffer from mental retardation and spread micronutrient deficiencies in developing coun-
stunted growth. They also are susceptible to infectious tries involve vitamin A, iron, and iodine.
diseases such as measles and diarrhea, which rarely According to the WHO, 120–140 million children
kill children in developed countries. in developing countries are deficient in vitamin A.
Many of the world’s poor can afford only a low- Globally, 250,000 children younger than age 6 go blind
protein, high-carbohydrate diet consisting of grains each year from a lack of vitamin A and as many as 80%
such as wheat, rice, or corn. Many suffer from malnu- of them die within a year.
Other nutritional deficiency diseases are caused by Overnutrition occurs when food energy intake exceeds
a lack of minerals. Too little iron—a component of the energy use and causes excess body fat. Too many calo-
hemoglobin that transports oxygen in the blood— ries, too little exercise, or both can cause overnutrition.
causes anemia. According to a 1999 survey by the WHO, People who are underfed and underweight and
one of every three people in the world—mostly women those who are overfed and overweight face similar
and children in tropical developing countries—suffers health problems: lower life expectancy, greater susceptibil-
from iron deficiency. This condition causes fatigue, ity to disease and illness, and lower productivity and life
makes infection more likely, and increases a woman’s quality. We live in a world where 1 billion people have
chances of dying in childbirth and an infant’s chances health problems because they do not get enough to eat
of dying of infection in its first year of life. and another 1.2 billion worry about health problems
Elemental iodine is essential for proper functioning from eating too much. According to 2004 study by the
of the thyroid gland, which produces a hormone that International Obesity Task Force, one of every four
controls the body’s rate of metabolism. Iodine is found people in the world is overweight and 5% are obese.
in seafood and crops grown in iodine-rich soils. In developed countries, overnutrition causes pre-
Chronic lack of iodine can cause stunted growth, men- ventable deaths, mostly from heart disease, cancer,
tal retardation, and goiter—an abnormal enlargement stroke, and diabetes. According to the U.S. Centers for
of the thyroid gland that can lead to deafness. Accord- Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), almost two-
ing to the United Nations, 26 million children suffer thirds of Americans adults are overweight or obese—
brain damage each year from lack of iodine. Approxi- the highest overnutrition rate in any developed coun-
mately 600 million people—mostly in South and try. The $40 billion that Americans spend each year
Southeast Asia—suffer from goiter. trying to lose weight is 1.7 times more than the $24 bil-
lion per year needed to eliminate undernutrition and
malnutrition in the world.
Solutions: Reducing Hunger
A study of thousands of Chinese villagers indi-
and Malnutrition
cates that the healthiest diet for humans is largely veg-
There are several ways to reduce childhood deaths etarian, with only 10–15% of calories coming from fat.
from nutrition-related causes. This stands in contrast to the typical meat-based diet,
Studies by the United Nations Children’s Fund in which 30–40% of calories come from fat.
(UNICEF) indicate that one-half to two-thirds of child- In 2004, the WHO urged governments to discour-
hood deaths from nutrition-related causes could be age food and beverage ads that exploit children; tax
prevented at an average annual cost of $5–10 per child less-healthy foods; and limit the availability of high-fat
by the following measures: and high-sugar foods in schools.
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Figure 10-18 Natural capital degradation: major environmental effects of food production. According to UN
studies, land degradation reduced cumulative food production worldwide by 13% on cropland and 4% on
pastureland between 1950 and 2000.
by soil erosion, salt buildup, and chemical pollution, Traditional crossbreeding is a slow process, typi-
and 17% has been seriously degraded. Such environ- cally taking 15 years or more to produce a commer-
mental factors may limit food production in India and cially valuable new variety, and it can combine traits
China, the world’s two most populous countries. only from species that are close to one another geneti-
cally. It also provides varieties that remain useful for
only 5–10 years before pests and diseases reduce their
effectiveness.
10-5 INCREASING FOOD
Today, scientists are creating a third green revolu-
PRODUCTION
tion—actually a gene revolution—by using genetic engi-
neering to develop genetically improved strains of
Science: Traditional Crossbreeding
crops and livestock animals. This technology involves
and Genetic Engineering
splicing a gene from one species and transplanting it
We can increase crop yields by using crossbreeding to into the DNA of another species (Figure 4-11, p. 75).
mix the genes of similar types of organism and by Compared to traditional crossbreeding, gene splicing
using genetic engineering to mix the genes of different takes about half as long to develop a new crop, cuts
organisms. costs, and allows the insertion of genes from almost
For centuries, farmers and scientists have used cross- any other organism into crop cells.
breeding to develop genetically improved varieties of Ready or not, the world is entering the age of ge-
crop strains. Such selective breeding has yielded netic engineering. More than two-thirds of the food
amazing results. Ancient ears of corn were about the products on U.S. supermarket shelves now contain
size of your little finger and wild tomatoes were once some form of genetically engineered crops, and the
the size of a grape. proportion is increasing rapidly.
Despite its promise, considerable controversy has the Ecological Society of America recommended more
arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF) and caution in releasing genetically engineered organisms
other forms of genetic engineering. Its producers and into the environment. Although a 2004 National Acad-
investors see this kind of food as a potentially sustain- emy of Sciences study found no evidence that geneti-
able way to solve world hunger problems. Some critics cally engineered crops have harmed human health
consider it potentially dangerous “Frankenfood.” Fig- more than crops created by conventional crossbreed-
ure 10-19 summarizes the projected advantages and ing, it called for federal regulators to look more closely
disadvantages of this new technology. at the potential health effects of genetically modified
Critics recognize the potential benefits of geneti- plants before approving them for use as commercial
cally modified crops. At the same time, they warn that crops.
we know too little about the potential harm to human
health and ecosystems from the widespread use of such x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do the advantages of genetically
engineered foods outweigh their disadvantages? Cast your
crops. Also, genetically modified organisms cannot be
vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
recalled if they cause some unintended harmful genetic
and ecological effects—as some scientists expect.
Most scientists and economists who have evalu- Many analysts and consumer advocates believe
ated the genetic engineering of crops believe that its governments should require mandatory labeling of
enormous potential benefits outweigh the much GMFs. Consumers would then have more information
smaller risks. Critics call for more controlled field ex- to help them make informed choices about the foods
periments, more research and long-term safety testing they buy. Such labeling is required in Japan, Europe,
to better understand the risks, and stricter regulation South Korea, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
of this rapidly growing technology. A 2004 study by and was favored by 81% of Americans polled in 1999.
Industry representatives and the USDA oppose
such labeling, claiming that GMFs are not substan-
Tr a d e - O f f s tially different from foods developed by conventional
crossbreeding methods. Also, they fear—probably cor-
Genetically Modified Crops and Foods rectly—that labeling such foods would hurt sales by
arousing suspicion.
Projected Projected
Advantages Disadvantages
Learn more about how genes are modified and used to
Need less fertilizer Irreversible and
create plants with new traits at Environmental ScienceNow.
unpredictable
Need less water genetic and
More resistant
ecological effects
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should all genetically engi-
neered foods be so labeled? Cast your vote online at
Harmful toxins in
to insects, plant
food from possible http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
disease, frost, and
plant cell mutations
drought
New allergens
Faster growth in food Science: Problems with Expanding
Can grow in Lower nutrition the Green Revolution
slightly salty soils Lack of resources, such as water and fertile soil, and
Increases
Less spoilage development of environmental factors may limit our ability to
pesticide-resistant continue increasing crop yields.
Better flavor insects and plant
diseases Many analysts believe we can produce all the food we
need in the future by spreading the use of existing
Less use of Can create high-yield green revolution crops and genetically en-
conventional herbicide-resistant
pesticides weeds gineered crops to more of the world.
Other analysts disagree. They point to several fac-
Tolerate higher Harm beneficial
levels of
tors that have limited the success of the green and gene
insects
herbicide use revolutions to date and may continue to do so. With-
Lower genetic out huge amounts of fertilizer and water, most green
Higher yields diversity revolution crop varieties produce yields that are no
higher (and are sometimes lower) than those from tra-
ditional strains. Also, green revolution and genetically
Figure 10-19 Trade-offs: projected advantages and disad-
vantages of genetically modified crops and foods. Critical think-
engineered crop strains and their high inputs of water,
ing: pick the single advantage and disadvantage that you think fertilizer, and pesticides cost too much for most subsis-
are the most important. tence farmers in developing countries.
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Scientists also point out that continuing to in- Science: Cultivating More Land—Another
crease fertilizer, water, and pesticide inputs eventually Limited Solution
produces no additional increase in crop yields. For Significant expansion of cropland is unlikely over the
example, grain yields rose about 2.1% per year be- next few decades because of poor soils, limited water,
tween 1950 and 1990, but then growth dropped to 1.1% high costs, and harmful environmental effects.
per year between 1990 and 2000 and to 0.5% between
Theoretically, clearing tropical forests and irrigating
1997 and 2004. No one knows whether this downward
arid land could more than double the world’s crop-
trend will continue.
land. In reality, much of this area is marginal land with
There is also concern that crop yields in some
poor soil fertility, steep slopes, or both. Cultivation of
areas may decline as soil erodes and loses fertility, irri-
such land is unlikely to be sustainable.
gated soil becomes salty and waterlogged, under-
Much of the world’s potentially cultivable land lies
ground and surface water supplies become depleted
in dry areas, especially in Australia and Africa. Large-
and polluted with pesticides and nitrates from fertiliz-
scale irrigation in these areas would require expensive
ers, and populations of rapidly breeding pests de-
dam projects, use large inputs of fossil fuel to pump
velop genetic immunity to widely used pesticides. We
water over long distances, and deplete groundwater
do not know how close we are to such environmental
supplies by removing water faster than it is replen-
limits.
ished. It would also require expensive efforts to prevent
Also, according to Indian economist Vandana
erosion, groundwater contamination, salinization, and
Shiva, overall gains in crop yields from new green and
waterlogging, all of which reduce crop productivity.
gene revolution varieties may be much lower than
Furthermore, these potential increases in cropland
claimed. The yields are based on comparisons be-
would not offset the projected loss of almost one-third
tween the output per hectare of old and new monocul-
of today’s cultivated cropland caused by erosion, over-
ture varieties rather than between the even higher
grazing, waterlogging, salinization, and urbanization.
yields per hectare for polyculture cropping systems and
Such cropland expansion would also reduce wildlife
the new monoculture varieties that often replace poly-
habitats and thus the world’s biodiversity. Bottom line:
culture crops.
Significant expansion of cropland is unlikely over the next
There is also concern that the projected increased
few decades.
loss of biodiversity might limit the genetic raw mater-
ial needed for future green and gene revolutions. The
FAO estimates that two-thirds of all seeds planted in
Find out how much of the world’s land is suitable for
developing countries belong to uniform strains. Such farming and how that land is now used at Environmental
genetic uniformity increases the vulnerability of food ScienceNow.
crops to pests, diseases, and harsh weather.
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Kilograms of grain needed per kilogram of body weight ponds and underwater cages, and from inland fresh-
water fishing from lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and ponds.
Beef cattle 7 Figure 10-23 shows the effects of the global efforts
to boost the seafood harvest. After increasing fourfold
Pigs 4 between 1960 and 1982, the annual commercial fish
catch (marine plus freshwater harvest, but excluding
aquaculture) has declined and leveled off (Figure 10-23,
Chicken 2.2
left). After doubling between 1950 and 1956, the per
Fish (catfish capita catch leveled off until 1983. Since then, it has
2 been declining (Figure 10-23, right) and may continue
or carp)
to fall because of overfishing, pollution, habitat loss,
Figure 10-21 Efficiency of converting grain into animal protein. and population growth.
Data in kilograms of grain per kilogram of body weight added.
(Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture)
Science: Effects of Overfishing and Habitat
Degradation on Fish Harvests
production and consumption would involve shifting
from less grain-efficient forms of animal protein, such About three-fourths of the world’s commercially
as beef and pork, to more grain-efficient ones, such as valuable marine fish species are overfished or fished
poultry and herbivorous farmed fish. at their biological limit.
Some environmentalists have called for reducing Fish are renewable resources as long as the annual har-
livestock production (especially cattle) to decrease its vest leaves enough breeding stock to renew the species
environmental effects and to feed more people. This for the next year. Overfishing is the taking of so many
move would decrease the environmental impact of live- fish that too little breeding stock is left to maintain the
stock production, but it would not free up much land or species’ numbers.
grain to feed more of the world’s hungry people. Prolonged overfishing leads to commercial extinc-
Cattle and sheep that graze on rangeland use a re- tion, when the population of a species declines to the
source (grass) that humans cannot eat, and most of this point at which it is no longer profitable to hunt for
land is not suitable for growing crops. Moreover, be- them. Fishing fleets then move to a new species or a
cause of poverty, insufficient economic aid, and the na- new region, hoping that the overfished species will
ture of global economic and food distribution systems, eventually recover.
very little (if any) additional grain grown on land once Overfishing is not new. Historical studies indicate
used to raise livestock or livestock feed would reach that some species were overfished beginning centuries
the world’s hungry people. ago. However, this trend has greatly accelerated with
the expansion of today’s large and efficient global fish-
ing fleets.
Science: Harvesting Fish and Shellfish
According to the FAO, three-fourths of the world’s
After spectacular increases, the world’s fish catch has 200 commercially valuable marine fish species are ei-
leveled off. ther overfished or fished to their estimated maximum
The world’s third major food-producing system con- sustainable yield. The Ocean Conservancy states sim-
sists of fisheries: concentrations of particular aquatic ply, “We are spending the principal of our marine fish
species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given resources rather than living off the interest they pro-
ocean area or inland body of water. The world’s com- vide.” Some fisheries are so depleted that even if all
mercial marine fishing industry is dominated by in- fishing stopped immediately, it would take as long as
dustrial fishing fleets that use global satellite position- 20 years for stocks to recover.
ing equipment, sonar, huge nets and long fishing lines, Studies by the U.S. National Fish and Wildlife
spotter planes, and large factory ships that can process Foundation show that 14 major commercial fish
and freeze their catches. species in U.S. waters have been severely depleted.
Approximately 55% of the annual commercial Also, degradation, destruction, and pollution of wet-
catch of fish and shellfish comes from the ocean using lands, estuaries, coral reefs, salt marshes, and man-
harvesting methods shown in Figure 10-22, mostly groves threaten populations of fish and shellfish.
from plankton-rich coastal waters. Many commercially Good news. In 1995, fisheries biologists studied
valuable species are being overfished by these increas- population data for 128 depleted fish stocks and con-
ingly efficient methods that “vacuum” the seas of fish cluded that 125 of them could recover with careful
and shellfish. About one-third of the world’s marine management. This involves establishing fishing quo-
fish harvest is used as animal feed, fishmeal, and oils. tas, restricting use of certain types of fishing gear and
The rest of the catch comes from using aquaculture to methods, limiting the number of fishing boats, closing
raise fish much like livestock animals in feedlots in fisheries during spawning periods, and setting aside
Sonar
Purse-seine fishing
Trawl flap
Trawl
lines
Fish school
Trawl bag
Drift-net fishing
Long line fishing
Float Buoy
lines with
hooks
Fish caught
by gills
Figure 10-22 Major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have
become so effective that many fish have become commercially extinct.
100 25
(millions of metric tons)
80 20
Per capita catch
60 15
Catch
40 10
20 5
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year Year
Total World Fish Catch World Fish Catch per Person
Figure 10-23 Natural capital degradation: world fish catch (left) and world fish catch per person (right),
1950–2002. The total catch and per capita catches since 1990 may be about 10% lower than shown here
because in 2000 it was discovered that China had been inflating its fish catches since 1990. (Data from UN
Food and Agriculture Organization and Worldwatch Institute)
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networks of no-take reserves. However, implementing fish are then released, and adults are harvested when
such strategies costs money and is often politically they return to spawn.
unpopular. Figure 10-24 lists the major advantages and dis-
advantages of aquaculture. Some analysts project that
freshwater and saltwater aquaculture production could
Economics and Politics: Should Governments
provide at least half of the world’s seafood by 2020.
Continue Subsidizing Fishing Fleets?
Other analysts warn that the harmful environmental ef-
Government subsidies given to the fishing industry fects of aquaculture could limit future production.
are a major cause of overfishing. Figure 10-25 lists some ways to make aquaculture
Overfishing is a big and growing problem because too more sustainable and to reduce its harmful environ-
many commercial fishing boats and fleets are trying to mental effects. However, even under the most opti-
hunt and gather a dwindling supply of the most desir- mistic projections, increasing both the wild catch and
able fish. aquaculture will not increase world food supplies sig-
It costs the global fishing industry about $120 nificantly. The reason: Fish and shellfish supply only
billion per year to catch $70 billion worth of fish. Gov- about 1% of the calories and 6% of the protein in the
ernment subsidies such as fuel tax exemptions, price human diet.
controls, low-interest loans, and grants for fishing gear
make up most of the $50 billion annual deficit of the
Economics and Politics: Government
industry. Without such subsidies, some of the world’s
Agricultural and Food Production
fishing boats and fleets would go out of business and
the number of fish caught would approach their sus- Governments can use price controls to keep food
tainable yield. prices artificially low, give farmers subsidies to
Continuing to subsidize excess fishing allows encourage food production, or eliminate food price
some fishers to keep their jobs and boats a little longer controls and subsidies and let farmers and fishers
while making less and less money until the fishery col- respond to market demand.
lapses. Then all jobs are gone, and fishing communi-
ties suffer even more—another example of the tragedy
of the commons in action. Critics call for shifting some Tr a d e - O f f s
of the money from subsidies to programs to buy out
some fishing boats and retrain their crews for other Aquaculture
occupations.
Advantages Disadvantages
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ?Should governments eliminate
most fishing subsidies? Cast your vote online at http://biology
Highly efficient Large inputs of
.brookscole.com/miller11.
land, feed, and
water needed
High yield in
small volume
Produces large
Science: Aquaculture—Aquatic Feedlots of water and concentrated
Aquaculture, the world’s fastest-growing type of food outputs of waste
Increased yields
production, has advantages and disadvantages. through crossbreeding Destroys mangrove
Aquaculture involves raising fish and shellfish for and genetic forests and
engineering estuaries
food like crops instead of going out in fishing boats
and hunting and gathering them. The world’s fastest- Increased grain
Can reduce production needed
growing type of food production, it accounts for about overharvesting to feed some species
one-third of the fish and shellfish we eat. China, the of conventional
world leader in this field, produces more than two- fisheries Fish can be killed
thirds of the world’s aquaculture output. by pesticide runoff
Little use of fuel from nearby cropland
There are two basic types of aquaculture: fish
farming and fish ranching. Fish farming involves cul- Dense populations
Profits not tied to
tivating fish in a controlled environment (often a price of oil
vulnerable to disease
coastal or inland pond, lake, reservoir, or rice paddy)
Tanks too
and harvesting them when they reach the desired size. High profits contaminated to use
Fish ranching involves holding anadromous spe- after about 5 years
cies, such as salmon that live part of their lives in fresh
water and part in salt water, in captivity for the first Figure 10-24 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
few years of their lives, usually in fenced-in areas or aquaculture. Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and
floating cages in coastal lagoons and estuaries. The disadvantage that you think are the most important.
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Rachel Carson
Rachel Carson deaths of several birds. She begged industry scientists claimed her book
(1907–1964) was Carson to find someone to investi- was full of inaccuracies, made selec-
a pioneer in in- gate the effects of pesticides on tive use of research findings, and
creasing public birds and other wildlife. failed to give a balanced account of
INDIVIDUALS
MATTER awareness of the Carson decided to look into the the benefits of pesticides.
importance of issue herself. She found that inde- Some critics even claimed that,
nature and the threat of pollution pendent research on the environ- as a woman, Carson was incapable
from pesticides. She began her pro- mental effects of pesticides was of understanding such a highly sci-
fessional career as a biologist for the almost nonexistent. A well-trained entific and technical subject. Others
Bureau of U.S. Fisheries (later the scientist, she surveyed the scientific charged that she was a hysterical
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). In literature, became convinced that woman and a radical nature lover
that capacity, she carried out re- pesticides could harm wildlife and trying to scare the public in an effort
search on oceanography and marine humans, and methodically devel- to sell books.
biology and wrote articles about the oped information about the harmful During these intense attacks,
oceans and topics related to the effects of widespread use of Carson was suffering from terminal
environment. pesticides. cancer. Yet she strongly defended
In 1951, Carson wrote The Sea In 1962, she published her find- her research and countered her
Around Us, which described in ings in popular form in Silent critics. She died in 1964—about
easily understandable terms the Spring, whose title alluded to the 18 months after the publication of
natural history of oceans and how silencing of “robins, catbirds, doves, Silent Spring—without knowing
human activities were harming jays, wrens, and scores of other bird that many historians consider her
them. Her book sold more than voices” because of their exposure to work an important contribution
2 million copies, was translated into pesticides. Many scientists, to the modern environmental move-
32 languages, and won a National politicians, and policy ment then emerging in the
Book Award. makers read Silent United States.
During the late 1940s and Spring, and the pub-
throughout the 1950s, DDT and re- lic embraced it. Figure 10-A Biologist
lated compounds were increasingly Chemical man- Rachel Carson (1907–64)
used to kill insects that ate food ufacturers viewed greatly increased our
crops, attacked trees, bothered peo- the book as a seri- understanding of the
ple, and transmitted diseases such ous threat to their importance of nature and
the potential harmful ef-
as malaria. booming pesti-
fects of widespread use
U.S Fi
In 1958, DDT was sprayed to cide sales and of pesticides. She died
sh a
control mosquitoes near the home mounted a cam- without knowing that her ef-
nd
Se
rvi
the modern environmental
her friend witnessed the agonizing critical reviewers and ce movement in the United States.
Newer pesticides are safer and more effective than many Scientists continue to search for the ideal pest-killing
older ones. Greater use is being made of botanicals and chemical, which would have these qualities:
microbotanicals. Derived originally from plants, they
are safer for users and less damaging to the environ-
■ Kill only the target pest
ment than many older pesticides. Genetic engineering ■ Not cause genetic resistance in the target
is also being used to develop pest-resistant crop strains organism
and genetically altered crops that produce pesticides.
Many new pesticides are used at very low rates per unit
■ Disappear or break down into harmless chemicals
area compared to older products. Application amounts after doing its job
per hectare for many new herbicides are 1/100 the ■ Be more cost-effective than doing nothing
rates for older ones, and genetically engineered crops
could reduce the use of toxic insecticides. The search continues, but so far no known natural or
synthetic pesticide chemical meets all—or even
most—of these criteria.
Science: The Ideal Pesticide and Pest The ideal insect pest would attack a variety of plants,
Scientists work to develop more effective and safer be highly prolific, have a short generation time and few
pesticides, but through coevolution pests find ways to natural predators, and be genetically resistant to a
combat the pesticides we throw at them. number of pesticides. The silverleaf whitefly has these
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characteristics, and farmers who have encountered it velop genetic resistance, but at a slower rate than in-
call it a superbug. This tiny white insect escaped from sects. Since 1945, about 1,500 species of insects, mites,
poinsettia greenhouses in Florida in 1986 and has be- weeds, plant diseases, and rodents (mostly rats) have
come established in Florida, Arizona, California, and developed genetic resistance to one or more pesticides.
Texas. Because of genetic resistance, many insecticides
It is known to eat at least 500 species of plants but (such as DDT) no longer do a good job of protecting
does not like onions and asparagus. The silverleaf people from insect-transmitted diseases in some parts
whitefly has no natural enemies. Dense swarms of of the world. Genetic resistance can also put farmers
these tiny insects attack plants, suck them dry, and on a pesticide treadmill, whereby they pay more and
leave them withered and dying. more for a pest control program that often becomes
U.S. crop losses from this insect are greater than less and less effective.
$200 million per year—and growing. Scientists are Some insecticides kill natural predators and parasites
scouring the world looking for natural enemies of this that help control the populations of pest species. Wiping
superbug. Stay tuned. out natural predators, such as spiders, can unleash
new pests, whose populations their predators had pre-
viously held in check, and cause other unexpected ef-
Science: Disadvantages of Modern
fects (Connections, p. 125). Of the 300 most destructive
Synthetic Pesticides
insect pests in the United States, 100 were once minor
Pesticides can promote genetic resistance to their pests that became major pests after widespread use of
effects, wipe out natural enemies of pest species, insecticides. Mostly because of genetic resistance and
create new pest species, end up in the environment, reduction of natural predators, pesticide use has not
and sometimes harm wildlife and people. reduced U.S. crop losses to pests (Science Spotlight,
Opponents of widespread pesticide use believe that below).
the harmful effects of these chemicals outweigh their Pesticides do not stay put. According to the USDA,
benefits. They cite several serious problems with the only 0.1–2% of the insecticide applied to crops by aer-
use of conventional pesticides. ial spraying or ground spraying reaches the target
They accelerate the development of genetic resistance to pests. Also, less than 5% of herbicides applied to crops
pesticides by pest organisms. Insects breed rapidly, and reach the target weeds. In other words, 98–99.9% of the
within five to ten years (much sooner in tropical areas) pesticides and more than 95% of the herbicides we ap-
they can develop immunity to widely used pesticides ply end up in the air, surface water, groundwater,
through natural selection and come back stronger than bottom sediments, food, and nontarget organisms,
before. Weeds and plant disease organisms also de- including humans and wildlife (Figure 9-16, p. 197).
Pesticides have not 1942, losses attributed to insects reduced sharply without reducing
been as effective in almost doubled from 7% to 13%, yields. In fact, yields may actually
reducing crop despite a 10-fold increase in the use increase. Sweden has cut pesticide
SCIENCE losses in the of synthetic insecticides. use in half with almost no decrease
SPOTLIGHT
United States as Second, the estimated environ- in crop yields. Campbell Soup uses
agricultural ex- mental, health, and social costs of no pesticides on tomatoes it grows
perts had hoped, mostly because of pesticide use in the United States in Mexico, and yields have not
genetic resistance and reductions in total $4–10 billion per year. The dropped. After a two-thirds cut in
natural predators. International Food Policy Research pesticide use on rice in Indonesia,
When David Pimentel, an expert Institute puts this figure much yields increased by 15%.
in insect ecology, evaluated data higher, at $100–200 billion per year,
Critical Thinking
from more than 300 agricultural or $5–10 in damages for every dol-
scientists and economists, he lar spent on pesticides. Pesticide proponents argue that
reached three major conclusions. Third, alternative pest manage- although crop losses to pests are
First, although the use of syn- ment practices could halve the use of higher today than in the past, with-
thetic pesticides has increased chemical pesticides on 40 major U.S. out the widespread use of pesti-
33-fold since 1942, 37% of the U.S. crops without reducing crop yields. cides losses would be even higher.
food supply is lost to pests today Numerous studies and experi- Explain why you agree or disagree
compared to 31% in the 1940s. Since ence show that pesticide use can be with this position.
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(Figure 6-18, p. 126) to producing food. The goal is to 6. According to physicist Albert Einstein, “Nothing will
feed the world’s people while sustaining and restoring benefit human health and increase chances of survival of
the earth’s natural capital and living off the natural in- life on Earth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian
come it provides. This will not be easy, but it can be diet.” Are you willing to eat less meat or not eat any
done. Figure 10-32 lists some ways that you can pro- meat? Explain.
mote more sustainable organic agriculture. 7. Explain how widespread use of a pesticide can (a) in-
crease the damage done by a particular pest and (b) create
The sector of the economy that seems likely to unravel first new pest organisms.
is food. Eroding soils, deteriorating rangelands, collapsing
8. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List
fisheries, falling water tables, and rising temperatures are
the three most important features of your (a) your agri-
converging to make it difficult to expand food production fast
cultural policy, (b) your policy to reduce soil erosion, and
enough to keep up with the demand.
(c) your policy for pest management.
LESTER R. BROWN
LEARNING ONLINE
CRITICAL THINKING
The website for this book includes review questions for
1. Summarize the major economic and ecological advan- the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
tages and limitations of each of the following proposals a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
for increasing world food supplies and reducing hunger references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
over the next 30 years: InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
(a) Cultivating more land by clearing tropical forests Visit
and irrigating arid lands
(b) Catching more fish in the open sea http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
(c) Producing more fish and shellfish with aquaculture
(d) Increasing the yield per area of cropland Then choose Chapter 10, and select a learning resource.
For access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter out-
2. List five ways in which your lifestyle directly or indi- lines and summaries, register and log in to
rectly contributes to soil erosion.
3. What could happen to energy-intensive agriculture in
the United States and other industrialized countries if at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
world oil prices rose sharply? card in the front of your book.
4. What are the three most important actions you would
take to reduce hunger (a) in the country where you live
and (b) in the world? Active Graphing
5. Should governments phase in agricultural tax breaks Visit http://esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 to
and subsidies to encourage farmers to switch to more explore the graphing exercise for this chapter.
sustainable organic agriculture? Explain your answer.
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CASE STUDY
AR
M
EN
Water Conflicts in the
IA
TURKEY
Middle East
Eu
Tig
ph
MEDITERRANEAN
ris
ra
SEA
est
LEBANON SYRIA
WEST BANK
In the near future, water-short countries in GAZA IRAQ IRAN
P
er
ISRAEL KUWAIT
Ni
si
this dry region comes from three shared river
an
le
G
basins: the Nile, Jordan, and Tigris–Euphrates EGYPT BAHRAIN
ul
R
f
(Figure 11-1).
E D
QATAR
SAUDI O MA N
Three countries—Ethiopia, Sudan, and ARABIA UNITED ARAB
S E
EMIRATES
Egypt—use most of the water that flows in Africa’s ile
A
N
Nile River, with Egypt being last in line along the
SUDAN
river. To meet the water needs of its rapidly growing
population, Ethiopia plans to divert more water YEMEN
from the Nile. So does Sudan. Such upstream diver-
DJIBOUTI
sions would reduce the amount of water available to
Egypt, which cannot exist without irrigation water ETHIOPIA SOM ALIA
Our liquid planet glows like a soft blue sapphire in the hard-
edged darkness of space. There is nothing else like it in the so- 11-1 WATER’S IMPORTANCE, USE,
lar system. It is because of water. AND RENEWAL
JOHN TODD
Science: Importantance and Availability
of Fresh Water
This chapter discusses the water supply and pollution
problems we face and ways to use water—an irre- Water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts the
placeable resource—more sustainably. It addresses the land, removes and dilutes wastes and pollutants, and
following questions: is recycled by the hydrologic cycle.
We live on the water planet, with a precious film of wa-
■ Why is water so important, how much fresh ter—most of it salt water—covering about 71% of the
water is available to us, and how much of it are earth’s surface. All organisms are made up of mostly
we using? water. Look in the mirror. What you see is about 60%
■ What causes freshwater shortages, and what can water, most of it inside your cells.
we do about these problems? You could survive for several weeks without food
■ What causes flooding, and what can we do but only a few days without water. It takes huge
about it? amounts of water to supply you with food, provide
shelter, and meet your other needs and wants. Water
■ What pollutes water, where do these pollutants also plays a key role in sculpting the earth’s surface,
come from, and what effects do they have? moderating climate, and removing and diluting water-
■ What are the major water pollution problems af- soluble wastes and pollutants.
fecting streams, lakes, and groundwater? Despite its importance, water is one of our most
■ What are the major water pollution problems af- poorly managed resources. We waste it and pollute it.
fecting oceans? We also charge too little for making it available. This
encourages still greater waste and pollution of this re-
■ How can we prevent and reduce water pollution? newable resource, for which we have no substitute.
■ How can we use the earth’s water more As Benjamin Franklin said many decades ago, “It is
sustainably? not until the well runs dry that we know the worth of
water.”
Only a tiny fraction of the planet’s abundant wa-
ter supply is readily available to us as fresh water
KEY IDEAS (Figure 11-2, p. 238). If the world’s water supply
■
amounted to only 100 liters (26 gallons), our usable
We currently use more than half of the world’s reli-
supply of fresh water would be only about 0.014 liter,
able runoff of surface water and could be using
or 2.5 teaspoons!
70–90% by 2025.
Fortunately, the world’s freshwater supply is con-
■ One of every six people does not have regular ac- tinuously collected, purified, recycled, and distributed
cess to an adequate, safe, and affordable supply of in the solar-powered hydrologic cycle (Figure 3-24,
clean water, and this number could increase to at p. 54). This magnificent water recycling and purifica-
least one of every four people by 2050. tion system works well as long as we do not overload
■ We can use water more sustainably by cutting water systems with slowly degradable and nondegrad-
waste, raising water prices, preserving forests in water able wastes or withdraw water from underground sup-
basins, and slowing population growth. plies faster than it is replenished. In parts of the world,
■
we are doing both of these things.
Stream pollution in most developing countries is a
Differences in average annual precipitation divide
serious and growing problem.
the world’s countries and people into water haves and
■ Groundwater pollution is a serious and growing have-nots. Some places get lots of rain (the dark and
problem in parts of the world. light green areas in Figure 5-2, p. 80), whereas others
■ We can reduce pollution of coastal waters near get very little (the yellow-green areas in Figure 5-2).
heavily populated areas by preventing or reducing For example, Canada, with only 0.5% of the world’s
the flow of pollution from the land and from streams population, has one-fifth of the world’s fresh water.
emptying into the ocean. China, with one-fifth of the world’s people, has only
7% of the supply.
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Figure 11-2 Natural capital: the planet’s water budget. Only a tiny fraction by volume of the world’s water
supply is fresh water available for human use.
Confined
Recharge
Runoff
Area
Flowing
artesian well Recharge
Unconfined Stream
Aquifer
Well
Water requiring
Infiltration
table a pump Lake
Infiltration
Unconfined aquifer
Less
permeable material Confined aquifer
such as clay
Confining impermeable rock
layer
Figure 11-3 Natural capital: groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer with a water table. A
confined aquifer is bounded above and below by less permeable beds of rock. Groundwater in this type of
aquifer is confined under pressure. Some aquifers are replenished by precipitation; others are not.
To meet the demands of our growing population, water withdrawn each year, and cities and residences
global withdrawal rates of surface water could reach use the remaining 10%.
more than 70% of the reliable runoff by 2025 and 90% Manufacturing and agriculture use large amounts
if per capita withdrawal of water continues increasing of water. For example, it takes 400,000 liters (106,000
at the current rate. This is a global average. With- gallons) of water to produce an automobile, 9,000 liters
drawal rates already exceed the reliable runoff in some (2,800 gallons) to produce 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of
areas. aluminum, and 7,000 liters (1,900 gallons) to produce
1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of grain-fed beef. You could
save more water by not eating a half a kilogram
Global Outlook: Uses of the World’s
(1 pound) of grain-fed beef than by not showering for
Fresh Water
six months.
Irrigation is the biggest user of water (70%), followed
by industries (20%) and cities and residences (10%).
Worldwide, we use 70% of the water we withdraw Science Case Study: Freshwater Resources
each year from rivers, lakes, and aquifers to irrigate in the United States
one-fifth of the world’s cropland. This land produces The United States has plenty of fresh water, but
about 40% of the world’s food, including two-thirds of supplies vary in different areas depending on
the world’s rice and wheat. Industry uses 20% of the climate.
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Europe
North
America
Asia
Africa
South
America Australia
Stress
High None
Figure 11-6 Natural capital degradation: stress on the world’s major river basins, based on a comparison of
the amount of water available with the amount used by humans. (Data from World Commission on Water Use in
the 21st Century)
Poverty also governs access to water. Even when a hiring private companies to manage them. In addition,
plentiful supply of water exists, most of the world’s 1.1 three large European companies—Vivendi, Suez, and
billion poor people living on less than $1 (U.S.) per day RWE—have a long-range strategy to buy up as much
cannot afford a safe supply of drinking water and so of the world’s water supplies as possible, especially in
live in hydrological poverty. Most are cut off from munic- Europe and North America.
ipal water supplies and must collect water from unsafe Currently, 85% of Americans get their water from
sources or buy water—often taken from polluted publicly owned utilities. This may soon change.
rivers—from private vendors at high prices. In water- Within 10 years the three European-based water com-
short rural areas in developing countries, many panies aim to control 70% of the water supply in the
women and children must walk long distances each
day, carrying heavy jars or cans, to get a meager and
sometimes contaminated supply of water (Figure 11-7).
to clean water. But who will pay for making this water
available to everyone?
Figure 11-7 Global
Most water resources are owned by governments
outlook: villager in
and managed as publicly owned resources for their cit- Mozambique, Africa,
izens. An increasing number of governments are re- carrying water and
taining ownership of these public resources but are an infant.
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Large losses Flooded land destroys Migration and Downstream cropland and
of water through forests or cropland and spawning of some estuaries are deprived of
evaporation displaces people fish are disrupted nutrient-rich silt
Figure 11-8 Trade-offs: advantages (green) and disadvantages (orange) of large dams and reservoirs. The
world’s 45,000 large dams (higher than 15 meters or 50 feet) capture and store 14% of the world’s runoff, pro-
vide water for 45% of irrigated cropland, and supply more than half the electricity used by 65 countries. The
United States has more than 70,000 large and small dams, capable of capturing and storing half of the coun-
try’s entire river flow. Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage that you think are the most
important.
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gerous levels in the groundwater—the source of most moderated the heat of summer and the extreme cold of
of the region’s drinking water. winter. Now there is less rain, summers are hotter and
Shrinkage of the Aral Sea has altered the area’s cli- drier, winters are colder, and the growing season is
mate. The once-huge sea acted as a thermal buffer that shorter. The combination of such climate change and
severe salinization has reduced crop yields by 20–50%
on almost one-third of the area’s cropland.
Finally, many of the 58 million people living in the
Aral Sea’s watershed have experienced increasing
health problems from a combination of toxic dust, salt,
and contaminated water.
Can the Aral Sea be saved, and can the area’s seri-
ous ecological and human health problems be re-
versed? Since 1999, the United Nations and the World
Bank have spent about $600 million to purify drinking
water and upgrade irrigation and drainage systems,
which improves irrigation efficiency and flushes salts
from croplands. In addition, some artificial wetlands
and lakes have been constructed to help restore
Paul Howell/UNEP/Peter Arnold, Inc.
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Major Well contaminated hold enough water to support billions of people for
irrigation with saltwater centuries. The quality of water in these aquifers may
well
also be much higher than the quality of the water in
most rivers and lakes.
Two major concerns arise regarding tapping these
mostly one-time deposits of water. First, little is known
Water about the geological and ecological impacts of pump-
table Sea level ter
Fresh
ltwa ing water from deep aquifers. Second, no international
groundwater Sa
aquifer or water treaties exist governing rights to, and ownership
a flo of, water found under several different countries.
Interface Se
Without such treaties, legal and physical conflicts
Saltwater Interface
intrusion
could ensue over who has the right to tap into and use
Normal
interface these valuable resources.
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Bottom line: Currently, significant desalination is in arid and semiarid areas, stimulate local economies,
practical only for wealthy and water-short countries and help keep the prices of food, manufactured goods,
and cities that can afford its high cost. and electricity low.
Scientists are working to develop new membranes Most water resource experts believe that when
for reverse osmosis that can separate water from salt water scarcity afflicts many areas in this century, gov-
more efficiently and under less pressure. If successful, ernments will have to make the unpopular decision to
this strategy could bring down the cost of using desali- raise water prices. China did so in 2002 because it
nation to produce drinking water. Even so, desalinated faced water shortages in most of its major cities, rivers
water probably will not be cheap enough to irrigate running dry, and falling water tables in key agricul-
conventional crops or meet much of the world’s de- tural areas.
mand for fresh water unless scientists can figure out Higher water prices encourage water conserva-
how to use solar energy or other means to desalinate tion but make it difficult for low-income farmers and
seawater cheaply and how to safely dispose of the salt city dwellers to buy enough water to meet their needs.
left behind. South Africa has found a novel solution to this prob-
lem. When the country raised water prices, it estab-
lished lifeline rates that give each household a set
amount of water at a low price to meet basic needs.
11-3 REDUCING WATER WASTE
When users exceed this amount, the price rises.
The second major cause of water waste is lack of
Economics: Benefits of Reducing
government subsidies for improving the efficiency of water
Water Waste
use. A basic rule of economics is that you get more of
We waste about two-thirds of the water we use, but what you reward. Withdrawing subsidies that encour-
we could cut this waste to 15%. age water waste and providing subsidies for efficient
Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resources Institute water use would sharply reduce water waste.
estimates that 65–70% of the water people use throughout
the world is lost through evaporation, leaks, and other
losses. The United States, the world’s largest user of
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should water prices be raised
sharply to help reduce water waste? Cast your vote online at
water, does slightly better but still loses about half of http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
the water it withdraws. El-Ashry believes it is econom-
ically and technically feasible to reduce such water
losses to 15%, thereby meeting most of the world’s wa-
Solutions: Wasting Less Water
ter needs for the foreseeable future.
in Irrigation
This win-win solution would decrease the burden
on wastewater plants and reduce the need for expen- Although 60% of the world’s irrigation water is
sive dams and water transfer projects that destroy currently wasted, improved irrigation techniques
wildlife habitats and displace people. It would also could reduce this proportion to 5–20%.
slow depletion of groundwater aquifers and save both About 60% of the irrigation water applied throughout
energy and money. the world does not reach the targeted crops and does
According to water resource experts, the main not contribute to food production. Most irrigation sys-
cause of water waste is that we charge too little for water. tems obtain water from a groundwater well or a sur-
Such underpricing is mostly the result of government face water source. The water then flows by gravity
subsidies that provide irrigation water, electricity, and through unlined ditches in crop fields so the crops can
diesel fuel for farmers to pump water from rivers and absorb it (Figure 11-17, left). This flood irrigation method
aquifers at below-market prices. delivers far more water than is needed for crop growth
Because these subsidies keep the price of water and typically loses 40% of the water through evapora-
low, users have little or no financial incentive to invest tion, seepage, and runoff.
in water-saving technologies. According to water re- More efficient and environmentally sound irriga-
source expert Sandra Postel, “By heavily subsidizing tion technologies can greatly reduce water demands
water, governments give out the false message that it and waste on farms by delivering water more pre-
is abundant and can afford to be wasted—even as cisely to crops. For example, the center-pivot low-
rivers are drying up, aquifers are being depleted, fish- pressure sprinkler (Figure 11-17, right) uses pumps to
eries are collapsing, and species are going extinct.” spray water on a crop. Typically, it allows 80% of the
Farmers, industries, and others benefiting from water to reach crops. Low-energy precision application
government water subsidies offer a counter-argument: (LEPA) sprinklers, another form of center-pivot irriga-
They promote settlement and agricultural production tion, put 90–95% of the water where crops need it by
Center pivot
(efficiency 80% with low-pressure
sprinkler and 90–95% with LEPA sprinkler)
Drip irrigation
(efficiency 90–95%) Water usually pumped from
Gravity flow underground and sprayed from
(efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves) Above- or below-ground pipes mobile boom with sprinklers.
or tubes deliver water to
Water usually comes from an individual plant roots.
aqueduct system or a nearby river.
spraying the water closer to the ground and in larger quickly be adopted to irrigate most of the world’s
droplets than the center-pivot, low-pressure system. crops. Good news. The capital cost of a new type of drip
Another method is to use soil moisture detectors to wa- irrigation system is one-tenth as much per hectare as
ter crops only when they need it. that for conventional drip systems.
Drip irrigation or microirrigation (Figure 11-17, cen- Figure 11-18 (p. 250) lists other ways to reduce wa-
ter) is the most efficient way to deliver small amounts ter waste in irrigating crops. Since 1950, water-short
of water precisely to crops. It consists of a network of Israel has used many of these techniques to slash irri-
perforated plastic tubing installed at or below the gation water waste by 84% while irrigating 44% more
ground level. Small holes or emitters in the tubing de- land. Israel now treats and reuses 30% of its municipal
liver drops of water at a slow and steady rate, close to sewage water for crop production and plans to in-
the plant roots. crease this percentage to 80% by 2025. The government
Drip irrigation is very efficient, with 90–95% of the also gradually eliminated most water subsidies to
water input reaching the crops. The flexible and light- raise the price of irrigation water to one of the highest
weight tubing system can easily be fitted to match the in the world. Israelis also import most of their wheat
patterns of crops in a field and left in place or moved and meat and concentrate on growing fruits, vegeta-
around. bles, and flowers that need less water.
Currently, drip irrigation is used on slightly more Many of the world’s poor farmers cannot afford
than 1% of the world’s irrigated crop fields and 4% of most of the modern technological methods for in-
those in the United States. This percentage rises to 90% creasing irrigation and irrigation efficiency. Instead,
in Cyprus, 66% in Israel, and 13% in California. Unfor- they resort to small-scale and low-cost traditional
tunately, the capital cost of conventional drip irriga- technologies.
tion systems remains too high for most poor farmers Some (in Bangladesh, for example) use pedal-
and for use on low-value row crops. powered treadle pumps to move water through irriga-
As noted earlier, irrigation water is underpriced. tion ditches. Others use buckets or small tanks with
Raise water prices enough and drip irrigation would holes for drip irrigation.
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To reduce the threat of flooding and thus to allow pave or build, and replace water-absorbing vegetation,
people to live in floodplains, rivers have been nar- soil, and wetlands with highways, parking lots, and
rowed and straightened (channelized), equipped with buildings that cannot absorb rainwater.
protective levees and walls, and dammed to create In developed countries, people deliberately settle
reservoirs that store and release water as needed. In on floodplains and then expect dams, levees, and other
the long run, however, such measures can greatly in- devices to protect them from floodwaters. When heav-
crease flood damage because they can be over- ier-than-normal rains occur, these devices can be over-
whelmed by prolonged rains, as happened along the whelmed. In many developing countries, the poor
Mississippi River in the midwestern United States have little choice but to try to survive in flood-prone
during the summer of 1993 (Figure 11-22). areas (see the following Case Study).
People settle on floodplains because of their many
advantages, including fertile soil, ample water for irri-
gation, availability of nearby rivers for transportation Learn more about how cutting a forest can change
and recreation, and flat land suitable for crops, build- the surrounding land and the weather at Environmental
ScienceNow.
ings, highways, and railroads.
Floods are a natural phenomenon and have
several benefits. They provide the world’s most pro-
ductive farmland thanks to the nutrient-rich silt left
Science and Poverty Case Study: Living
behind after floodwaters recede. They also recharge
on Floodplains in Bangladesh
groundwater and help refill wetlands.
Unfortunately, each year floods kill thousands of Bangladesh has experienced increased flooding
people and cause tens of billions of dollars in property because of upstream deforestation of Himalayan
damage. Floods, like droughts, usually are considered mountain slopes and the clearing of mangrove forests
natural disasters. Since the 1960s, however, human ac- on its coastal floodplains.
tivities have contributed to the sharp rise in flood Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely popu-
deaths and damages. lated countries, with 144 million people (projected to
One such activity is removal of water-absorbing vege- reach 280 million by 2050) packed into an area roughly
tation, especially on hillsides (Figure 11-23). Another is the size of Wisconsin. It is also one of the world’s poor-
draining wetlands that absorb floodwaters and reduce est countries.
the severity of flooding. The people of Bangladesh depend on moderate an-
Living on floodplains increases the threat of dam- nual flooding during the summer monsoon season to
age from flooding. Flooding also increases when we grow rice and help maintain soil fertility in the delta
basin. The annual floods deposit
eroded Himalayan soil on the
country’s crop fields.
In the past, great floods oc-
curred every 50 years or so. Since
the 1970s, however, they have
come roughly every 4 years.
Bangladesh’s flooding problems
begin in the Himalayan water-
shed, where several factors—
rapid population growth, de-
forestation, overgrazing, and un-
sustainable farming on steep and
easily erodible slopes—have
greatly diminished the ability of
its mountain soils to absorb
Earth Satellite Corporation
water.
Think of a forest as a com-
plex living sponge for catching,
storing, using, and recycling
water and releasing it in small
Figure 11-22 The satellite image on the left shows the area around St. Louis, Missouri, on July 4, amounts. Cut down the forests
1988, under normal conditions. The image on the right shows the same area on July 18, 1993, on the Himalayan mountains
after severe flooding from prolonged rains. Note the large increase in the flooded (blue) area. and what happens? Instead of be-
Oxygen
released by
vegetation Tree plantation
Evapotranspiration decreases
Diverse Roads
ecological Evapotranspiration destabilize
habitat hillsides Ranching accelerates soil
erosion by water and wind
Trees reduce soil
erosion from heavy Winds remove
rain and wind fragile topsoil
Agricultural Agricultural land
land is flooded and
Steady
river flow silted up
Gullies and
Leaf litter landslides
improves
soil fertility Heavy rain leaches nutrients
from soil and erodes topsoil
Tree roots stabilize Vegetation releases water Silt from erosion blocks rivers and Rapid runoff
soil and aid water flow slowly and reduces flooding reservoirs and causes flooding downstream causes flooding
Forested Hillside After Deforestation
Active Figure 11-23 Natural capital degradation: hillside before and after deforestation. Once a hillside has
been deforested for timber and fuelwood, livestock grazing, or unsustainable farming, water from precipitation
rushes down the denuded slopes, erodes precious topsoil, and floods downstream areas. A 3,000-year-old
Chinese proverb says, “To protect your rivers, protect your mountains.” See an animation based on this figure
and take a short quiz on the concept.
ing absorbed and released slowly, water from the mon- deaths from cyclones in areas of Bangladesh still pro-
soon rains runs off the denuded Himalayan foothills, tected by mangrove forests have been much lower than
carrying vital topsoil with it (Figure 11-23, right). in areas where the forests have been cleared.
This increased runoff of soil, combined with heav-
ier-than-normal monsoon rains, has increased the
Solutions: Reducing Flood Risks
severity of flooding along Himalayan rivers and
downstream in Bangladesh. In 1998, a disastrous flood We can reduce flooding risks by controlling river
covered two-thirds of Bangladesh’s land area for water flows, preserving and restoring wetlands,
9 months, leveled 2 million homes, drowned at least identifying and managing flood-prone areas, and,
2,000 people, and left 30 million people homeless. It if possible, choosing not to live in such areas.
also destroyed more than one-fourth of the country’s We can use several methods to reduce the risk from
crops, which caused thousands of people to die of star- flooding. One is to straighten and deepen streams, a pro-
vation. In 2002, another flood left 5 million people cess called channelization. Although channelization can
homeless and flooded large areas of rice fields. reduce upstream flooding, it removes bank vegetation
Living on Bangladesh’s coastal floodplain also and increases stream velocity. The increased flow of
means coping with storm surges, cyclones, and water can promote upstream bank erosion, increase
tsunamis (caused when large earthquakes produce downstream flooding and sediment deposition, and
huge waves). In 1970, as many as 1 million people reduce habitats for aquatic wildlife.
drowned in one storm. Another surge killed an esti- Another approach is to build levees or floodwalls
mated 139,000 people in 1991. along the sides of streams. Levees contain and speed
In their struggle to survive, the poor in Bangladesh up stream flow, but this increases the water’s capacity
have cleared many of the country’s coastal mangrove for doing damage downstream. They also do not pro-
forests for fuelwood, farming, and aquaculture ponds tect against unusually high and powerful flood-
for raising shrimp. The result: more severe flooding, waters. In the massive floods of 1993, for example,
because these coastal wetlands shelter Bangladesh’s two-thirds of the levees built along the Mississippi
low-lying coastal areas from the ravages of storm River in the United States were damaged or destroyed
surges, and cyclones, and tsunamis. Damages and (Figure 11-22).
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Building dams can reduce the threat of flooding by creased population and economic development; see
storing water in a reservoir and releasing it gradually. Figure 11-5).
Dams have a number of advantages and disadvan-
tages (Figure 11-8). Another way to reduce flooding is
to preserve existing wetlands and restore degraded wet-
11-5 WATER POLLUTION: TYPES,
lands to enhance the natural flood control provided by
EFFECTS, AND SOURCES
floodplains.
We can also identify and manage floodplains to re-
Science: Major Types and Effects
move people from flood-prone areas. This prevention
of Water Pollutants
or precautionary approach is based on thousands of
years of experience that can be summed up very sim- Infectious bacteria, inorganic and organic chemicals,
ply: Sooner or later the river (or the ocean) always wins. and excess heat pollute water.
On a personal level, we can use the precautionary Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical
approach to think carefully about where we live. Many change in water quality that harms living organisms or
poor people live in flood-prone areas because they makes water unsuitable for desired uses. Table 11-1
have nowhere else to go. Most people, however, can lists the major classes of water pollutants along with
choose not to live in areas especially subject to flood- their major human sources and their harmful effects.
ing (or to water shortages caused by climate and in- Study this table carefully.
INFECTIOUS AGENTS Major Human Sources: (NO3–), phosphate (PO43 –), uranium, cesium, and
Examples: Bacteria, viruses, Surface runoff, industrial and ammonium (NH4+) ions thorium
protozoa, and parasitic effluents, and household Major Human Sources: Major Human Sources:
worms cleansers Sewage, manure, and runoff Nuclear and coal-burning
Major Human Sources: Harmful Effects: Can of agricultural and urban power plants, mining and
Human and animal wastes (1) make fresh water unusable fertilizers processing of uranium and
Harmful Effects: Disease for drinking or irrigation, Harmful Effects: Can cause other ores, nuclear weapons
(2) cause skin cancers and excessive growth of algae and production, natural sources
OXYGEN-DEMANDING crippling spinal and neck other aquatic plants, which Harmful Effects: Genetic
WASTES damage (F–), (3) damage the die, decay, deplete water of mutations, miscarriages,
Examples: Organic nervous system, liver, and kid- dissolved oxygen, and kill fish. birth defects, and certain
waste such as animal neys (Pb and As), (4) harm fish Drinking water with excessive cancers
manure and plant debris that and other aquatic life, (5) lower levels of nitrates lowers the
can be decomposed by crop yields, and (6) accelerate oxygen-carrying capacity of HEAT (THERMAL
aerobic (oxygen-requiring) corrosion of metals exposed to the blood and can kill unborn POLLUTION)
bacteria such water. children and infants (“blue- Examples: Excessive heat
Major Human Sources: baby syndrome”). Major Human Sources:
Sewage, animal feedlots, pa- ORGANIC CHEMICALS Water cooling of electric
per mills, and food processing Examples: Oil, gasoline, plas- SEDIMENT power plants and some types
facilities tics, pesticides, cleaning sol- Examples: Soil, silt of industrial plants. Almost
Harmful Effects: Large popu- vents, detergents Major Human Sources: Land half of all water withdrawn in
lations of bacteria decompos- Major Human Sources: In- erosion the United States each year is
ing these wastes can degrade dustrial effluents, household Harmful Effects: Can for cooling electric power
water quality by depleting wa- cleansers, surface runoff from (1) cloud water and reduce plants.
ter of dissolved oxygen. This farms and yards photosynthesis, (2) disrupt Harmful Effects: Lowers
causes fish and other forms of Harmful Effects: Can aquatic food webs, (3) carry dissolved oxygen levels and
oxygen-consuming aquatic life (1) threaten human health by pesticides, bacteria, and makes aquatic organisms
to die. causing nervous system other harmful substances, more vulnerable to disease,
damage (some pesticides), (4) settle out and destroy coral parasites, and toxic chemi-
INORGANIC CHEMICALS reproductive disorders (some reefs and feeding and spawn- cals. When a power plant
Examples: Water-soluble solvents), and some cancers ing grounds of fish, and first opens or shuts down
(1) acids, (2) compounds of (gasoline, oil, and some sol- (5) clog and fill lakes, artificial for repair, fish and other
toxic metals such as lead (Pb), vents) and (2) harm fish and reservoirs, stream channels, organisms adapted to a
arsenic (As), and selenium wildlife. and harbors. particular temperature range
(Se), and (3) salts such as can be killed by the abrupt
sodium chloride (NaCl) in PLANT NUTRIENTS RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS change in water tempera-
ocean water and fluorides (F–) Examples: Water-soluble Examples: Radioactive ture—known as thermal
found in some soils compounds containing nitrate isotopes of iodine, radon, shock.
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anisms
n water org
Normal clea erch, bass,
, Trash fish (Trout, p
Fish absent (carp, gar, efly)
Trash fish ud g e mayfly, ston
anisms fung i, sl
leeches)
n water org (carp, gar, 8 ppm
Normal clea erch, bass, worms,
Types of (Trout, p leeches) bacteria
efly)
organisms mayfly, ston (anaerobic
)
8 ppm
Dissolved
oxygen
(ppm)
ne
Biologica
l Clean Zo
oxygen Recovery
demand one
Septic Z Zone
osition
Decomp
ne Zone
Clean Zo
Active Figure 11-24 Natural capital: dilution and decay of degradable, oxygen-demanding wastes and
heat in a stream, showing the oxygen sag curve and the curve of oxygen demand. Depending on flow rates
and the amount of pollutants, streams can recover from such pollution if they are given enough time and are
not overloaded. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
it flowed through Cleveland. The highly publicized Stream pollution from discharges of untreated sew-
image of this burning river prompted elected officials age and industrial wastes is a serious and growing
to enact laws limiting the discharge of industrial problem in most developing countries. According to
wastes into the river and sewage systems, and to pro- a 2003 report by the World Commission on Water in
vide funds to upgrade sewage treatment facilities. To- the 21st Century, half of the world’s 500 rivers are
day the river is cleaner and is widely used by boaters heavily polluted; most of them running through de-
and anglers. This accomplishment illustrates the veloping countries. Most of these countries cannot
power of bottom-up pressure by citizens, who prod- afford to build waste treatment plants and do not
ded elected officials to change a severely polluted river have—or do not enforce—laws for controlling water
into an economically and ecologically valuable public pollution.
resource. Individuals matter! Industrial wastes and sewage pollute more than
On the other hand, large fish kills and drinking two-thirds of India’s water resources and 54 of the 78
water contamination still occur in parts of developed streams monitored in China. Only 10% of the sewage
countries. Two causes of these problems are accidental produced in Chinese cities is treated. In Latin America
or deliberate releases of toxic inorganic and organic and Africa, most streams passing through urban or in-
chemicals by industries or mines and malfunctioning dustrial areas suffer from severe pollution.
sewage treatment plants. A third cause is nonpoint
runoff of pesticides and excess plant nutrients from Science: Pollution Problems of Lakes
cropland and animal feedlots.
Dilution of pollutants in lakes is less effective than in
most streams because most lake water is not mixed
Global Outlook: Stream Pollution well and has little flow.
in Developing Countries In lakes and reservoirs, dilution of pollutants often is
Stream pollution in most developing countries is a less effective than in streams for two reasons. First,
serious and growing problem. lakes and reservoirs often contain stratified layers
(Figure 5-35, p. 105) that undergo little vertical mixing. lake, a process called cultural eutrophication. Nitrate-
Second, they have little flow. The flushing and chang- and phosphate-containing effluents mostly cause this
ing of water in lakes and large artificial reservoirs can change. They come from sources such as runoff from
take from 1 to 100 years, compared with several days farmland, animal feedlots, urban areas, and mining
to several weeks for streams. sites, and from the discharge of treated and untreated
As a result, lakes and reservoirs are more vulnera- municipal sewage. Some nitrogen also reaches lakes
ble than streams to contamination by runoff or dis- by deposition from the atmosphere.
charge of plant nutrients, oil, pesticides, and toxic sub- During hot weather or drought, this nutrient over-
stances such as lead, mercury, and selenium. These load produces dense growths or “blooms” of organ-
contaminants can kill bottom life and fish and birds isms such as algae and cyanobacteria (Figure 11-25,
that feed on contaminated aquatic organisms. Many right) and thick growths of water hyacinth, duckweed,
toxic chemicals and acids also enter lakes and reser- and other aquatic plants. These dense colonies of plant
voirs from the atmosphere. life can reduce lake productivity and fish growth by
decreasing the input of solar energy needed for photo-
synthesis by the phytoplankton that support fish.
Science: Cultural Eutrophication
In addition, when the algae die, their decomposi-
Various human activities can overload lakes with tion by swelling populations of aerobic bacteria de-
plant nutrients, which decrease dissolved oxygen pletes dissolved oxygen in the surface layer of water
and kill some aquatic species. near the shore and in the bottom layer. This oxygen de-
Eutrophication is the name given to the natural nutri- pletion can kill fish and other aerobic aquatic animals.
ent enrichment of lakes, mostly from runoff of plant If excess nutrients continue to flow into a lake, anaero-
nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates from sur- bic bacteria will take over and produce gaseous de-
rounding land. An oligotrophic lake is low in nutrients composition products such as smelly, highly toxic
and its water is clear (Figure 11-25, left). Over time, hydrogen sulfide and flammable methane.
some oligotrophic lakes become more eutrophic as nu- According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
trients are added from the surrounding watershed and Agency (EPA), one-third of the 100,000 medium to
the atmosphere. Others do not because of differences large lakes and 85% of the large lakes near major pop-
in the surrounding drainage basin. ulation centers in the United States have some degree
Near urban or agricultural areas, human activities of cultural eutrophication. One-fourth of the lakes in
can greatly accelerate the input of plant nutrients to a China also suffer from cultural eutrophication.
W. A. Bannazewski/Visuals Unlimited
Jack Carey
Figure 11-25 Natural capital degradation: the effect of nutrient enrichment on a lake. Crater Lake in Oregon
(left) is an oligotrophic lake; it is low in nutrients. Because of the low density of plankton, its water is quite clear.
The lake on the right, found in western New York, is a eutrophic lake. Because of an excess of plant nutrients,
its surface is covered with mats of algae and cyanobacteria.
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Polluted air
Hazardous waste
Pesticides injection well
and fertilizers
Deicing
Coal strip road salt Buried gasoline
mine runoff and solvent tanks
Cesspool,
Gasoline station septic tank
Pumping
well
Water
Waste lagoon pumping well
Sewer
Landfill
Accidental Leakage
spills from faulty
casing
Discharge
ife r
r aqu
ate Confined
es hw
d fr aquifer
fine uife
r
con aq Groundwater
Un r
w ate flow
fr esh
ined
C onf
Figure 11-26 Natural capital degradation: principal sources of groundwater contamination in the
United States.
Install monitoring
Global Outlook: Extent wells near landfills Inject
of Groundwater Pollution and underground microorganisms to
tanks clean up
Leaks from chemical storage ponds, underground contamination
Require leak (less expensive
storage tanks, piping used to inject hazardous waste detectors on but still costly)
underground, and seepage of agricultural fertilizers underground tanks
can contaminate groundwater. Ban hazardous
waste disposal in Pump
On a global scale, we do not know much about ground- landfills and nanoparticles of
water pollution because few countries go to the great injection wells inorganic
compounds to
expense of locating, tracking, and testing aquifers. Store harmful remove pollutants
Nevertheless, the results of scientific studies in scat- liquids in (may be the
aboveground tanks cheapest, easiest,
tered parts of the world are alarming. with leak detection and most effective
According to the EPA and the U.S. Geological Sur- and collection method but is still
systems being developed)
vey, one or more organic chemicals contaminate about
45% of municipal groundwater supplies in the United
States. An EPA survey of 26,000 industrial waste ponds
Figure 11-27 Solutions: methods for preventing and cleaning
and lagoons in the United States found that one-third up contamination of ground water. Critical Thinking: which two
of them had no liners to prevent toxic liquid wastes of these solutions do you believe are the most important?
from seeping into aquifers. One-third of these sites are
within 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) of a drinking water well.
In 2002, the U.S. General Accounting Office estimated ter from 50 to 10 parts per billion (ppb). According to
that at least 76,000 underground tanks storing gaso- the WHO and other scientists, even the 10 ppb stan-
line, diesel fuel, home heating oil, or toxic solvents dard is not safe. Many scientists call for lowering the
were leaking their contents into groundwater in the standard to 3–5 ppb, which would be very expensive.
United States.
During this century, scientists expect many of the
millions of such tanks installed around the world to Solutions: Protecting Groundwater
corrode, leak, contaminate groundwater, and become Prevention is the most effective and affordable way to
a major global health problem. Determining the extent protect groundwater from pollutants.
of a leak from a single underground tank can cost Figure 11-27 lists ways to prevent and clean up ground-
$25,000–250,000, and cleanup costs range from $10,000 water contamination. Pumping polluted groundwater
to more than $250,000. If the chemical reaches an to the surface, cleaning it up, and returning it to the
aquifer, effective cleanup is often not possible or is too aquifer is very expensive. Preventing contamination is
costly. Bottom line: Wastes we think we have thrown the most effective and cheapest way to protect groundwater
away or stored safely can escape and come back to resources.
haunt us.
Toxic arsenic contaminates drinking water when a
well is drilled into aquifers where soils and rock are
naturally rich in arsenic. According to the WHO, more 11-7 OCEAN POLLUTION
than 112 million people are drinking water with ar-
senic levels 5–100 times the WHO standard, mostly in Science: How Much Pollution Can the
Bangladesh, China, and West Bengal, India. Oceans Tolerate?
There is also concern over arsenic levels in drink- Oceans, if they are not overloaded, can disperse
ing water in parts of the United States. The EPA plans and break down large quantities of degradable
to lower the acceptable level of arsenic in drinking wa- pollutants.
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Farms
Runoff of pesticides, manure, and
fertilizers adds toxins and excess
nitrogen and phosphorus.
Red tides
Closed Excess nitrogen causes
shellfish beds explosive growth of toxic
microscopic algae,
Closed poisoning fish and
beach marine mammals.
Oxygen-depleted
zone
Toxic sediments
Chemicals and toxic metals
contaminate shellfish beds,
kill spawning fish, and
accumulate in the tissues
of bottom feeders.
Figure 11-28 Natural capital degradation: residential areas, factories, and farms all contribute to the
pollution of coastal waters and bays.
NEW
h an
JERSEY
R.
MARYLAND
Pot o
k
an
tu
VIRGINIA
R.
xent R.
o pt
nt
mo ke
Na
ppaha n
co
Ra no
ck Po
R.
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The shallow bay has become a huge pollution sink, borehole in the ocean floor) get most of the publicity
and only 1% of the waste entering it is flushed into the because of their high visibility. In fact, most ocean oil
Atlantic Ocean. pollution comes from human activities on land. According
Phosphate and nitrate levels have risen sharply in to a 2004 study by the Pew Oceans Commission, every
many parts of the bay, causing algal blooms and oxygen 8 months an amount of oil equal to that spilled by the
depletion. Commercial harvests of its once-abundant Exxon Valdez tanker into Alaska’s Prince William
oysters, crabs, and several important fish have fallen Sound in 1989 drains from the land into the oceans. Al-
sharply since 1960 because of a combination of pollu- most half (some experts estimate 90%) of the oil reach-
tion, overfishing, and disease. ing the oceans is waste oil dumped, spilled, or leaked
Point sources—primarily sewage treatment plants onto the land or into sewers by cities, industries, and
and industrial plants (often in violation of their dis- people changing their own motor oil.
charge permits)—account for 60% by weight of the Volatile organic hydrocarbons in oil immediately
phosphates. Nonpoint sources—mostly runoff of fertil- kill a number of aquatic organisms, especially in their
izer and animal wastes from urban, suburban, and agri- vulnerable larval forms. Other chemicals in oil form
cultural land and deposition from the atmosphere—ac- tar-like globs that float on the surface and coat the
count for 60% by weight of the nitrates. According to feathers of birds (especially diving birds) and the
2004 study by the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, animal fur of marine mammals. This oil coating destroys
manure is the largest source of nitrates and phosphates their natural insulation and buoyancy, causing many
from agricultural pollution. of them to drown or die of exposure from loss of
In 1983, the United States implemented the Chesa- body heat.
peake Bay Program. In the country’s most ambitious at- Heavy oil components that sink to the ocean floor
tempt at integrated coastal management, citizens’ groups, or wash into estuaries can smother bottom-dwelling
communities, state legislatures, and the federal govern- organisms such as crabs, oysters, mussels, and clams
ment are working together to reduce pollution inputs or make them unfit for human consumption. Some oil
into the bay. Strategies include establishing land-use spills have killed coral reefs.
regulations in the bay’s six watershed states to reduce Research shows that most (but not all) forms of
agricultural and urban runoff, banning phosphate de- marine life recover from exposure to large amounts
tergents, upgrading sewage treatment plants, and bet- of crude oil within 3 years. Recovery from exposure to re-
ter monitoring of industrial discharges. In addition, fined oil, especially in estuaries and salt marshes, can
wetlands are being restored and large areas of the bay take 10–15 years. Oil slicks that wash onto beaches can
are being replanted with sea grasses to help filter out have a serious economic impact on coastal residents,
nutrients and other pollutants. who lose income from fishing and tourist activities.
This hard work has paid off. Between 1985 and If they are not too large, oil spills can be partially
2000, phosphorus levels declined 27%, nitrogen levels cleaned up by mechanical (floating booms, skimmer
dropped 16%, and grasses growing on the bay’s floor boats, and absorbent devices such as large pillows
have made a comeback. This is a significant achieve- filled with feathers or hair), chemical, fire, and natural
ment given the increasing population in the watershed methods (such as using cocktails of natural bacteria to
and the fact that nearly 40% of the nitrogen inputs come speed up oil decomposition).
from the atmosphere. But scientists estimate that current methods can
Of course, there is still a long way to go, and sharp recover no more than 15% of the oil from a major spill.
cuts in state and federal funding have slowed progress. Thus preventing oil pollution is the most effective and,
Despite some setbacks, the Chesapeake Bay Program in the long run, the least costly approach.
shows what can be done when diverse groups work to-
gether to achieve goals that benefit both wildlife and
Solutions: Protecting Coastal Waters
people.
Preventing or reducing the flow of pollution from
land and from streams emptying into the ocean is the
Science: Effects of Oil on Ocean Life key to protecting the oceans.
Most aquatic oil pollution comes from human Figure 11-31 list ways for preventing and reducing ex-
activities on land. cessive pollution of coastal waters. The key to protect-
Crude petroleum (oil as it comes out of the ground) and ing the oceans is to reduce the flow of pollution from
refined petroleum (fuel oil, gasoline, and other processed land and from streams emptying into these waters.
petroleum products) reach the ocean from a number of Ocean pollution control must be linked with land-use
sources. and air pollution policies because about one-third of
Tanker accidents and blowouts at offshore drilling all pollutants entering the ocean worldwide come
rigs (when oil escapes under high pressure from a from emissions of air pollutants.
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Primary Secondary
Chlorine
Bar screen Grit chamber Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank disinfection tank
To river, lake,
or ocean
Air pump
Sludge digester
Disposed of in
landfill or ocean or
Figure 11-33 Solutions: primary and secondary sewage applied to cropland,
treatment. Sludge drying bed pasture, or rangeland
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treatment plants. For example, the coastal town of are unsafe to eat because of high levels of pesticides,
Arcata, California, created some 65 hectares (160 acres) mercury, and other toxic substances. A 2003 study by
of wetlands between the town and the adjacent Hum- the EPA also found that at least half of the country’s
boldt Bay. The marshes and ponds, developed on land 6,600 largest industrial facilities and municipal waste-
that was once a dump, act as a natural waste treatment water treatment plants have illegally discharged toxic
plant. The project cost less than half the estimated or biological wastes into waterways for years without
price of a conventional treatment plant. government enforcement actions or fines.
Here’s how it works. First, sewage goes to sedi-
mentation tanks, where the solids settle out as sludge,
Politics: Should the U.S. Clean Water Act
which is removed and processed for use as fertilizer.
Be Strengthened or Weakened?
Next, the liquid is pumped into oxidation ponds,
where bacteria break down remaining wastes. After a Some want to strengthen the Clean Water Act; others
month or so, the water is released into the artificial want to weaken it.
marshes, where plants and bacteria carry out further Some environmental scientists and a 2001 report by
filtration and cleansing. The purified water then flows the EPA’s inspector general call for the Clean Water
into the Humboldt Bay with its abundant marine life. Act to be strengthened. Suggested improvements in-
The marshes and lagoons also serve as an clude increasing funding and authority to control non-
Audubon Society bird sanctuary and provide habitats point sources of pollution, upgrading the computer
for thousands of otters, seabirds, and marine animals. system for monitoring compliance with the law, and
The town even celebrates its natural sewage treatment strengthening programs to prevent and control toxic
system with an annual “Flush with Pride” festival. water pollution.
Other suggestions include providing more fund-
ing and authority for integrated watershed and air-
Politics: Reducing Water Pollution
shed planning to protect groundwater and surface
from Point Sources in the United States
water from contamination, and expanding the rights of
Water pollution laws have significantly improved citizens to bring lawsuits to ensure that water pollution
water quality in many U.S. streams and lakes, but laws are enforced. The National Academy of Sciences
there is a long way to go. also calls for halting the loss of wetlands, instituting
Great news. According to the EPA, the Clean Water Act higher standards for wetland restoration, and creating
of 1972 led to numerous improvements in U.S. water new wetlands before filling any natural wetlands.
quality. Between 1992 and 2002, the number of Ameri- Many people oppose these proposals, contending
cans served by community water systems that met that the Clean Water Act’s regulations and government
federal health standards increased from 79% to 94%. wetlands regulations are already too restrictive and
Between 1972 and 2002, the percentage of U.S. stream costly. Farmers and developers see the law as limiting
lengths found to be fishable and swimmable increased their rights as property owners to fill in wetlands. They
from 36% to 60% of those tested. The amount of topsoil also believe they should be compensated for any prop-
lost through agricultural runoff was cut by about 1.1 erty value losses because of federal wetland protection.
billion metric tons (1 billion tons) annually. In addi- State and local officials want more discretion in
tion, between 1972 and 2002, the proportion of the U.S. testing for and meeting water quality standards. They
population served by sewage treatment plants in- argue that in many communities it is unnecessary and
creased from 32% to 74%. Between 1974 and 2002, an- too expensive to test for all the water pollutants re-
nual wetland losses also decreased by 80%. These are quired by federal law.
impressive achievements given the increases in the
U.S. population and per capita consumption of water x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should the U.S. Clean Water
Act be strengthened? Cast your vote online at http://biology
and other resources since 1972.
.brookscole.com/miller11.
Bad news. In 2000, the EPA found that 45% of the
country’s lakes and 40% of the streams surveyed were
too polluted for swimming or fishing. Runoff of ani-
mal wastes from hog, poultry, and cattle feedlots and
meat processing facilities pollutes 7 of every 10 U.S. 11-9 DRINKING WATER QUALITY
rivers. Most livestock wastes are not treated and are
stored in lagoons that sometimes leak. These lagoons Science: Purifying Urban Drinking Water
can also overflow or rupture as a result of excessive Centralized water treatment plants can provide safe
rainfall, spilling their contents into nearby streams and drinking water for city dwellers in developed
rivers and sometimes into residential areas. countries. Simpler and cheaper ways can be used to
Fish caught in more than 1,400 different water- purify drinking water for individuals and villages in
ways and more than one-fourth of the nation’s lakes developing countries.
Most developed countries have laws establishing Buyers should check out companies selling water
drinking water standards, but most developing coun- purification equipment and be wary of claims that the
tries do not have such laws or do not enforce them. EPA has approved a treatment device. Although it does
Areas in developed countries that depend on sur- register such devices, the EPA neither tests nor ap-
face water usually store it in a reservoir for several proves them.
days. This improves clarity and taste by increasing dis-
solved oxygen content and allowing suspended mat- x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should pollution standards
be established for bottled water? Cast your vote online at
ter to settle.
Next, the water is pumped to a purification plant http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
and treated to meet government drinking water stan-
dards. In areas with very pure groundwater sources,
Solutions: Reducing Water Pollution
little treatment except disinfection is necessary.
Simple measures can be used to purify drinking Shifting our priorities from controlling to preventing
water. In tropical countries that lack centralized water and reducing water pollution will require bottom-up
treatment systems, the WHO urges people to purify political action by individuals and groups.
drinking water by exposing a clear plastic bottle filled Encouraging news. Since 1970, most developed coun-
with contaminated water to intense sunlight. Heat and tries have enacted laws and regulations that have
the sun’s UV rays can kill infectious microbes in as lit- significantly reduced point-source water pollution.
tle as 3 hours. Painting one side of the bottle black can These improvements were largely the result of bottom-
improve heat absorption in this simple solar disinfection up political pressure on elected officials by individuals
method. Where this measure has been used, incidence and organized groups. Conversely, little has been
of dangerous childhood diarrhea has decreased by done to reduce water pollution in most developing
30–40%. countries.
In Bangladesh, households receive strips of cloth To environmental scientists, the next step is to in-
for filtering cholera-producing bacteria from drinking crease our efforts to reduce and prevent water pollu-
water. Villages using this approach have cut the num- tion in developed and developing countries by asking
ber of cholera cases in half. this question: How can we not produce water pollutants in
the first place? Figure 11-35 lists ways to achieve this
goal over the next several decades.
Science: Is Bottled Water the Answer?
Some bottled water is not as pure as tap water and
costs much more.
Despite some problems, experts say the United States
Solutions
has some of the world’s cleanest drinking water. Yet
about half of all Americans worry about getting sick Water Pollution
from tap water contaminants, and many drink bottled
water or install expensive water purification systems.
Studies reveal that in the United States bottled wa- • Prevent groundwater contamination
ter is 240 times to 10,000 times more expensive than
• Greatly reduce nonpoint runoff
tap water, about one-fourth of it is simply tap water,
and bacteria contaminate about one-third of such wa- • Reuse treated wastewater for irrigation
ter. Other countries, however, must rely on bottled wa-
• Find substitutes for toxic pollutants
ter because some of their tap water is too polluted to
drink. • Work with nature to treat sewage
Before drinking expensive bottled water and buy-
• Practice four R's of resource use (refuse, reduce,
ing costly home water purifiers, health officials suggest recycle, reuse)
that consumers have their water tested by local health
authorities or private labs (not companies trying to sell • Reduce resource waste
water purification equipment). The goals are to iden- • Reduce air pollution
tify what contaminants (if any) must be removed and
determine the type of purification needed to remove • Reduce poverty
such contaminants. Independent experts contend that • Reduce birth rates
unless tests show otherwise, for most urban and subur-
ban Americans (or people in other countries) served by
large municipal drinking water systems, home water Figure 11-35 Solutions: methods for preventing and reducing
treatment systems are not worth the expense and main- water pollution. Critical thinking: which two of these solutions do
tenance hassles. you believe are the most important?
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but nature does not care if we LEARNING ONLINE
live or die. We cannot survive without the oceans, for example,
but they can do just fine without us. The website for this book includes review questions for
ROGER ROSENBLATT the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
CRITICAL THINKING InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
Visit
1. How do human activities increase the harmful effects
of prolonged drought? How can we reduce these effects? http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
2. How do human activities contribute to flooding and Then choose Chapter 11, and select a learning resource.
flood damage? How can we reduce these effects? For access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter out-
3. What role does population growth play in (a) water lines and summaries, register and log in to
supply problems and (b) water pollution problems?
4. Should the prices of water for all uses be raised
sharply to include more of its environmental costs and to at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
encourage water conservation? Explain. What harmful card in the front of your book.
12 Geology and
Nonrenewable Minerals
Land
Renewable
Minerals
Nutrient
Recycling
CASE STUDY sell it. People have constructed golf courses, hunting
lodges, hotels, and housing subdivisions on public
The General Mining Law land that they bought from taxpayers at 1872 prices.
of 1872 So far, public lands containing an estimated
$240–385 billion (adjusted for inflation) of publicly
Some people have gotten rich by using the little-known owned mineral resources have been transferred to pri-
U.S. General Mining Law of 1872. It was designed to vate interests at 1872 prices. Hardrock mining compa-
encourage mineral exploration and the mining of nies pay no royalties to taxpayers on the minerals they
hardrock minerals (such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, extract from such public lands and fight hard to keep
nickel, and uranium) on U.S. public lands and to help this law on the books.
develop the then sparsely populated West. In 1992, the 1872 law was modified to require
Under this law, a person or corporation can file a mining companies to post bonds to cover 100% of the
mining claim or assume legal ownership of parcels of estimated cleanup costs in case they go bankrupt—a
land on essentially all U.S. public land except parks requirement that mining companies are lobbying
and wilderness. To file a claim, you say you believe Congress to overturn or greatly weaken. In the past
the land contains valuable hardrock minerals and such bonds were not required. As a result, if we de-
promise to spend $500 to improve it for mineral de- cide to clean up land and streams (Figure 12-1) dam-
velopment. You must then pay $100 per year for each aged by more than 550,000 abandoned hardrock
8 hectares (20 acres) of land to maintain the claim, mines (mostly in the West), the bill for U.S. taxpayers
whether or not a mine is in operation. You can also will be $33–72 billion!
pay the federal government $6–12 per hectare Mining companies point out that they must in-
($2.50–5.00 an acre) to buy the land. Then you can use vest large sums (often $100 million or more) to locate
it for essentially any purpose, lease it, build on it, or and develop an ore site before they make any profits
from mining hardrock minerals. In addition, their
Figure 12-1 Natural capital degradation: this polluted creek in mining operations provide high-paying jobs to min-
Montana illustrates how gold mining can contaminate water when ers, supply vital resources for industry, stimulate the
highly toxic cyanide or mercury is used to extract gold from its ore.
national and local economies, reduce trade deficits,
In addition, air and water convert the sulfur in gold ore to sulfuric acid,
which releases toxic metals such as cadmium and copper into streams and save U.S. consumers money on products pro-
and groundwater. duced from minerals.
Environmentalists and some economists call
Jeff & Alexa Henry/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Civilization exists by geological consent, subject to change Geology, the subject of this chapter, is the science de-
without notice. voted to the study of dynamic processes occurring on
WILL DURANT the earth’s surface and in its interior. You probably
think of the ground underneath you as stable and un-
This chapter discusses the earth’s major geologic moving. Wrong. It is part of a dynamic planet whose
processes, the extraction of nonrenewable minerals surface and interior are constantly changing. Fortu-
from the earth’s crust, the environmental impacts of nately, most of these geologic changes take place very
extracting and using these minerals, and the length of slowly on our short human time scale, and most occur
time for which supplies of such minerals might last. It out of sight within the earth’s interior. Otherwise, we
addresses the following questions: would be in for a wild geological ride.
Over eons of time, continents have moved to new
■ What major geologic processes occur within the
positions, breaking apart and crunching into one an-
earth and on its surface?
other (Figure 4-8, p. 72). Inside the earth, huge cyclical
■ What are rocks, and how are they recycled by the flows of molten rock break the earth’s surface into a se-
rock cycle? ries of gigantic plates that move very slowly across the
■ How do we find and extract mineral resources planet. Go outside and you are standing on one of
from the earth’s crust, and what harmful environ- these moving plates. Hard to believe, isn’t it?
mental effects result from removing and using Energy from the sun and from the earth’s interior,
these minerals? coupled with the erosive power of flowing water, have
created continents, mountains, valleys, plains, and
■ Will there be enough nonrenewable mineral re- ocean basins. This ongoing process continues to
sources for future generations? change the landscape. Every now and then the solid
earth under our feet shakes, rattles, and rolls during an
earthquake, or erupts like a punctured boil when a vol-
cano forms or awakens after a long geological sleep.
KEY IDEAS
■ The earth consists of a core, mantle, and crust that
Science: Earth’s Structure
are constantly changing as a result of processes taking
place on and below its surface. The earth’s three major zones are its core, mantle,
and crust.
■ The earth’s crust contains igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks that are recycled very slowly by As the primitive earth cooled over eons, its interior
the rock cycle. separated into three major concentric zones: the core,
the mantle, and the crust (Figure 3-5, p. 38). Beneath
■ We know how to extract more than 100 nonrenew- your feet is a crust of soil and rock, which floats on a
able minerals from the earth’s crust by using surface mantle of partly melted and solid rock, which in turn
and subsurface mining. surrounds an intensely hot core. Our knowledge of
■ Environmental damage caused by extraction, pro- the earth’s interior comes mostly from indirect evi-
cessing, and use of mineral resources can limit the dence such as density measurements, seismic (earth-
availability of these materials. quake) wave studies, measurements of interior heat
■ An increase in the price of a scarce mineral resource flow, lava analyses, and research on meteorite compo-
can increase supplies and encourage more efficient sition.
use, although there are limits to this process. The core is the earth’s innermost zone. It is in-
tensely hot and has a solid inner part, surrounded by a
■ Scientists and engineers are developing new types liquid core of molten or semisolid material.
of materials that can serve as substitutes for many A thick solid zone called the mantle surrounds the
metals. core. Most of the mantle is solid rock, but under its
rigid outermost part is a zone—the asthenosphere—of
very hot, partly melted rock that flows and can be de-
formed like soft plastic.
12-1 GEOLOGIC PROCESSES The outermost and thinnest zone of the earth is
the crust. It consists of the continental crust, which un-
Science: Earth—A Dynamic Planet? derlies the continents (including the continental
The planet we live on is constantly changing as a shelves extending into the oceans), and the oceanic
result of processes taking place on and below its crust, which underlies the ocean basins and covers
surface. 71% of the earth’s surface (Figure 12-2).
lain
(lithosphere) Continental
p
slope
al
yss
Continental
Ab
shelf
Abyssal plain
Continental crust
(lithosphere)
Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle
(lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)
Figure 12-2 Natural capital: major features of the earth’s crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere, com-
posed of the crust and outermost mantle, is rigid and brittle. The asthenosphere, a zone in the mantle, can be
deformed by heat and pressure.
12-2 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL Throughout the earth’s history, continents have
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES split and joined as tectonic plates have very slowly
drifted thousands of kilometers back and forth across
Science: Plate Tectonics the planet’s surface (Figure 4-8, p. 72).
Huge volumes of heated and molten rock As these plates collide, break apart, and slide by
moving around within the earth’s interior form one another over millions of years, they produce
massive solid plates—called tectonic plates— mountains on land (such as the Himalayas and the Ap-
that move extremely slowly across the earth’s palachian Mountains of the eastern United States),
surface. huge ridges and trenches on the ocean floor, and other
features of the earth’s surface (Figures 12-2 and 12-3).
We tend to think of the earth’s crust, mantle, and core
These movements and geological processes continue
as fairly static. In reality, geologic processes taking
today. Natural hazards such as earthquakes and volca-
place within the earth and on its surface, mostly over
noes are likely to occur at plate boundaries. Science
thousands to millions of years, bring about changes in
Supplement 7 at the end of this book discusses earth-
these components (Figure 12-3, p. 272).
quakes and volcanoes.
The flows of energy and heated material in the
The theory of plate tectonics also helps explain
mantle convection cells cause about 15 huge rigid
how certain patterns of biological evolution occurred.
plates, called tectonic plates, to move extremely
By reconstructing the course of continental drift over
slowly across the earth’s surface (Figures 12-3, p. 272,
millions of years, scientists can trace how species mi-
and 12-4, p. 273). These thick plates are composed of
grated from one area to another when continents that
the continental and oceanic crust and the rigid, outer-
are now far apart were still joined together. As the con-
most part of the mantle (above the asthenosphere), a
tinents separated, populations became geographically
combination called the lithosphere.
and reproductively isolated, and speciation occurred.
The tectonic plates move constantly, supported by
In other words, tectonic plates have played a major but
the slowly flowing asthenosphere. They are somewhat
mostly unnoticed role in the drama of life that contin-
like large icebergs floating extremely slowly on the
ues to unfold on our planetary home.
surface of an ocean or like the world’s largest and
slowest-moving surfboards. A typical speed is about
the rate at which fingernails grow. You ride or surf on
one of these plates throughout your entire life, but the Witness what happens when the earth’s tectonic plates pull
apart or collide at Environmental ScienceNow.
motion is too slow for you to notice.
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Spreading
center
O c e a nic t
n ts e c t o ni
e ic p la te c pla Ocean
n ti n c to n te trench
co ic t
e
wo ean
nt Oc
ee
tw
be Plate mo
n vement ve men
sio e mo t
li te Plat
ol la
p
C
ic
on
ct
Te
Subduction
zone Oceanic crust Oceanic crust
Continental
crust Continental
crust
Hot material
rising
Mantle through
convection the mantle
cell
Active Figure 12-3 Natural capital: the earth’s crust is made up of a series of rigid plates, called tectonic
plates, which move around in response to forces in the mantle. See an animation based on this figure and
take a short quiz on the concept.
EURASIAN PLATE
NORTH ANATOLIAN
AMERICAN PLATE
PLATE
JUAN DE CHINA
FUCA PLATE CARIBBEAN SUBPLATE
PLATE
PHILIPPINE
ARABIAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
PLATE
PACIFIC
PLATE
SOUTH
AMERICAN
PLATE
NAZCA
PLATE INDIA-AUSTRALIAN
SOMALIAN PLATE
SUBPLATE
ANTARCTIC PLATE
Active Figure 12-4 Natural capital: the earth’s major tectonic plates. These bands correspond to the
patterns for the types of lithospheric plate boundaries shown in Figure 12-5. See an animation based on
this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
fracture (fault) in the lithosphere (Figure 12-5, bottom). In contrast, external processes tend to wear it down
Most transform faults are located on the ocean floor and produce a variety of landforms and environments
but a few are found on land. For example, the North due to the buildup of eroded sediment.
American Plate and the Pacific Plate slide and rub One major external process is erosion: the process
past each other along California’s San Andreas fault. by which material is dissolved, loosened, or worn
Southern California is slowly moving along this trans- away from one part of the earth’s surface and de-
form fault toward northern California. Perhaps 30 mil- posited elsewhere (Figures 10-8 and 10-9, p. 212). Flow-
lion years from now, the geographical area we now ing streams and rain cause the most erosion. Wind
call Los Angeles will probably slowly grind and slide blowing particles of soil from one area to another also
by the geographical area now known as San Francisco. produces erosion. Human activities—particularly
those that destroy vegetation that holds soil in place—
accelerate this external process.
Science: Geologic Processes
Weathering consists of the physical, chemical, and
on the Earth’s Surface
biological processes that break down rocks and miner-
Water and wind move large amounts of soil and als into smaller particles that can then be eroded.
broken-down pieces of rock from one place to Three types of weathering processes exist.
another. The first process is physical or mechanical weather-
Geologic changes based directly or indirectly on en- ing, in which a large rock mass is broken into smaller
ergy from the sun and on gravity (rather than on heat fragments. It resembles what happens when you ham-
in the earth’s interior) are called external processes. In- mer a rock into pieces. The most important agent of
ternal processes generally build up the earth’s surface. mechanical weathering is frost wedging, in which water
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Asthenosphere
Oceanic ridge at a divergent plate boundary
12-3 MINERALS, ROCKS,
Trench Volcanic island arc AND THE ROCK CYCLE
Sedimentary rock forms from sediment produced structure and its physical properties and appearance.
when existing rocks are weathered and eroded into Examples include anthracite (a form of coal), slate
small pieces, then transported by water, wind, or grav- (formed when shale and mudstone are heated), and
ity to downstream, downwind, or downhill sites. These marble (produced when limestone is exposed to heat
sediments are deposited in layers that accumulate over and pressure).
time and increase the weight and pressure on underly- The interaction of physical and chemical processes
ing layers. A combination of pressure and dissolved that changes rocks from one type to another is called
minerals seeping through the layers of sediment crys- the rock cycle (Figure 12-6). It recycles the earth’s three
tallizes and binds sediment particles together to form types of rocks over millions of years and is the slowest
the sedimentary rock. Examples include sandstone and of the earth’s cyclic processes. It also concentrates the
shale (formed from pressure created by deposited lay- planet’s nonrenewable mineral resources on which we
ers of sediment), dolomite and limestone (formed from depend. Without the incredibly slow rock cycle, you
the compacted shells, skeletons, and other remains of would not exist.
dead organisms), and lignite and bituminous coal (de-
rived from plant remains).
Science: Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
Metamorphic rock forms when a preexisting rock
is subjected to high temperatures (which may cause it Mineral resources are nonrenewable materials
to melt partially), high pressures, chemically active flu- that we can extract from the earth’s crust.
ids, or a combination of these agents. These forces may A nonrenewable mineral resource is a concentration
transform a rock by reshaping its internal crystalline of naturally occurring material in or on the earth’s
Erosion
Transportation
Weathering
Deposition
Igneous rock
Granite, pumice,
basalt
Sedimentary rock
Sandstone, limestone
Heat, pressure
Cooling
Melting
Metamorphic rock
Slate, marble,
gneiss, quartzite
Figure 12-6 Natural capital: the rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes. The earth’s materials
are recycled over millions of years by three processes: melting, erosion, and metamorphism, which produce ig-
neous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rock from any of these classes can be converted to rock of either
of the other two classes, or can be recycled within its own class.
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crust that can be extracted and processed into useful ■ Reserves: identified resources from which a usable
materials at an affordable cost. Over millions to bil- nonrenewable mineral can be extracted profitably at
lions of years, the earth’s internal and external geo- current prices
logic processes have produced numerous nonfuel min- ■ Other resources: undiscovered resources and iden-
eral resources and fossil fuel energy resources. Because tified resources not classified as reserves
they take so long to produce, they are classified as non-
renewable mineral resources. Most published estimates of the supply of a given
We know how to find and extract more than 100 nonrenewable resource refer to reserves. Reserves can
nonrenewable minerals from the earth’s crust. They in- increase when new deposits are found or when higher
clude metallic mineral resources (iron, copper, alu- prices or improved mining technology make it prof-
minum), nonmetallic mineral resources (salt, clay, sand, itable to extract deposits that previously were consid-
phosphates, and soil), and energy resources (coal, oil, ered too expensive to extract. Theoretically, all other
natural gas, and uranium). resources could eventually be converted to reserves,
Ore is rock containing enough of one or more but this is highly unlikely.
metallic minerals to be mined profitably. We convert
about 40 metals extracted from ores into many every-
day items that we either use and discard (Figure 2-12,
12-4 FINDING, REMOVING, AND
p. 33) or learn to reuse, recycle, or use less wastefully
PROCESSING NONRENEWABLE
(Figure 2-13, p. 33).
MINERALS
The U.S. Geological Survey classifies nonrenew-
able mineral resources into four major categories (Fig-
Science: Finding Mineral Deposits
ure 12-7):
Promising underground deposits of minerals are
■ Identified resources: deposits of a nonrenewable located by a variety of physical and chemical
mineral resource with a known location, quantity, and methods.
quality, or whose existence is based on direct geologic
Mining companies use several methods to find
evidence and measurements
promising mineral deposits. For example, aerial pho-
■ Undiscovered resources: potential supplies of tos and satellite images may reveal protruding rock
a nonrenewable mineral resource assumed to exist formations (outcrops) associated with certain miner-
on the basis of geologic knowledge and theory but als. Planes can be equipped with radiation-measuring
with unknown specific locations, quality, and equipment to detect deposits of radioactive minerals
amounts such as uranium ore, and a magnetometer to measure
changes in the earth’s magnetic field caused by mag-
netic minerals such as iron ore. Another method uses a
gravimeter to measure differences in gravity produced
Undiscovered Identified
by differences in density between an ore deposit and
the surrounding rock.
Economical
Spoil banks
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Figure 12-12 Natural capital degradation: some harmful environmental effects of extracting, processing, and
using nonrenewable mineral and energy resources. The energy required to carry out each step causes addi-
tional pollution and environmental degradation.
Figure 12-13 Natural capital degradation: life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses en-
ergy and produces some pollution and waste.
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of nonrenewable mineral resources. Instead, they claim Depletion time is how long it takes to use up a
that the major problem is the environmental damage certain proportion—usually 80%—of the reserves of a
caused by their extraction, processing, and conversion mineral at a given rate of use. When experts disagree
to products (Figure 12-12). about depletion times, it is often because they are us-
The environmental impacts from mining an ore ing different assumptions about supply and rate of use
are affected by its percentage of metal content, or (Figure 12-14).
grade. The more accessible and higher-grade ores are The shortest depletion time assumes no recycling
usually exploited first. As they are depleted, it takes or reuse and no increase in reserves (curve A, Figure 12-
more money, energy, water, and other materials to ex- 14). A longer depletion time assumes that recycling will
ploit lower-grade ores. This, in turn, increases land stretch existing reserves and that better mining tech-
disruption, mining waste, and pollution. nology, higher prices, and new discoveries will in-
For example, gold miners typically remove an crease reserves (curve B, Figure 12-14). An even longer
amount of ore equal to the weight of 50 automobiles to depletion time assumes that new discoveries will fur-
extract a piece of gold that would fit inside your ther expand reserves and that recycling, reuse, and re-
clenched fist. Most newlyweds would be surprised to duced consumption will extend supplies (curve C, Fig-
know that about 5.5 metric tons (6 tons) of mining ure 12-14). Finding a substitute for a resource leads to a
waste was created to make their two gold wedding new set of depletion curves for the new resource.
rings. In Australia and North America, a mining tech- We can use geological methods to make fairly good
nology called cyanide heap leaching is cheap enough to estimates of the reserves of most resources (Figure 12-7,
allow mining companies to level entire mountains blue) and less accurate measurements of potential
containing very low-grade gold ore. other supplies of mineral resources (Figure 12-7, red).
Currently, most of the harmful environmental Rising prices and improved mining technology can
costs of mining and processing minerals are not in- convert some of the other resources to reserves, but it is
cluded in the prices for processed metals and the re- difficult to project how much this conversion will add
sulting consumer products. Instead, these costs are to the usable supply.
passed on to society and future generations, which The demand for mineral resources is increasing at
gives mining companies and manufacturers little in- a rapid rate as more people consume more stuff. For
centive to reduce resource waste and pollution. Envi- example, since 1940 Americans alone have used up as
ronmentalists and some economists call for phasing in
full-cost pricing—including the cost of environmental
harm done in the price of goods made from minerals.
A Mine, use, throw away;
no new discoveries;
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should market prices of goods
made from minerals include their harmful environmental
rising prices
large a share of the earth’s mineral resources as all pre- and pollution prevention, and encourage recycling
vious generations put together, and the resource-use and reuse of mineral resources.
treadmill is accelerating. Mining company representatives insist that they
Will we run out of affordable supplies of a particu- need subsidies and low taxes to keep the prices of
lar mineral resource? No one knows. If we do, can we minerals low for consumers. They also claim that the
find an acceptable substitute? Some think we can. Do subsidies encourage the companies not to move their
environmental limits apply to the use of mineral re- mining operations to other countries with no such
sources? Some environmental scientists think so un- taxes and less stringent mining regulations.
less we can use microorganisms, or other less environ- Economic problems can also hinder the develop-
mentally harmful ways, to extract and process miner- ment of new supplies of mineral resources because
als, or nanotechnology to construct materials we need finding them takes increasingly scarce investment cap-
from atoms and molecules. ital and is financially risky. Typically, if geologists
identify 10,000 possible deposits of a given resource,
only 1,000 sites are worth exploring; only 100 justify
Economics and Politics: Prices and Supplies
drilling, trenching, or tunneling; and only 1 becomes a
of Nonrenewable Minerals
producing mine or well. If you had lots of financial
A rising price for a scarce mineral resource can capital, would you invest it in developing a nonrenew-
increase supplies and encourage more efficient use. able mineral resource?
Geologic processes determine the quantity and loca-
tion of a mineral resource in the earth’s crust. Econom-
Science: Mining Lower-Grade Ores
ics determines what part of the known supply is actu-
ally extracted and used. New technologies can increase the mining of
According to standard economic theory, in a com- low-grade ores at affordable prices, but harmful
petitive free market a plentiful mineral resource is environmental effects can limit this endeavor.
cheap when its supply exceeds demand. When a re- Some analysts contend that all we need to do to
source becomes scarce, its price rises. This can en- increase supplies of a mineral is to extract lower
courage exploration for new deposits, stimulate de- grades of ore. They point to the development of new
velopment of better mining technology, and make it earth-moving equipment, improved techniques for re-
profitable to mine lower-grade ores. It can also en- moving impurities from ores, and other technological
courage a search for substitutes and promote resource advances in mineral extraction and processing.
conservation. In 1900, the average copper ore mined in the
According to some economists, this price effect United States was about 5% copper by weight. Today
may no longer apply very well in most developed that ratio is 0.5%, and copper costs less (adjusted for
countries. Industry and government in such countries inflation). New methods of mineral extraction may al-
often control the supply, demand, and prices of miner- low even lower-grade ores of some metals to be used.
als to such an extent that a truly competitive free mar- Several factors can limit the mining of lower-
ket does not exist. grade ores. One is the increased cost of mining and
Most mineral prices are kept artificially low be- processing larger volumes of ore. Another is the avail-
cause governments subsidize development of their do- ability of fresh water needed to mine and process some
mestic mineral resources to help promote economic minerals—especially in arid and semiarid areas. A
growth and national security. In the United States, for third limiting factor is the environmental impacts of
instance, mining companies get depletion allowances the increased land disruption, waste material, and pol-
amounting to 5–22% of their gross income (depending lution produced during mining and processing (Fig-
on the mineral). They can also reduce their taxes by de- ure 12-12).
ducting much of their costs for finding and developing One way to improve mining technology is to use
mineral deposits. In addition, hardrock mining com- microorganisms for in-place (in situ, pronounced “in
panies operating in the United States can buy public SY-too”) mining. This biological approach removes
land at 1872 prices and pay no royalties to the govern- desired metals from ores while leaving the surround-
ment on the minerals they extract (see the Case Study ing environment undisturbed. It also reduces the air
at the beginning of the chapter). pollution associated with the smelting of metal ores
Between 1982 and 2004, U.S. mining companies and the water pollution associated with using haz-
received more than $6 billion in government subsidies. ardous chemicals such as cyanides and mercury to ex-
Critics argue that taxing—rather than subsidizing— tract gold.
the extraction of nonfuel mineral resources would pro- Once a commercially viable ore deposit has
vide governments with revenue, create incentives for been identified, wells are drilled into it and the ore is
more efficient resource use, promote waste reduction fractured. The ore is then inoculated with bacteria to
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extract the desired metal. Next, the well is flooded with toy box of nature—atoms and molecules. . . . The pos-
water, which is pumped to the surface, where the de- sibilities to create new things appear limitless.” You
sired metal is removed. The water is recycled. might want to consider this rapidly emerging field as a
Currently, more than 30% of all copper produced career choice.
worldwide, worth more than $1 billion per year, comes So what is the catch? What are some possible un-
from such biomining. If naturally occurring bacteria intended harmful consequences of nanotechnology?
cannot be found to extract a particular metal, genetic As particles get smaller, they become more reactive
engineering techniques could be used to produce such and potentially more toxic because they have large
bacteria. surface areas relative to their mass. Also, nanosize par-
On the down side, microbiological ore processing ticles could breach some of the natural defenses of our
is slow. It can take decades to remove the same amount bodies. They could easily reach the lungs and from
of material that conventional methods can remove there migrate to other organs, including possibly the
within months or years. So far, biological mining meth- central nervous system and the bloodstream.
ods are economically feasible only with low-grade ores In 2004, Eva Olberdorster, an environmental toxi-
for which conventional techniques are too expensive. cologist at Southern Methodist University, found that
fish swimming in water loaded with buckyballs expe-
rienced brain damage within 48 hours. Little is known
Science Case Study: Using Nanotechnology
about how buckyballs and other nanoparticles behave
to Produce New Materials
in the human body. Even so, factories are churning out
Building new materials from the bottom up by buckyballs and these and other nanoparticles are start-
assembling atoms and molecules has enormous ing to show up in products ranging from cosmetics to
potential but could have potentially harmful sunscreens and in the environment.
unintended effects. Many analysts say we need to take two steps be-
Nanotechnology uses science and engineering at fore unleashing nanotechnology more broadly. First,
the atomic and molecular levels to build materials with we must carefully investigate its potential ecological,
specified properties. It involves finding ways to health, and societal risks. Second, we must develop
manipulate atoms and molecules as small as 1–100 guidelines and regulations for controlling and guid-
nanometers—billionths of a meter—wide. For compar- ing its spread until we have better answers to many
ison, your unaided eye cannot see things smaller than of the “What happens next?” questions about this
10,000 nanometers across and the width of a typical technology.
human hair is 50,000 nanometers.
This atomic and molecular approach to manufac-
Science, Economics, and Politics: Getting
turing uses abundant atoms such as carbon, oxygen,
More Minerals from the Ocean
and hydrogen as raw materials and arranges them to
create everything from medicines and solar cells to Most minerals in seawater cost too much to
automobile bodies. Ideally, this bottom-up process extract, and mineral resources found on the
occurs with little environmental harm and without de- deep ocean floor are not being removed
pleting nonrenewable resources. One example is the because of high costs and squabbles over who
creation of soccer ball–shaped forms of carbon called owns them.
buckyballs. Ocean mineral resources are found in seawater, sedi-
Nanotechnology scientists entice us with visions ments and deposits on the shallow continental shelf,
of a molecular economy. They ask us to imagine a super- hydrothermal ore deposits (Figure 12-15), and man-
computer the size of a sugar cube that could store all ganese-rich nodules on the deep-ocean floor.
the information in the U.S. Library of Congress, bio- Most of the chemical elements found in seawater
composite materials smaller than a human cell that occur in such low concentrations that recovering them
would make your bones and tendons super strong, de- takes more energy and money than they are worth.
signer molecules that could seek out and kill only can- Only magnesium, bromine, and sodium chloride are
cer cells, and windows, kitchens, and bathrooms that abundant enough to be extracted profitably at current
never need cleaning. The list could go on. prices with existing technology.
This research is in its early stages and tangible Deposits of minerals (mostly sediments) along
results remain a decade away. Nevertheless, nano- the continental shelf and near shorelines are signifi-
technology has already been used to develop stain- cant sources of sand, gravel, phosphates, sulfur, tin,
resistant, wrinkle-free materials for pants and sun- copper, iron, tungsten, silver, titanium, platinum, and
screens that block ultraviolet light. diamonds.
Nobel laureate Horst Stormer says, “Nanotechnol- Rich hydrothermal deposits of gold, silver, zinc,
ogy has given us the tools . . . to play with the ultimate and copper are found as sulfide deposits in the deep-
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13 Energy
Nonrenewable
Renewable
Energy
Energy
CASE STUDY
water with the condensation from the cooling pipes
The Coming Energy-Efficiency used for irrigation.
A small (but growing) number of people in devel-
and Renewable-Energy oped and developing countries get their electricity
Revolution from solar cells that convert sunlight directly into elec-
tricity. These devices can be attached like shingles to a
Energy analyst Amory Lovins built a large, solar- roof, used as roofing, or applied to window glass as a
heated, superinsulated, partially earth-sheltered home coating. Solar-cell prices are high but falling.
and office in Snowmass, Colorado (Figure 13-1), According to many scientists and executives of oil
which experiences severely cold winter temperatures. and automobile companies, we are in the beginning
The same structure also houses the research cen- stages of a hydrogen revolution to be phased in during
ter for the Rocky Mountain Institute. This this century as the Age of Oil begins winding down.
office–home gets 99% of its space and water heating Because little hydrogen gas (H2) is readily available,
and 95% of its daytime lighting from the sun, and we must use another energy resource to produce it
uses one-tenth the usual amount of electricity for a from water or various organic compounds such as
structure of its size. methane. We could do so by passing electricity pro-
With today’s superinsulating windows, a house duced by renewable energy from wind turbines, hy-
can have many windows without experiencing much droelectric power plants, solar cells, biomass, and ge-
heat loss in cold weather or heat gain in hot weather. othermal energy from the earth’s interior through wa-
Thinner insulation now being developed will allow ter to make H2 gas. Energy-efficient fuel cells could
roofs and walls to be protected far better than in to- produce electricity by combining hydrogen and oxy-
day’s best superinsulated houses. gen gas to run cars and appliances, heat water, and
Some of today’s green and smart buildings have heat and cool buildings.
lights run by sensors that dim when its sunny and Burning hydrogen in a fuel cell by combining it
brighten when its cloudy and air conditioners that with oxygen produces water vapor and no carbon
shut off when a window is open. A new building at dioxide. Shifting to hydrogen as our primary energy
the Natural Energy Lab of Hawaii uses no energy source would therefore eliminate most air pollution
from the electricity grid. It is cooled with piped in sea- and greatly slow global warming—as long as the hy-
drogen is produced
from water and not car-
bon-containing fossil fu-
els and the nuclear fuel
cycle that emit the
greenhouse gas CO2
into the atmosphere.
Robert Millman/Rocky Mountain Institute
Typical citizens of advanced industrialized nations each con- 13-1 EVALUATING ENERGY
sume as much energy in six months as typical citizens in de- RESOURCES
veloping countries consume during their entire life.
MAURICE STRONG Science: Solar and Commercial Energy
About 99% of the energy that heats the earth
This chapter evaluates the use of nonrenewable fossil
and our buildings comes from the sun; the
fuel and nuclear power energy resources, ways to im-
remaining 1% comes mostly from burning fossil
prove energy efficiency, and use of renewable energy
fuels.
resources. It addresses the following questions:
Almost all of the energy that heats the earth and our
■ How should we evaluate energy resources? buildings comes from the sun at no cost to us. Without
■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of this essentially inexhaustible solar energy (solar capi-
conventional oil, heavy oils, natural gas, coal, and tal), the earth’s average temperature would be 240°C
conversion of coal to gaseous and liquid fuels? 400°F), and life as we know it would not exist.
This direct input of solar energy produces several
■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of
other indirect forms of renewable solar energy. Examples
conventional nuclear fission, breeder nuclear fis-
include wind, falling and flowing water (hydropower),
sion, and nuclear fusion?
and biomass (solar energy converted to chemical en-
■ How can we improve energy efficiency and what ergy and stored in the chemical bonds of organic com-
are the advantages of doing so? pounds in trees and other plants).
■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of us- Commercial energy sold in the marketplace makes
ing renewable energy in forms such as solar en- up the remaining 1% of the energy we use to supple-
ergy, flowing water, wind, biomass, geothermal en- ment the earth’s direct input of solar energy. Most
ergy, and hydrogen? commercial energy comes from extracting and burn-
ing nonrenewable mineral resources obtained from the
■ How can we make a transition to a more sustain-
earth’s crust, primarily carbon-containing fossil fu-
able energy future?
els—oil, natural gas, and coal (Figure 13-2).
Contour
Oil drilling strip mining Geothermal energy
platform
on legs Hot water storage
Impe Unde
rviou r
s roc
k coal ground
mine
Natu
Oil ral ga
Wate s
r
Wate
r
Wate and b is heated
r as dr rought up
y
wet s steam or
team
Coal seam
Hot r Water penetrates
ock
down through
the rock
Figure 13-2 Natural capital: important nonrenewable energy resources that
Magm
can be removed from the earth’s crust are coal, oil, natural gas, and some a
forms of geothermal energy. Nonrenewable uranium ore is also extracted from
the earth’s crust and then processed to increase its concentration of uranium-
235, which can serve as a fuel in nuclear reactors to produce electricity.
Nuclear power
6% Nuclear power
Hydropower, geothermal, 8%
solar, wind Hydropower
,
geothermal,
7%
solar, wind
3%
RE
Natural
NE
Natural
WA
gas
gas
23%
BLE
21%
REN 8%
18%
EWABLE
Biomass
Coal
11%
23%
Coal
NON
NON
22% Biomass
4%
RE
RE
Oil Oil
NE
NE
33% 39%
W
W
AB
AB
LE
LE
82 93
% %
Figure 13-3 Natural capital: commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the United States (right)
in 2003. Commercial energy amounts to only 1% of the energy used in the world; the other 99% is direct solar
energy received from the sun and is not sold in the marketplace. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy, British
Petroleum, Worldwatch Institute, and International Energy Agency)
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consumption (percent)
Coal
80
There is debate over whether U.S. energy policy
for this century should maintain the country’s 60 Natural gas
dependence on oil and coal or focus more on
Oil
natural gas, hydrogen, and solar cells.
The United States is the world’s largest energy user.
The average American consumes as much energy in
40
20
Nuclear
?
Hydrogen
Solar
through a combination of taxes and phasing out of en- ing the amount of energy used (the first law of thermo-
vironmentally harmful subsidies? dynamics), automatically wasted (the second law of
thermodynamics), and unnecessarily wasted in finding,
processing, concentrating, and transporting the useful
Science: Net Energy
energy to users.
Net energy is the amount of high-quality usable Net energy is analogous to your net spendable in-
energy available from a resource after subtracting the come—your wages minus taxes and job-related ex-
energy needed to make it available for use. penses. Suppose for every 10 units of energy in oil in
It takes energy to get energy. For example, before oil the ground, we use and waste 8 units of energy to find,
becomes useful to us, it must be found, pumped up extract, process, and transport that oil to users. Then
from beneath the ground or ocean floor, transferred to we have only 2 units of useful energy available from
a refinery and converted to useful fuels (such as gaso- every 10 units of energy in the oil.
line, diesel fuel, and heating oil), transported to users, We can express net energy as the ratio of useful en-
and burned in furnaces and cars. Each of these steps ergy produced to the energy used to produce it. In the
uses high-quality energy. The second law of thermo- preceding example, the net energy ratio would be 10/8,
dynamics tells us that some of the high-quality energy or approximately 1.25. The higher the ratio, the greater
used in each step is wasted and degraded to lower- the net energy. When the ratio is less than 1, there is a
quality energy. net energy loss. Figure 13-5 shows estimated net energy
The usable amount of high-quality energy available ratios for various types of space heating, high-tempera-
from a given quantity of an energy resource is its net ture heat for industrial processes, and transportation.
energy. It is the total amount of energy available from Currently, oil has a high net energy ratio because
an energy resource minus the energy needed to find, much of it comes from large, accessible, and cheap-to-
extract, process, and get that energy to consumers. It is extract deposits such as those in the Middle East. As
calculated by estimating the total energy available those sources are depleted, the net energy ratio of oil
from the resource over its lifetime and then subtract- will decline and its price will rise sharply.
Space Heating
Passive solar 5.8
Natural gas 4.9
Oil 4.5
Active solar 1.9
Coal gasification 1.5
Electric resistance heating (coal-fired plant) 0.4
Electric resistance heating 0.4
(natural-gas-fired plant)
Electric resistance heating (nuclear plant) 0.3
Transportation
Natural gas 4.9
Gasoline (refined crude oil) 4.1
Biofuel (ethyl alcohol) 1.9
Coal liquefaction 1.4
Oil shale 1.2
Figure 13-5 Science: net energy ratios for various energy systems over their estimated lifetimes. The higher
the net energy ratio, the greater the net energy available. Critical thinking: how does the current use of energy
resources (Figure 13-3) compare with the usage based on net energy? (Data from U.S. Department of Energy
and Colorado Energy Research Institute, Net Energy Analysis, 1976; and Howard T. Odum and Elisabeth C.
Odum, Energy Basis for Man and Nature, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981)
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Conventional nuclear energy has a low net energy pores and into the bottom of the well, is pumped to the
ratio because large amounts of energy are needed to surface.
extract and process uranium ore, convert it into nu- Drilling for oil causes only moderate damage to
clear fuel, build and operate nuclear power plants, dis- land because the wells occupy fairly little land area.
mantle the highly radioactive plants after their 15–60 However, drilling for oil and transporting it around
years of useful life, and store the resulting highly ra- the world inevitably results in some oil spills on land
dioactive wastes safely for 10,000–240,000 years. Each and in aquatic systems. In addition, harmful environ-
of these steps in the nuclear fuel cycle uses energy and mental effects are associated with the extraction, pro-
costs money. Some analysts estimate that ultimately cessing, and use of any nonrenewable resource from
the conventional nuclear fuel cycle will lead to a net the earth’s crust (Figure 12-12, p. 279).
energy loss because we will have to put more energy After it is extracted, crude oil is transported to a re-
into it than we will ever get out of it. Nuclear power finery by pipeline, truck, or ship (oil tanker). There it is
proponents disagree. heated and distilled to separate it into components
with different boiling points (Figure 13-6)—a techno-
logical marvel based on complex chemistry and engi-
neering. Some of the products of oil distillation, called
13-2 NONRENEWABLE FOSSIL FUELS
Diesel oil
Naptha
Heated
crude oil Grease
and wax
petrochemicals, are used as raw materials in indus- discouraged improvements in energy efficiency and re-
trial organic chemicals, pesticides, plastics, synthetic newable energy resources that might make the United
fibers, paints, medicines, and many other products. States less dependent on oil imports from the Middle
East and other countries.
Despite an upsurge in exploration and test drill-
Geology and Economics: Global Oil Supplies—
ing, U.S. oil extraction has declined since 1985, and
OPEC Rules
most geologists do not expect a significant increase in
Eleven OPEC countries—most of them in the Middle domestic supplies. The United States produces most of
East—have 78% of the world’s proven oil reserves and its dwindling supply of oil at a high cost, about
most of the world’s unproven reserves. $7.50–$10 per barrel compared to about $2.50 per bar-
The oil industry is the world’s largest business. Con- rel in Saudi Arabia. Thus, opening all U.S. coastal waters,
trol of the world’s current and future oil reserves is the forests, and wild places to drilling would hardly put a dent
single greatest source of global economic and political in world oil prices or meet much of the U.S. demand for oil.
power. In 2004, the United States imported about 62% of
Oil reserves are identified deposits from which oil the oil it used (up from 36% in 1973, when OPEC im-
can be extracted profitably at current prices with cur- posed an oil embargo against the U.S. and other na-
rent technology. The 11 countries that make up the tions). It got most of its oil from four nations (in order
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries of importance): the non-OPEC nations of Canada and
(OPEC) have 78% of the world’s crude oil reserves. Mexico and the OPEC nations of Venezuela and Saudi
This explains why OPEC is expected to have long- Arabia.
term control over the supplies and prices of the According to the DOE, in the not-too-distant fu-
world’s conventional oil. Today OPEC’s members are ture the United States will have to depend more on the
Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Middle East for oil, because it contains by far most of
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and the world’s discovered and undiscovered oil. Reasons
Venezuela. for this high dependence on imported oil are declining
Saudi Arabia has by far the largest proportion of domestic oil reserves, higher production costs for do-
the world’s crude oil reserves (25%). It is followed by mestic oil than for most oil imports, and increased oil
Canada (15%), whose huge supply of oil sand was re- use. The United States could be importing as much as
cently classified as a conventional source of oil. Other 70% of the oil it uses by 2020. But it will be facing stiff
countries with large proven reserves are Iraq (11%), competition for world oil supplies from rapidly indus-
the United Arab Emirates (9.3%), Kuwait (9.2%), and trializing China.
Iran (8.6%). Some analysts favor depending on oil imports.
They argue that using up limited and declining do-
mestic oil supplies is a drain-America-first policy that
Science and Economics Case Study:
will increase future dependence on foreign oil sup-
U.S. Oil Supplies
plies. Indeed, if the United States stopped importing
The United States—the world’s largest oil user—has oil and depended totally on domestic supplies, its
only 2.9% of the world’s proven oil reserves and only proven reserves would last only about a decade at cur-
a small percentage of its unproven reserves. rent consumption rates.
Figure 13-7 (p. 292) shows the locations of the major Bottom line: If you think of U.S. oil reserves as a
known deposits of fossil fuels in the United States six-pack of oil, four of the cans are empty. Geologists
and Canada and ocean areas where more crude oil estimate that if the country opens up virtually all of its
and natural gas might be found. About one-fourth of public lands and coastal regions to oil exploration, it
U.S. domestic oil production comes from offshore may find at best about half a can of new oil at a high
drilling (mostly off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana, cost (compared to much cheaper OPEC oil) and with
Figure 13-7, bottom) and 17% from Alaska’s North serious harmful environmental effects.
Slope.
The United States has only 2.9% of the world’s oil
Global Outlook: How Long Will Conventional
reserves. But it uses about 26% of the crude oil ex-
Oil Supplies Last?
tracted worldwide each year (more than two-thirds of
that for transportation), mostly because oil is an abun- Known and projected global oil reserves should last
dant, convenient, and cheap fuel. Indeed, when ad- for 42–93 years and U.S. reserves for 10–48 years,
justed for inflation, oil costs about as much today as it depending on how rapidly we use oil.
did in 1975 (Figure 13-8, p. 292). Although low oil The world is not yet running out of oil. But like all nonre-
prices have stimulated economic growth, they have newable resources, oil supplies are eventually expected
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GULF OF MEXICO
Active drilling sites to decline. At some point, prices will begin a steady rise
as consumers begin competing for the world’s dwin-
dling oil reserves.
According to geologists, known and projected
global reserves of oil are expected to be 80% depleted
within 42–93 years and U.S. reserves in 10–48 years, de-
70 pending on how rapidly we use oil. If these estimates
are correct, oil should be reaching its sunset years
60 sometime during this century. (See Science Supple-
Oil ment 8 at the end of this book for a brief history of the
Oil price per barrel ($)
50
Age of Oil.)
40 Oil geologist Colin J. Campbell warns that esti-
mates of remaining oil may be too high because oil-
30 producing countries often inflate their estimated oil re-
serves so that they can borrow money from the World
20 (1997 dollars) Bank using their supposed oil supplies as collateral.
10 Although Saudi Arabia vigorously denies it, some ge-
ologists believe that the country’s estimated oil re-
0 serves are not as high as its leaders say.
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
19
19
19
19
20
20
Year use or waste less oil, or use something else. Some ana-
lysts—mostly economists—contend that rising oil
Figure 13-8 Economics: inflation-adjusted price of oil in the
United States, 1950–2005. When adjusted for inflation, oil costs prices (when oil consumption exceeds oil production)
about the same as it did in 1975. (Data from U.S. Department of will stimulate exploration and lead to enough new re-
Energy and Department of Commerce) serves to meet future demand through the next cen-
tury or longer and that new technology will allow us Trade-Offs: Advantages and Disadvantages
to recover more oil from existing oil wells. Others ar- of Conventional Oil
gue that even if much more oil is somehow found, we Conventional oil is a versatile fuel that can last for at
are ignoring the consequences of the high (2–5% per least 50 years, but burning it produces air pollution
year) exponential growth in global oil consumption. and releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.
It is hard to get a grip on the incredible amount of
Figure 13-9 lists the advantages and disadvantages of
oil we consume. Maybe this will help: Stretched end to
using conventional crude oil as an energy resource. A
end, the number of barrels of oil the world used in 2004
serious problem associated with the use of conven-
would circle the equator 636 times!
tional crude oil is that burning oil or any carbon-con-
Suppose we continue to use oil reserves at the cur-
taining fossil fuel releases CO2 into the atmosphere
rent rate of about 2.8% per year with no increase in oil
and thus can help promote climate change from global
consumption—a highly unlikely assumption. Here are
warming. Currently, burning oil mostly as gasoline
some of the results of using oil under this conservative
and diesel fuel for transportation accounts for 43% of
no growth estimate:
global CO2 emissions.
Figure 13-10 (p. 294) compares the relative amounts
■ Saudi Arabia, with the world’s largest known
of CO2 emitted per unit of energy by the major fossil fu-
crude oil reserves, could supply the world’s entire oil
els and nuclear power.
needs for about 10 years.
■ The estimated reserves under Alaska’s North
Slope—the largest ever found in North America—
Tr a d e - O f f s
would meet current world demand for only 6 months
or U.S. demand for 3 years. Conventional Oil
■ The estimated reserves in Alaska’s Arctic National
Advantages Disadvantages
Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) would met current oil de-
mand for only 1–5 months and U.S. oil demand for
7–24 months. Ample supply for Need to find
42–93 years substitute within
50 years
Just for the world to keep using conventional oil at the cur-
rent rate, we must discover global oil reserves that are the
Low cost (with
equivalent to a new Saudi Arabian supply every 10 years. huge subsidies)
According to most geologists, this is highly unlikely. Artificially low
Many developing countries such as China and In- price encourages
waste and
dia are rapidly expanding their use of oil, putting them High net discourages
on a collision course with the United States. China is energy yield search for
now the world’s second largest oil importer after the alternatives
United States. By 2025, that country could be using as
much oil as the United States, and the two countries Easily
could be competing to import dwindling supplies of transported
within and Air pollution
increasingly expensive oil. Indeed, if everyone in the between when burned
world consumed as much oil as the average American, countries
the world’s proven oil reserves would be gone in a
decade. Low land use
Exponential growth is an incredibly powerful Releases CO2
force. If oil use grows by 5% per year, doubling the size when burned
Technology is
of the world’s oil reserves will add only 12 years to the well developed
life expectancy of these reserves. Even if we had a
1,000-year supply of oil, using it at a rate of 5% per
Efficient distribu- Moderate water
year would deplete it in only 79 years. tion system pollution
Here is the problem in a nutshell: Oil is the most
widely used energy resource in the world and its rate
of use is growing exponentially. Most people in devel-
Figure 13-9 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
oped countries are oilaholics, and the world’s largest using conventional crude oil as an energy resource. Critical
suppliers for this addiction are Saudi Arabia, Canada, thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage that you
and Iraq. think are the most important.
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a decade.
Currently, these deposits supply about one-fifth
of Canada’s oil needs, and this proportion is expected
to increase. Because of the dramatic reductions in de-
velopment and production costs, in 2003 the oil in-
dustry began counting Canada’s oil sands as reserves Figure 13-11 Natural capital: oil shale rock (left) and the shale oil
of conventional oil. As a consequence, Canada has (right) extracted from it. Big U.S. oil shale projects have been can-
15% of the world’s oil reserves, second only to Saudi celed because of excessive costs.
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t
s
ly
ta
)
(+
C
e
d
o
th
a
C
fossil fuels Coal is a solid fossil fuel that was formed in several
Lower CO2 Difficult to transfer stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived
emissions than from one country 300–400 million years ago were subjected to intense
other fossil fuels to another heat and pressure over many millions of years (Fig-
Moderate environ- ure 13-14). Coal is mostly carbon but contains small
mental impact Shipped across amounts of sulfur, which are released into the atmos-
ocean as highly phere as sulfur dioxide when the coal burns. Burning
explosive LNG
Easily transported coal also releases trace amounts of toxic mercury and
by pipeline radioactive materials. Coal is burned to generate 62%
Sometimes of the world’s electricity (52% in the United States) and
burned off and
Low land use wasted at wells to make three-fourths of its steel.
because of low Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel. Ac-
price cording to the U.S. Geological Survey, identified and
Good fuel for
fuel cells and unidentified supplies of coal could last for 214–1,125
gas turbines Requires pipelines years, depending on our rate of usage. The United
States has one-fourth of the world’s proven coal re-
serves, Russia has 16%, and China has 12%. In 2004,
Figure 13-13 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of slightly more than half of global coal consumption
using conventional natural gas as an energy resource. Critical
was split almost evenly between China and the United
thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage that you
think are the most important. States.
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Small amounts of
radioactive gases
Uranium Control rods
fuel input
(reactor core) Containment shell
Heat exchanger
Electric power
Waste heat
Hot
coolant
Useful energy
25%–30%
Hot
water
Pump Pump output
Coolant
Pump Pump
Moderator Cool Waste heat
water
input
Figure 13-17 Science: light-water–moderated and –cooled nuclear power plant with a pressurized water
reactor. Some plants use huge cooling towers to transfer some of the waste heat to the atmosphere.
In the 1950s, researchers predicted that by 2000 at least No new nuclear power plants have been ordered
1,800 nuclear power plants would supply 21% of the in the United States since 1978, and all 120 plants or-
world’s commercial energy (25% in the United States) dered since 1973 have been canceled. In 2004, there
and most of the world’s electricity. were 103 licensed commercial nuclear power reactors
After almost 50 years of development, enormous in 31 states—most of them located in the eastern half
government subsidies, and an investment of $2 tril- of the country. These reactors generate about 21% of
lion, these goals have not been met. Instead, in 2004, the country’s electricity and 8% of its total energy. This
439 commercial nuclear reactors in 30 countries were percentage is expected to decline over the next two
producing only 6% of the world’s commercial energy decades as existing plants wear out and are retired.
and 16% of its electricity. According to energy analysts and economists, sev-
Since 1989, electricity production from nuclear eral reasons explain the failure of nuclear power to
power has increased only slightly and is now the grow as projected. They include multibillion-dollar
world’s slowest-growing energy source. According to construction cost overruns, higher operating costs and
the DOE, the percentage of the world’s electricity pro- more malfunctions than expected, and poor manage-
duced by nuclear power is projected to fall to 12% by ment. Two other obstacles have been public concerns
2025, compared to 16% in 2003, because the retirement about safety and stricter government safety regula-
of aging plants is expected to exceed the construction tions, especially after the accidents in 1979 at the Three
of new ones. Mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania and in 1986
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Decommissioning
Fuel assemblies of reactor
Reactor
Enrichment of UF6 Fuel fabrication
(conversion of enriched
UF6 to UO2 and fabrication
of fuel assemblies) Temporary storage
of spent fuel assemblies
underwater or in dry casks
Uranium-235 as UF6
Conversion of Plutonium-239 as PuO2
U3O8 to UF6 Spent fuel
reprocessing
Low-level radiation
with long half-life
Geologic disposal
of moderate-
and high-level
radioactive wastes
at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in Ukraine (see Case Chernobyl is known around the globe as the site of the
Study, below) world’s most serious nuclear power plant accident. On
Another problem is investor concerns about the April 26, 1986, a series of explosions in one of the reac-
economic feasibility of nuclear power, taking into ac- tors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine—then part of
count the entire nuclear fuel cycle. At Three Mile Is- the Soviet Union—blew the massive roof off a reactor
land, investors lost more than $1 billion in one hour building and flung radioactive debris and dust high
from damaged equipment and repair, even though no into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread
human lives were lost. Also, concern has been voiced over much of Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, and other parts
about the vulnerability of nuclear power plants to ter- of Europe and eventually encircled the planet.
rorist attack after the destruction of New York’s World Clouds of radioactive material escaped into the at-
Trade Center buildings and Washington, D.C.’s Penta- mosphere for 10 days. The surrounding environment
gon on September 11, 2001. Experts are especially con- and people were exposed to radiation levels 100 times
cerned about the vulnerability of poorly protected and higher than those caused by the atomic bomb dropped
intensely radioactive spent fuel rods stored in water on Hiroshima, Japan, near the end of World War II.
pools or casks outside of reactor buildings. According to various UN studies, the disaster,
which was caused by poor reactor design and human
error, had dire consequences. At least 31 people near
Science Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear the accident site were killed directly. More than half a
Power Plant Accident million people were exposed to dangerous levels of ra-
The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident dioactivity, which ultimately may cause 8,000–15,000
occurred in 1986 in Ukraine. premature deaths.
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■ Dump it into descending zones of the earth’s crust in complex problem and to evaluate other sites and stor-
the deep ocean. Wastes eventually might be spewed age methods.
out somewhere else by volcanic activity, and contain- Opponents also contend that the Yucca Mountain
ers might leak and contaminate the ocean before be- waste site should not be opened because it might de-
ing carried downward. Also, retrieval would be im- crease national security. The plan calls for wastes to be
possible if the method did not work. This strategy is put into specially designed casks and shipped by truck
prohibited by international law. or rail cars to the Nevada site. This would require
■ Bury it in thick deposits of mud on the deep-ocean about 19,600 shipments of wastes over much of the
floor in areas that tests show have remained geologically country for the estimated 38 years before the site is
stable for 65 million years. The waste containers eventu- filled. At the end of this period, the amount of newly
ally would corrode and release their radioactive con- collected radioactive waste stored at nuclear power
tents. This approach is prohibited by international law. plant sites would be about the same as before the
Yucca Mountain repository opened. Critics contend
■ Change it into harmless, or less harmful, isotopes. Cur-
that it will be much more difficult to protect such a
rently, no way exists to do this. Even if a method was
large number of shipments from terrorist attacks than
developed, costs would probably be very high, and
to provide more secure ways to store such wastes at
the resulting toxic materials and low-level (but very
nuclear power plant sites.
long-lived) radioactive wastes would need to be dis-
The DOE and proponents of nuclear power
posed of safely.
counter that the risks of an accident or sabotage of nu-
clear waste shipments are negligible. Opponents dis-
agree. Utility companies oppose improved storage at
Science and Politics Case Study: High-Level
plant sites because it would add to their costs and make
Radioactive Wastes in the United States
nuclear power a more unattractive energy option.
Scientists disagree over the decision to store high-level Despite these and other objections from scientists
nuclear wastes at an underground storage site in and citizens, in 2002 Congress approved Yucca Moun-
Nevada. tain as the official site for storing the country’s commer-
In 1985, the DOE announced plans to build a reposi- cial nuclear wastes. Opponents want the law repealed.
tory for underground storage of high-level radioactive In 2005, Congress temporarily halted efforts to get fi-
wastes from commercial nuclear reactors on federal nal approval for the project after learning that some of
land in the Yucca Mountain desert region, 160 kilome- the data used to justify the project were made up.
ters (100 miles) northwest of Las Vegas, Nevada.
The proposed facility is expected to cost at least
$58 billion to build (financed partly by a tax on nuclear
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should highly radioactive
spent fuel be stored in casks in well-protected buildings at
power). It is scheduled to open by 2010, but may not nuclear power plant sites instead of shipping them to a single
begin operation until 2015. site for underground burial? Cast your vote online at http://
biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
Some scientists argue that it should never be al-
lowed to open, mostly because rock fractures and
tiny cracks may allow water to leak into the site and
Science: Dealing with Worn-Out
eventually corrode radioactive waste storage casks.
Nuclear Plants
Geologists also point out a nearby active volcano and
32 active earthquake fault lines running through the When a nuclear reactor reaches the end of its useful
site—an unusually high number. In 1998, Jerry Szy- life, we must keep its highly radioactive materials
manski, formerly the DOE’s top geologist at Yucca from reaching the environment for thousands of years.
Mountain and now an outspoken opponent of the When a nuclear power plant comes to the end of its
site, said that if water flooded the site it could cause useful life, it must be decommissioned, or retired—the
an explosion so large that “Chernobyl would be small last step in the nuclear power fuel cycle. Scientists have
potatoes.” proposed three ways to do this.
In 2002, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, in One strategy is to dismantle the plant after it
collaboration with Harvard and University of Tokyo closes and store its large volume of highly radioactive
scientists, urged the U.S. government to slow down materials in a high-level, nuclear waste storage facility.
and rethink its nuclear waste storage process. These Many scientists question the safety of such facilities. A
scientists contend that storing spent fuel rods in dry- second approach is to install a physical barrier around
storage casks in well-protected buildings at nuclear the plant and set up full-time security for 30–100 years
plant sites is an adequate solution for at least 100 years before the plant is dismantled. A third option is to en-
in terms of safety and national security. This approach close the entire plant in a tomb that must last and be
would buy time to carry out more research on this monitored for several thousand years. Regardless of
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the method chosen, decommissioning adds to the total dence on imported oil. Other analysts point out that
costs of nuclear power as an energy option. use of nuclear power has little effect on U.S. oil use be-
At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide cause burning oil typically produces only 2–3% of the
(20 in the United States) are scheduled for retirement electricity in the United States (and in most other
by 2012. However, the NRC has approved extending countries). Also, the major use for oil is as gasoline and
the 40-year expected life expectancy of at least 20 U.S. diesel fuel in transportation, which would not be af-
reactors to 60 years. Opponents contend this could in- fected by increasing the use of nuclear power plants to
crease the risk of nuclear accidents in aging reactors. produce electricity.
Nuclear power advocates also contend that in-
creased use of nuclear power would reduce the threat
Science and Terrorism: “Dirty” Bombs
of global warming by eliminating emissions of CO2
Terrorists could wrap conventional explosives around compared to burning coal. Scientists point out that this
small amounts of various radioactive materials that argument is only partially correct. Nuclear plants
are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and themselves are not emitters of CO2, but the nuclear
contaminate fairly large areas with radioactivity for fuel cycle does produce some CO2. However, such
decades. emissions are much less than that produced by burn-
Since the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sep- ing coal or natural gas to produce the same amount of
tember 11, 2001, concern has been growing about the electricity (Figure 13-10). Environmentalists and many
threats posed by “dirty” bombs. Such a bomb consists energy experts argue that reducing energy waste and
of an explosive such as dynamite mixed with or increasing the use of wind turbines, solar cells, and hy-
wrapped around an amount of radioactive material drogen to produce electricity are better ways to reduce
small enough fit in a coffee cup. CO2 emissions.
Such radioactive materials can be stolen from any
of thousands of poorly guarded and difficult-to-pro-
Economics of Nuclear Power
tect sources or bought on the black market. For exam-
ple, hospitals use radioisotopes (such as cobalt-60) to Even with massive government subsidies, the nuclear
treat cancer and diagnose various diseases. Other po- power fuel cycle is an expensive way to produce
tential sources include university research laborato- electricity compared to several other energy
ries, and industries that use radioisotopes to detect alternatives.
leaks in underground pipes, irradiate food, examine Experience has shown that the nuclear power fuel cy-
mail and other materials, and detect flaws in pipe cle is an expensive way to produce electricity, even
welds and boilers. when huge government subsidies partially shield it
Since 1986, the NRC has recorded 1,700 incidents from free-market competition with other energy
in the United States in which radioactive materials sources. In 1995, the World Bank said nuclear power is
used by industrial, medical, or research facilities have too costly and risky. Forbes magazine has called the
been stolen or lost. Since 1991, the International Atomic failure of the U.S. nuclear power program “the largest
Energy Agency (IAEA) has detected 671 incidents of il- managerial disaster in U.S. business history, involving
licit trafficking in dirty-bomb materials. $1 trillion in wasted investment and $10 billion in di-
Detonating a dirty bomb at street level or on a rect losses to stockholders.”
rooftop does not cause a nuclear blast. Nevertheless, it In recent years, the operating costs of many U.S.
could kill as many as 1,000 people in densely popu- nuclear power plants have dropped, mostly because of
lated cities and spread radioactive material over sev- less downtime. Environmentalists and economists
eral blocks. This would pose cancer risks for decades counter that the cost of nuclear power must reflect the
and cause widespread terror and panic—the primary entire nuclear power fuel cycle, not merely the operat-
objective of terrorists. ing costs of individual plants. According to these ana-
lysts, when these costs (including nuclear waste dis-
posal and decommissioning of worn-out plants) are
Science: Can Nuclear Power Reduce
included, the overall cost of nuclear power is very
Dependence on Imported Oil and
high (even with huge government subsidies) com-
Help Reduce Global Warming?
pared to many other energy alternatives.
Because so little oil is burned to produce electricity , Partly to address these concerns, the U.S. nuclear
building more nuclear power plants is neither a way industry hopes to persuade the Congress and utility
to reduce dependence on imported oil nor a major companies to build hundreds of smaller, second-gen-
way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. eration plants using standardized designs. The indus-
Some proponents of nuclear power in the United try claims these plants are safer and can be built more
States claim it will help reduce the country’s depen- quickly (in 3–6 years).
These advanced light-water reactors (ALWRs) have subsidies, this technology remains at the laboratory
built-in passive safety features designed to make ex- stage.
plosions or the release of radioactive emissions al- Nuclear fusion is a nuclear change in which two iso-
most impossible. However, according to Nucleonics topes of light elements, such as hydrogen, are forced
Week, an important nuclear industry publication, “Ex- together at extremely high temperatures until they
perts are flatly unconvinced that safety has been fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the
achieved—or even substantially increased—by the process. Scientists hope that controlled nuclear fusion
new designs.” In addition, these new designs do not will provide an almost limitless source of high-tem-
eliminate the threats and the expense and hazards of perature heat and electricity. Research has focused on
long-term radioactive waste storage and power plant the D–T nuclear fusion reaction, in which two isotopes
decommissioning. of hydrogen—deuterium (D) and tritium (T)—fuse at
about 100 million degrees (Figure 2-7, p. 28).
Science: Breeder Nuclear Fission With nuclear fusion, there would be no risk of
meltdown or release of large amounts of radioactive
Because of very high costs and bad safety experiences materials from a terrorist attack and little risk from ad-
with several nuclear breeder reactors, this technology ditional proliferation of nuclear weapons because
has essentially been abandoned. bomb-grade materials (such as enriched uranium-235
Some nuclear power proponents urge the development and plutonium-239) are not required for fusion energy.
and widespread use of breeder nuclear fission reac- Fusion power might also be used to destroy toxic
tors, which generate more nuclear fuel than they con- wastes, supply electricity for ordinary use, and decom-
sume by converting nonfissionable uranium-238 into pose water to produce the hydrogen gas needed to run
fissionable plutonium-239. Because breeders would a hydrogen economy by the end of this century.
use more than 99% of the uranium in ore deposits, the This sounds great. So what is holding up fusion
world’s known uranium reserves would last at least energy? After more than 50 years of research and huge
1,000 years, and perhaps several thousand years. expenditures of mostly government funds, controlled
However, if the safety system of a breeder reactor nuclear fusion remains in the laboratory stage. None
fails, the reactor could lose some of its liquid sodium of the approaches tested so far has produced more en-
coolant, which ignites when exposed to air and reacts ergy than it uses.
explosively if it comes into contact with water. The po- If researchers can eventually get more energy out
tential result: a runaway fission chain reaction and per- of nuclear fusion than they put in, the next step would
haps a nuclear explosion powerful enough to blast be to build a small fusion reactor and then scale it up
open the containment building and release a cloud of to commercial size. This is an extremely difficult engi-
highly radioactive gases and particles into the atmos- neering problem. Also, the estimated cost of a building
phere. Leaks of flammable liquid sodium can also cause and operating a commercial fusion reactor (even with
fires, as has happened with all experimental breeder re- huge government subsidies) is several times the costs
actors built so far. for a comparable conventional fission reactor.
Existing experimental breeder reactors also pro- Proponents contend that with greatly increased
duce plutonium so slowly that it would take 100–200 federal funding, a commercial nuclear fusion power
years for them to produce enough plutonium to fuel a plant might be built by 2030 or perhaps by 2020. How-
significant number of other breeder reactors. In 1994, ever, many energy experts do not expect nuclear fu-
the United States ended government-supported re- sion to be a significant energy source until 2100, if then.
search of breeder technology after providing about $9
billion in research and development funding. Politics: Nuclear Power’s Future
In December 1986, France opened a commercial- in the United States
size breeder reactor. It was so expensive to build and
operate that after spending $13 billion the government There is disagreement over whether the United
spent another $2.75 billion to shut it down perma- States should phase out nuclear power or keep this
nently in 1998. Because of this experience, other coun- option open in case other alternatives do not
tries have abandoned their plans to build full-size com- pan out.
mercial breeder reactors. Since 1948, nuclear energy (fission and fusion) has re-
ceived about 58% of all federal energy research and de-
velopment funds in the United States—compared to
Science: Nuclear Fusion 22% for fossil fuels, 11% for renewable energy, and 8%
Nuclear fusion has a number of advantages, but after for energy efficiency and conservation. Because the re-
more than five decades of research and billions of sults of this huge investment of taxpayer dollars have
dollars in government research and development been largely disappointing, some analysts call for
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phasing out all or most government subsidies and tax Energy Inputs System Outputs
breaks for nuclear power and using the money to ac-
celerate the development of other, more promising en- 9%
ergy technologies. 7%
To these critics, conventional nuclear power is a
complex, expensive, inflexible, and centralized way to
produce electricity that is too vulnerable to terrorist at-
41%
tack. They believe it is a technology whose time has 85% U.S.
passed in a world where electricity will increasingly be economy
and
provided by small, decentralized, easily expandable
lifestyles
power plants such as natural gas turbines, farms of
wind turbines, arrays of solar cells, and hydrogen-
powered fuel cells. According to investors and World
43%
Bank economic analysts, conventional nuclear power
8%
simply cannot compete in today’s increasingly open,
4%
decentralized, and unregulated energy market unless
3%
it is artificially shielded from free-market competition
by huge government subsidies. Nonrenewable fossil fuels Useful energy
Proponents of nuclear power argue that govern- Nonrenewable nuclear Petrochemicals
ments should continue funding research and develop- Hydropower, geothermal, Unavoidable energy
ment and pilot-plant testing of potentially safer and wind, solar waste
Biomass Unnecessary energy
cheaper reactor designs along with breeder fission and waste
nuclear fusion. They insist we need to keep these nu-
clear options available for use in the future if renew- Figure 13-21 Energy waste: flow of commercial energy
able energy options fail to keep up with electricity de- through the U.S. economy. Only 16% of all commercial energy
used in the United States ends up performing useful tasks or
mands and reduce CO2 emissions to acceptable levels. being converted to petrochemicals; the rest is unavoidably
Germany does not buy these arguments—it has plans wasted because of the second law of thermodynamics (41%) or
to phase out nuclear power over the next two decades. is wasted unnecessarily (43%). (Data from U.S. Department of
However, China plans to build a number of nuclear Energy)
power plants.
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Economics and Politics: The Real Cost of Gasoline in the United States
Many Americans and social costs. The latter costs in- ted voters could band together to
complain about clude increased medical bills and educate people and elected officials
high and rising insurance premiums, time wasted about the need to impose much
gasoline prices. in traffic jams, noise pollution, in- higher gasoline taxes as an impor-
CONNECTIONS But economists creased mortality from air and wa- tant part of the country’s national
and environmen- ter pollution, urban sprawl, and and economic security. Second, these
talists point out that gasoline costs harmful effects on wildlife species voters could insist that the govern-
U.S. consumers much more than it and habitats. ment use most of the revenue from
appears. This is because most of the If these harmful costs were in- higher gasoline taxes to reduce pay-
real cost of gasoline is not paid directly cluded as taxes in the market price roll and income taxes and to pro-
at the pump. of gasoline, we would have much vide an energy safety net for poor
According to a 1998 study by the more energy-efficient and less pol- and lower middle-class citizens.
International Center for Technology luting cars. This would also in-
Assessment, the hidden costs of crease the country’s military and
Critical Thinking
gasoline to U.S. consumers approxi- economic security by sharply re-
mate $1.30–3.70 per liter ($5–14 per ducing U.S. dependence on im- Would you support drastically
gallon), depending on how esti- ported oil. But gasoline and car higher gasoline taxes if taxes on
mates are constructed. These hid- companies benefit financially by be- your wages, income, and wealth
den costs include government sub- ing able to pass these hidden costs were reduced to the point where the
sidies and tax breaks for oil compa- on to consumers, future genera- gasoline taxes would not increase
nies and road builders, pollution tions, and the environment. your living expenses? Explain.
control and cleanup, military pro- This political stalemate could be Would you become involved in a
tection of oil supplies in the Middle broken if two things happened. political movement to bring about
East, and environmental, health, First, enough informed and commit- such a tax-shift policy? Explain.
1.6
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should the government greatly
increase fuel efficiency standards for all vehicles in the United
1.4 States or the country where you live? Cast your vote online at
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
1.2
30
40
50
60
70
00
10
8
9
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
diesel fuel, or natural gas and uses a small battery depending on how their hydrogen fuel is produced.
(recharged by the internal combustion engine) to pro- Most major automobile companies have developed
vide the energy needed for acceleration and hill climb- prototype fuel-cell cars and plan to market a variety
ing (Figure 13-24). of such vehicles by 2020 (with a few models avail-
Toyota introduced its first hybrid vehicle in 1997. able by 2010) and greatly increase their use by 2050.
Carmakers plan to introduce as many as 20 hybrid Until then, hybrids will probably retain an advantage
models, including cars, trucks, SUVs, and vans, in the because they are available now and get their fuel
next 4–5 years. Sales of hybrid motor vehicles are pro- from gasoline filling stations instead of having to de-
jected to grow rapidly and will probably dominate pend on building a new network of hydrogen filling
motor vehicle sales between 2010 and 2030. stations.
Another type of efficient car uses a fuel cell—a de-
vice that combines hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas
Science: Designing Buildings
(O2) in the air to produce electrical energy to power the
to Save Energy
car and water vapor (H2O), which is emitted into the
atmosphere (Figure 13-25, p. 310). We can save energy in buildings by getting heat from
Fuel cells are at least twice as efficient as internal the sun, superinsulating them, and using plant-
combustion engines, have no moving parts, require covered eco-roofs.
little maintenance, and produce little or no pollution, Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power Company building
uses 60% less energy than conventional office buildings
of the same size. The largest surface of the building
faces south to capture solar energy. Each floor extends
Regulator: Fuel tank: out over the one below it. This blocks out the higher
Controls flow of Liquid fuel such as gasoline,
summer sun to reduce air conditioning costs but allows
power between electric diesel, or ethanol runs small
motor and battery bank. combustion engine. warming by the lower winter sun. Energy-efficient
lights focus on desks rather than illuminating entire
Transmission: rooms. In contrast, the conventional Sears Tower build-
Efficient 5-speed ing in Chicago consumes more energy in a day than
automatic does a city of 150,000 people.
transmission. Another energy-efficient design is a superinsulated
house (Figure 13-26, p. 310). Such houses typically cost
5% more to build than conventional houses of the
same size. The extra cost is paid back by energy sav-
ings within about 5 years and can save a homeowner
$50,000–100,000 over a 40-year period. Superinsulated
houses in Sweden use 90% less energy for heating and
cooling than the typical American home.
Battery bank: Since the mid-1980s, interest has been growing in
High-density batteries strawbale houses (Figure 13-27, p. 311). The walls of
power electric motor these superinsulated houses are made by stacking
for increased power. compacted bales of low-cost straw and then covering
the bales on the outside and inside with plaster or
Combustion engine: Electric motor: adobe. The main problem is getting banks and other
Small, efficient internal Traction drive provides
moneylenders to recognize the potential of this and
combustion engine additional power,
powers vehicle with recovers braking energy other unconventional types of housing and to provide
low emissions. to recharge battery. homeowners with construction loans. See the Guest
Essay about strawbale and solar energy houses by
Fuel Nancy Wicks on the website for this chapter.
Electricity Eco-roofs or green roofs covered with plants have
been used in Germany, in other parts of Europe, and in
Figure 13-24 Solutions: general features of a car powered by Iceland for decades. With proper design, these plant-
a hybrid gas–electric engine. The bodies of future models will covered roof gardens provide good insulation, absorb
probably be made of lightweight composite plastics that offer
storm water and release it slowly, outlast conventional
more protection in crashes, do not need to be painted, do not
rust, can be recycled, and have fewer parts than conventional roofs, and make a building or home more energy effi-
car bodies. (Concept information from DaimlerChrysler, Ford, cient. Designing and installing such systems could be
Honda, and Toyota) an interesting career.
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Body attachments
Mechanical locks that secure
the body to the chassis
Air system Universal docking connection
management Connects the chassis with the
drive-by-wire system in the body
Fuel-cell stack
Converts hydrogen
fuel into electricity
Rear crush zone
Absorbs crash energy
Drive-by-wire
system controls
Side-mounted radiators
Release heat generated by the fuel cell,
vehicle electronics, and wheel motors
Hydrogen
fuel tanks
Front crush zone
Absorbs crash energy
Figure 13-25 Solutions: prototype Hy-Wire car developed by General Motors. It combines a hydrogen fuel
cell with drive-by-wire technology. The Hy-Wire consists of a skateboard-like chassis and a variety of snap-on
bodies. General Motors claims the car could be on the road within a decade, but some analysts believe that it
will be 2020 before similar cars from various manufacturers will be mass produced. (Basic information from
General Motors)
Alison Gannett
Alison Gannett
Figure 13-27 Solutions: energy-efficient, environmentally healthy, and affordable Victorian-style strawbale
house designed and built by Alison Gannett in Crested Butte, Colorado. The left photo was taken during con-
struction; the right photo shows the completed house. Depending on the thickness of the bales, plastered
strawbale walls have an insulating value of R-35 to R-60, compared to R-12 to R-19 in a conventional house.
(The R-value is a measure of resistance to heat flow.) Such houses are also great sound insulators.
thirds, lessen cooling costs in the summer, and reduce the home. Careful sealing can reduce this loss. Some
CO2 emissions. Widely available superinsulating win- designs for new homes keep the ducts inside the
dows insulate as well as 8–12 sheets of glass. Although home’s thermal envelope so that escaping hot or cool
they cost 10–15% more than double-glazed windows, air is fed back into the living space. Also, using white
this cost is paid back rapidly by the energy they save. instead of dark roofs can reduce city temperatures and
Even better windows will reach the market soon. cut electricity for air conditioning.
■ Stop other heating and cooling losses. Leaky heating ■ Heat houses more efficiently. In order, the most en-
and cooling ducts in attics and unheated basements ergy-efficient ways to heat space are superinsulation,
allow 20–30% of a home’s heating and cooling energy a geothermal heat pump, passive solar heating, a con-
to escape and draw unwanted moisture and heat into ventional heat pump (in warm climates only), small
VANSCAN Continuous Mobile Thermogram by Daedalus Enterprises, Inc.
Figure 13-28 Unnecessary energy waste: an infrared photo (thermogram) showing heat loss (red, white, and
orange) around the windows, doors, roofs, and foundations of houses and stores in Plymouth, Michigan. Many
homes and buildings in the United States and other countries are so full of leaks that their heat loss in cold
weather and heat gain in hot weather are equivalent to having a large window-sized hole in the wall of the
house. How leaky is the dwelling where you live?
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cogenerating microturbines, and a high-efficiency likely to waste it and not make investments in improv-
(85–98%) natural gas furnace. The most wasteful and ing energy efficiency.
expensive way is to use electric resistance heating Another reason is a lack of tax breaks and other
with the electricity produced by a coal-fired or nuclear economic incentives for consumers and businesses to
power plant. invest in improving energy efficiency compared to
■ Heat water more efficiently. One approach is to use a government subsidies and tax breaks for energy alter-
tankless instant water heater (about the size of a small natives such as fossil fuels and nuclear power..
suitcase) fired by natural gas or LPG but not by elec- Would you like to earn about 20% per year on
tricity. These devices, which are widely used in many your money, tax free and risk free? Invest it in improv-
parts of Europe, heat water instantly as it flows ing the energy efficiency of your home and in energy-
through a small burner chamber, provide hot water efficient lights and appliances. You will get your in-
only when it is needed, and use less energy than tradi- vestment back in a few years and then make about 20%
tional water heaters.* A well-insulated, conventional per year by having lower heating, cooling, and electric-
natural gas or LPG water heater is fairly efficient. ity bills. This is a win-win deal for you and the earth.
Nevertheless, all conventional natural gas and electric
resistance heaters waste energy by keeping a large x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should the United States or
tank of water hot all day and night and can run out af- the country where you live greatly increase its emphasis
ter a long shower or two. on improving energy efficiency? Cast your vote online at
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
■ Use energy-efficient appliances and lighting. If all
households in the United States used the most effi-
cient frost-free refrigerator now available, 18 large
(1,000-megawatt) power plants could close. Mi- 13-5 USING RENEWABLE ENERGY
crowave ovens can cut electricity use for cooking by TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
25–50% (but not if used for defrosting food). Clothes
dryers with moisture sensors cut energy use by 15%, Science and Economics: Types
and front-loading washers use 50% less energy than of Renewable Energy
top-loading models but cost about the same. Replac- Six types of renewable energy are solar, flowing water,
ing 21 energy-wasting incandescent light bulbs in a wind, biomass, hydrogen, and geothermal.
house or building with energy-efficient fluorescent
One of the four keys to sustainability (Figure 6-18,
bulbs typically saves $1,125. What a great investment
p. 126), based on learning from nature, is to rely mostly
payoff.
on renewable solar energy. We can get renewable solar
■ Set strict energy-efficiency standards for new buildings. energy directly from the sun or indirectly from moving
Building codes could require that new houses use water, wind, and biomass. Two other forms of renew-
60–80% less energy than conventional houses of the able energy are geothermal energy from the earth’s in-
same size, as has been done in Davis, California. Be- terior and use of renewable energy to produce hydro-
cause of tough energy-efficiency standards, the aver- gen fuel from water. Like fossil fuels and nuclear
age Swedish home consumes about one-third as much power, each of these alternatives has advantages and
energy as the average American home of the same size. disadvantages.
If renewable energy is so great, why is it that it
provides only 18% of the world’s energy and 6% of the
Economics: Why Are We Still Wasting United States’ energy? One reason is that renewable
So Much Energy? energy resources have received and continue to re-
Low-priced fossil fuels and lack of government ceive much lower government tax breaks, subsidies,
tax breaks for saving energy promote energy and research and development funding than fossil fu-
waste. els and nuclear power have received for decades. The
With an impressive array of benefits (Figure 13-22), other reason is that the prices we pay for fossil fuels
why is so little emphasis placed on improving energy and nuclear power do not include the costs of their
efficiency? One reason is a glut of low-cost gasoline harm to the environment and to human health.
(Figure 13-23) and other fossil fuels. As long as energy In other words, the economic dice have been
remains artificially cheap because its market price loaded against solar, wind, and other forms of renew-
does not include its harmful costs, people are more able energy. If the economic playing field was made
more even, energy analysts say that many of these
forms of renewable energy would take over—another
*They work great. I used them in a passive solar office and living
space for 15 years. For information on available models visit example of the you-get-what-you-reward economic prin-
www.foreverhotwater.com. ciple in action.
Science: Passive and Active Solar large insulated container filled with gravel, water, clay,
Energy Heating or a heat-absorbing chemical for release as needed. Ac-
We can heat buildings by orienting them toward the tive solar collectors can also supply hot water and are
sun (passive solar heating) or by pumping a liquid widely used in areas of the world with sunny climates.
such as water through rooftop collectors (active solar Figure 13-31 (p. 314) lists the major advantages
heating). and disadvantages of using passive or active solar
heating systems for heating buildings. Passive solar
Buildings and water can be heated by solar energy us-
energy is great for new homes in areas with adequate
ing two methods: passive and active (Figure 13-29). A
sunlight. But it cannot be used to heat existing homes
passive solar heating system absorbs and stores heat
and buildings not oriented to receive sunlight or
from the sun directly within a structure (Figure 13-29,
where other buildings or trees block access to sunlight.
left, and Figure 13-30, p. 314). Energy-efficient win-
Active solar collectors are good for heating water in
dows and attached greenhouses face the sun to collect
sunny areas. Most analysts do not expect widespread
solar energy by direct gain. Walls and floors of con-
use of active solar collectors for heating houses be-
crete, adobe, brick, stone, salt-treated timber, and wa-
cause of their high costs, maintenance requirements,
ter in metal or plastic containers store much of the col-
and unappealing appearance.
lected solar energy as heat and release it slowly
throughout the day and night. A small backup heating
system such as a vented natural gas or propane heater
Science: Cooling Houses Naturally
may be used but is not necessary in many climates.
(See the Guest Essay by Nancy Wicks on this topic on We can cool houses by superinsulating them, taking
the website for this chapter.) advantage of breezes, shading them, having light-
On a life-cycle cost basis, good passive solar and colored or garden roofs, and using geothermal cooling.
superinsulated design is the cheapest way to heat a Here are some ways to have a cooler house. Use su-
home or small building in regions with access to am- perinsulation and superinsulating windows, open
ple sunlight. Such a system usually adds 5–10% to the windows to take advantage of breezes, and use fans to
construction cost, but the life-cycle cost of operating keep air moving. Block the high summer sun with de-
such a house is 30–40% lower. The typical payback ciduous trees and window overhangs (Figure 13-30,
time for passive solar features is 3–7 years. top), or with awnings.
An active solar heating system absorbs energy Use a light-colored roof to reflect as much as 80%
from the sun by pumping a heat-absorbing fluid (such of the sun’s heat, compared to only 8% for a dark-gray
as water or an antifreeze solution) through special col- roof. Alternatively, use insulating garden-top roofs
lectors usually mounted on a roof or on special racks to (Figure 13-30, bottom). Suspend reflective insulating
face the sun (Figure 13-29, right). Some of the collected foil in an attic to block heat from radiating down into
heat can be used directly. The rest can be stored in a the house.
Summer
sun Heat to house
(radiators or
forced air duct)
Pump
Heavy
insulation
Superwindow Hot
water
Winter tank
sun Superwindow Super-
window
Heat
Stone floor and wall exchanger
for heat storage
PASSIVE ACTIVE
Figure 13-29 Solutions: passive and active solar heating for a home.
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Earth Sheltered
Tr a d e - O f f s
Passive or Active Solar Heating
Reinforced concrete, Triple-paned or
Earth carefully waterproofed superwindows Advantages Disadvantages
walls and roof
*They work. I used them in a passively heated and cooled office Figure 13-31 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
and home for 15 years. People allergic to pollen and molds heating a house with passive or active solar energy. Critical
should add an air purification system, but this is also necessary thinking: pick the single advantage and the single disadvan-
with a conventional cooling system. tage that you think are the most important.
–
Martin Bond/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Boron-
enriched
silicon +
Junction
Phosphorus- Roof options
enriched silicon Panels of solar cells Solar shingles
Figure 13-33 Solutions: photovoltaic (PV) cells can provide electricity for a house or building using solar-cell
roof shingles, as shown in the house on the right in Richmond, Surrey, England. PV panel roof systems that look
like a metal roof are also available. In addition, new thin-film solar cells can be applied to windows and outside
glass walls.
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Tr a d e - O f f s
used in solar cells can be made into paper-thin rigid or
Solar Cells
flexible sheets that can incorporated into traditional-
looking roofing materials (Figure 13-33, right). Glass
Advantages Disadvantages
walls and windows of buildings can also have built-in
solar cells.
Easily expandable banks of solar cells could Fairly high net Need access to
energy sun
be used in developing countries to provide electricity
for the 1.7 billion people in rural villages who now Work on cloudy
lack it (Figure 13-34). With financing from the World days Low efficiency
Bank, India (the world’s largest market for solar cells) Quick installation
is installing solar-cell systems in 38,000 villages. Need electricity
Zimbabwe is bringing solar electricity to 2,500 vil- Easily expanded storage system or
or moved backup
lages, mostly because they are located long distances
from power grids. No CO2
Figure 13-35 lists the advantages and disad- emissions
High land use
vantages of solar cells. Currently, costs of producing Low (solar-cell power
electricity from solar cells are high. In the future, they environmental plants) could
will likely drop thanks to mass production and new impact disrupt desert
areas
designs. Last 20–40 years
Currently, solar cells supply only 0.05% of the
world’s electricity. With increased government and Low land use (if High costs
on roof or built (but should be
private research and development, plus greater gov- into walls or competitive in 5–15
ernment tax breaks and other subsidies, they could windows) years)
provide one-fourth of the world’s electricity by 2040. If
Reduces
these projections prove correct, the production, sale, dependence on DC current must
and installation of solar cells could become one of the fossil fuels be converted to AC
world’s largest and fastest-growing businesses.
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Gearbox
Electrical
generator
Power cable
Figure 13-37 Solutions: Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity individually or in clusters,
called wind farms or wind parks that can be located on land or offshore. Since 1990, wind power has been
the world’s fastest-growing source of energy.
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)
(-
e
Figure 13-44 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of water
d
o
n
Energy is needed
t
s
ly
ta
a
)
(+
C
using geothermal energy for space heating and to produce
e
to produce fuel
d
o
th
a
C
electricity or high-temperature heat for industrial processes. Low
Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and the single dis- environmental
impact Negative net energy
advantage that you think are the most important.
Renewable if CO2 emissions if
produced from produced from
renewable energy carbon-containing
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should we greatly increase our
dependence on geothermal energy to provide heat and to
resources compounds
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Small solar-cell
Bioenergy power plants Wind farm power plants
Transmission
and distribution
system
Commercial
Small wind
turbine
Residential
Industrial Microturbines
Figure 13-46 Solutions: decentralized power system in which electricity is produced by a large number of
dispersed, small-scale micropower systems. Some would produce power on site; others would feed the power
they produce into a conventional electrical distribution system. Over the next few decades, many energy and fi-
nancial analysts expect a shift to this type of power system. Proponents say that such a dispersed power sys-
tem is less vulnerable to terrorism and blackouts from hurricanes, floods, and other disasters.
Mandate government Use full-cost accounting and life-cycle cost for comparing all
purchases of efficient energy alternatives
vehicles and other devices
Encourage government purchase of renewable energy devices
Provide large tax credits for
buying efficient cars, houses, Greatly increase renewable energy research and development
and appliances
Greatly increase energy Phase out nuclear power or put it on hold until 2020
efficiency research and
development Phase out nuclear power subsidies
Figure 13-47 Solutions: suggestions of various energy analysts to help make the transition to a more
sustainable energy future. Critical thinking: which five of these solutions do you believe are the most important?
Third, over the next 50 years, the choice is not between developed countries. It has created an uneven eco-
using nonrenewable fossil fuels and renewable energy nomic playing field that encourages energy waste and
sources. Because of their supplies and low prices, fossil rapid depletion of nonrenewable energy resources. It
fuels will continue to be used in large quantities. The also discourages improvements in energy efficiency
challenge is to find ways to reduce the harmful envi- and the development of renewable energy.
ronmental impacts of widespread fossil fuel use, with Second, governments can keep energy prices artifi-
special emphasis on reducing air pollution and emis- cially high to discourage use of a resource. They can raise
sions of greenhouse gases as less harmful alternatives the price of an energy resource by eliminating existing
are phased in. tax breaks and other subsidies, enacting restrictive reg-
ulations, or adding taxes on its use. This approach will
increase government revenues, encourage improve-
Economics, Politics, and Energy Resources
ments in energy efficiency, reduce dependence on im-
Governments can use a combination of subsidies, tax ported energy, and decrease use of an energy resource
breaks, and taxes to promote or discourage use of that has a limited future supply.
various energy alternatives. Making this transition to a more sustainable en-
To most analysts, the key to making a shift to more ergy future depends primarily on politics, which de-
sustainable energy resources and societies lies in eco- pends largely on the pressure individuals put on
nomics and politics. Governments can use two basic elected officials by voting with their ballots and on
economic and political strategies to help stimulate or companies by voting with their pocket books. Figure
dampen the short-term and long-term use of a particu- 13-48 (p. 326) lists some ways you can contribute to
lar energy resource. making this transition by reducing the amount of en-
First, they can keep energy prices artificially low to en- ergy you use and waste.
courage use of selected energy resources. They can provide
research and development subsidies and tax breaks, A transition to renewable energy is inevitable, not because
and enact regulations that help stimulate the develop- fossil fuel supplies will run out—large reserves of oil, coal, and
ment and use of energy resources receiving such sup- gas remain in the world—but because the costs and risks of
port. For decades, this approach has been employed to using these supplies will continue to increase relative to
stimulate the development and use of fossil fuels and renewable energy.
nuclear power in the United States and in most other MOHAMED EL-ASHRY
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CASE STUDY the age of 30, they can avoid nearly all the risk of dy-
ing prematurely.
The Big Killer Many health experts urge that a $3–5 federal tax
be added to the price of a pack of cigarettes in the
What is roughly the diameter of a 30-caliber bullet,
United States. The users of cigarettes (and other to-
can be bought almost anywhere, is highly addictive,
bacco products)—not the rest of society—would then
and kills about 13,700 people every day, or one every
pay a much greater share of the $158 billion per year
6 seconds? A cigarette. Cigarette smoking is the world’s
in health, economic, and social costs associated with
most preventable major cause of suffering and premature
their smoking.
death among adults.
Other suggestions for reducing the death toll
According to the World Health Organization
and the health effects of smoking in the United States
(WHO), tobacco helped kill 85 million people between
(and in other countries) include banning all cigarette
1950 and 2005—almost three times the 30 million peo-
advertising, prohibiting the sale of cigarettes and other
ple killed in battle in all wars since 1900!
tobacco products to anyone younger than 21 (with
The WHO estimates that each year tobacco con-
strict penalties for violators), and banning cigarette
tributes to the premature deaths of at least 5 million
vending machines. Analysts also call for classifying
people (about half from developed countries and half
and regulating the use of nicotine as an addictive and
from developing countries) from 34 illnesses includ-
dangerous drug, eliminating all federal subsidies and
ing heart disease, lung cancer, other cancers, bronchitis,
tax breaks to tobacco farmers and tobacco companies,
emphysema, and stroke. By 2030, the annual death toll
and using cigarette tax income to finance an aggres-
from smoking-related diseases is projected to reach
sive antitobacco advertising and education program.
10 million—an average of 27,400 preventable deaths
So far, the U.S. Congress has not enacted such reforms.
per day or 1 death every 3 seconds. About 70% of
these deaths are expected to occur in developing
countries. x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do you favor classifying and
regulating nicotine as an addictive and dangerous drug? Cast
According to a 2002 study by the Centers for your vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), smoking kills
about 440,000 Americans per year prematurely—an
average of 1,205 deaths per day (Figure 14-1). This
Cause of Death Deaths
death toll is roughly equivalent to three fully loaded
400-passenger jumbo jets crashing every day with no
Tobacco use 442,000
survivors! Yet, this ongoing major human tragedy
rarely makes the news. Accidents 101,500 (43,450 auto)
The overwhelming consensus in the scientific
community is that the nicotine inhaled in tobacco Alcohol use 85,000
smoke is highly addictive. Only 1 in 10 people Infectious
75,000 (14,200 from AIDS)
who try to quit smoking succeeds, about the same diseases
relapse rate as for recovering alcoholics and those Pollutants/toxins 55,000
addicted to heroin or crack cocaine. A British
Suicides 30,600
government study showed that adolescents who
smoke more than one cigarette have an 85% chance Homicides 20,622
of becoming smokers. People can also be exposed
to secondhand smoke from others, called passive Illegal drug use 17,000
smoking.
A 50-year study published in 2004 by Richard Figure 14-1 Annual deaths in the United States from tobacco use and
other causes in 2003. Smoking is by far the nation’s leading cause of pre-
Doll and Richard Peto found that cigarette smokers
ventable death, causing more premature deaths each year than all the
die on average 10 years earlier than nonsmokers other categories in this figure combined. (Data from U.S. National Center
but that kicking the habit—even at 50 years old—can for Health Statistics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and
cut a person’s risk in half. If people quit smoking by U.S. Surgeon General)
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KEY IDEAS
■ Rapidly producing infectious bacteria can undergo Risk assessment is the scientific process of esti-
natural selection and become genetically resistant to mating how much harm a particular hazard can cause
widely used antibiotics. to human health. Risk management involves deciding
■ In terms of deaths caused, the three most serious whether or how to reduce a particular risk to a certain
hazards are poverty/malnutrition, smoking, and level and at what cost. Figure 14-2 summarizes how
pneumonia/flu and the three most serious infectious risks are assessed and managed.
diseases are AIDS, malaria, and diarrhea.
Science: Types of Hazards
■ It is difficult and costly to determine the risk of harm
We can suffer harm from cultural hazards,
from chemicals.
biological hazards, chemical hazards, and physical
■ Most of us have a distorted view of the risks we hazards, but determining the risks involved is
face. difficult.
We can suffer harm from four major types of hazards:
A nontransmissible disease is not caused by living Also, many disease-transmitting species of insects such
organisms and does not spread from one person to as mosquitoes have become immune to widely used
another. Such diseases tend to develop slowly and pesticides that once helped control their populations.
have multiple causes. Examples include cardiovascu-
lar (heart and blood vessel) disorders, asthma, emphy- Science Case Study: Growing Germ Resistance
sema, and malnutrition. to Antibiotics
In an infection, a pathogen in the form of a bac- Rapidly producing infectious bacteria can undergo
terium, virus, or parasite invades your body and mul- natural selection and become genetically resistant to
tiplies in its cells and tissues. This can lead to an widely used antibiotics.
infectious or transmissible disease if your body can-
We may be falling behind in our efforts to prevent infec-
not mobilize its defenses fast enough to keep the
tious bacterial diseases because of the astounding re-
pathogen from interfering with your bodily functions.
productive rate of bacteria, some of which can produce
Pathogens or infectious agents can be spread from
16,777,216 offspring in 24 hours. Their high reproduc-
one person to another by air, water, food, and body
tive rate allows these organisms to become genetically
fluids such as pathogen-loaded droplets present in the
resistant to an increasing number of antibiotics through
sneezes, coughs, feces, urine, or blood of infected peo-
natural selection. They can also transfer such resistance
ple. Pathogen-containing organisms such as mosqui-
to nonresistant bacteria.
toes can spread some infectious diseases. Figure 14-3
Other factors play a key role in fostering resistance.
shows the annual death toll from the world’s seven
One is the spread of bacteria (some beneficial and some
deadliest infectious diseases.
harmful) around the globe by human travel and inter-
Great news. Since 1900, and especially since 1950,
national trade. Another is the overuse of pesticides,
the incidences of infectious diseases and the death
which increases populations of pesticide-resistant in-
rates from such diseases have been greatly reduced.
sects and other carriers of bacterial diseases.
This has been achieved mostly by a combination of
Yet another factor is overuse of antibiotics by doc-
better health care, the use of antibiotics to treat infec-
tors. According to a 2000 study by Richard Wenzel and
tious disease caused by bacteria, and the development
Michael Edward, at least half of all antibiotics used to
of vaccines to prevent the spread of some infectious vi-
treat humans are prescribed unnecessarily. In many
ral diseases.
countries, antibiotics are available without a prescrip-
Bad news. Many disease-carrying bacteria have de-
tion, which also promotes unnecessary use. Resistance
veloped genetic immunity to widely used antibiotics.
to some antibiotics has also increased due to their
widespread use in livestock and diary animals to con-
Disease Deaths per year trol disease and to promote growth.
(type of agent) As a result of these factors acting together, every
major disease-causing bacterium now has strains that
Pneumonia and flu
(bacteria and viruses) 3.2 million resist at least one of the roughly 160 antibiotics we
use to treat bacterial infections, such as those from
HIV/AIDS tuberculosis.
(virus) 3.0 million
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95% of the new cases occur. A second problem is that birds that carry the virus. It can infect 230 species of
most strains of the TB bacterium have developed ge- animals, including as least 130 bird species. In the
netic resistance to almost all effective antibiotics. United States, it was first reported in 1999, when it was
Population growth and urbanization have also led apparently introduced by a mosquito or bird from the
to increased contacts between people and spread TB, Middle East. Since then, the virus has spread through-
especially in areas where large numbers of the poor out most of the lower 48 U.S. states, infecting thou-
crowd together. In addition, the spread of AIDS is a sands, and killing several hundred people. The chance
factor because the disease greatly weakens the im- of being infected and killed by this disease is low
mune system and allows TB bacteria to multiply in (about 1 in 2,500). In 2004, the flu killed more Ameri-
people who have AIDS. cans in two days than the West Nile virus killed during
Slowing the spread of the disease requires early the entire year.
identification and treatment of people with active TB, The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus
especially those with a chronic cough. Treatment with a was first transmitted to humans in China in 2002 from
combination of four inexpensive drugs can cure 90% of the flesh of wild animals valued as delicacies. From
individuals with active TB. To be effective, the drugs these wild hosts, this highly infectious disease it was
must be taken every day for 6–8 months. Because the transmitted to pigs, chickens, and ducks eaten by hu-
symptoms disappear after a few weeks, many patients mans. It spread to chefs and animal handlers and then
think they are cured and stop taking the drugs. This al- to other humans in close contact with SARS-infected
lows the disease to recur in a drug-resistant form. It people.
then spreads to other people, and drug-resistant strains Its flu-like symptoms include chills, fever, a dry
of TB bacteria develop. Critical thinking: What three cough, headaches, and muscle pains; in the elderly
things would you do to reduce the spread of TB? and sick, SARS can quickly turn into life-threatening
pneumonia. In 2003, the disease began spreading to
other countries, mostly by global travelers. Within six
Science: Viral Diseases
months it had reached 31 other countries, infecting at
HIV, flu, and hepatitis B viruses infect and kill many least 8,500 people and causing 812 deaths. Swift local
more people each year than the highly publicized action by the WHO and other health agencies helped
Ebola, West Nile, and SARS viruses. contain the spread of this disease by July 2003. With-
What are the world’s three most widespread and dan- out careful vigilance, it might break out again.
gerous viruses? The biggest killer is the human immun- Health officials are concerned about the emer-
odeficiency virus (HIV), which is transmitted by unsafe gence and spread of these three and other emerging
sex, sharing of needles by drug users, infected mothers viral diseases and are working hard to control their
who pass the virus to their offspring before or during spread. Nevertheless, in terms of annual infection
birth, and exposure to infected blood. On a global rates and deaths, the three most dangerous viruses by
scale, HIV infects at least 5 million new people each far remain HIV, flu, and HBV.
year (about 41,000 in the United States), half of them You can greatly reduce your chances of getting in-
women. The resulting complications from AIDS kill fectious diseases that spread from person to person by
about 3 million people annually (Case Study, right). practicing good old-fashioned hygiene. Wash your
The second biggest killer is the influenza or flu hands thoroughly and frequently, and avoid touching
virus, which is transmitted by the body fluids or air- your mouth, nose, and eyes.
borne emissions of an infected person, and kills about
1 million people per year. In 1918, an especially dan-
Science Case Study: HIV and AIDS
gerous flu virus spread rapidly around the globe and
killed an estimated 30 million people. The spread of AIDS, caused by infection with HIV, is
The third largest killer is the hepatitis B virus one of the world’s most serious and rapidly growing
(HBV), which damages the liver and kills about 1 mil- health threats.
lion people each year. Like HIV, it is transmitted by un- The global spread of acquired immune deficiency syn-
safe sex, sharing of needles by drug users, infected drome (AIDS), caused by infection with HIV, is consid-
mothers who pass the virus to their offspring before or ered the world’s most serious and rapidly growing
during birth, and exposure to infected blood. health threat. The virus itself is not deadly, but it kills
In recent years, three other viruses that cause pre- immune cells and leaves the body defenseless against
viously unknown diseases have received widespread infectious bacteria and other viruses.
coverage in the media. The Ebola virus is transmitted According to the WHO, by the beginning of 2004
by the blood or other body fluids of an infected person. some 39.4 million people worldwide (96% of them
The West Nile virus is transmitted by the bite of a in developing countries, especially African countries
common mosquito that became infected by feeding on south of the Sahara Desert) were infected with HIV.
Age
50–54
several years without knowing they are infected. There 45–49
is no vaccine to prevent HIV and no cure for AIDS. Once 40–44
you get AIDS, you will eventually die from it, although 35–39
30–34
drugs may help some infected people live longer. Un- 25–29
fortunately, only a tiny fraction of those suffering from 20–24
AIDS can afford to use these costly drugs. Between 15–19
10–14
1980 and 2005, about 23 million people (502,000 in the 5–9
United States) died of AIDS-related diseases. 0–4
AIDS has caused the life expectancy of the 700
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
million people living in sub-Saharan Africa to drop
Population (thousands)
from 62 to 47 years. The premature deaths of teachers,
health-care workers, and other young productive Figure 14-4 Global outlook: AIDS can affect the age structure
adults in such countries leads to diminished education of a population. This figure shows the projected age structure of
Botswana’s population in 2020 with and without AIDS. (Data
and health care, decreased food production and eco-
from U.S. Census Bureau)
nomic development, and disintegrating families. Such
deaths drastically alter a country’s age structure dia-
gram (Figure 14-4). Between 2004 and 2020, the WHO
estimates 60 million more deaths from AIDS. By 2020,
Science Case Study: Malaria
its death toll could reach 5 million per year.
According to the WHO, a global strategy to slow Malaria kills about 3 million people per year and has
the spread of AIDS should have five major priorities. probably killed more people than all of the wars ever
First, shrink the number of people capable of infecting fought.
others by quickly reducing the number of new infec- About one of every five people in the world—most
tions below the number of deaths. Second, concentrate of them living in poor African countries—is at risk from
on the groups in a society that are most likely to spread malaria (Figure 14-5). Worldwide, an estimated 300–500
the disease, such as truck drivers, sex workers, and million people are infected with the protozoan para-
soldiers. Third, provide free HIV testing and pressure sites that cause this disease, and 270–500 million new
people to get tested. cases are reported each year. Malaria is not just a con-
Fourth, implement a mass-advertising and educa- cern for the people living in the areas where it occurs,
tion program geared toward adults and schoolchild- but also for anyone traveling to these areas—including
ren to help prevent the disease, emphasizing absti-
nence and condom use. Fifth, provide free or low-cost
drugs to slow the progress of the disease.
Implementing such a program will require action
by government officials and a massive aid program by
developed nations. These countries will need to send
both monetary aid and workers to help rebuild devas-
tated societies.
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many unsuspecting tourists—because there is no vac- worse, the Plasmodium parasites have become geneti-
cine for this disease. cally resistant to common antimalarial drugs.
Malaria is caused by a parasite that is spread by Researchers are working to develop new anti-
the bites of certain mosquito species. It infects and malarial drugs, vaccines, and biological controls for
destroys red blood cells, causing fever, chills, drench- Anopheles mosquitoes. They are also using artemisinins
ing sweats, anemia, severe abdominal pain, headaches, derived from qinghaosu, an ancient Chinese herbal
vomiting, extreme weakness, and greater susceptibil- remedy that cures 90% of malaria patients in three
ity to other diseases. It kills about 3 million people each days. Unfortunately, such approaches receive too little
year—on a par with AIDS (Figure 14-3)—and causes funding and have proved more difficult to implement
an average of 8,200 deaths per day. Approximately than originally thought.
90% of those dying are children younger than age 5. For now, prevention is the best approach to slow-
Many children who survive bouts of severe malaria ing the spread of malaria. Methods include increasing
have brain damage or impaired learning ability. water flow in irrigation systems to prevent mosquito
Four species of protozoan parasites in the genus larvae from developing (an expensive and wasteful use
Plasmodium cause malaria. Most cases of the disease of water), fixing leaking water pipes, and providing
occur when an uninfected female of any of about 60 poor people in malarial regions with window screens
Anopheles mosquito species bites a person infected for their dwellings and insecticide-treated bed nets.
with Plasmodium, ingests blood that contains the para- Other approaches include cultivating fish that feed
site, and later bites an uninfected person (Figure 14-6). on mosquito larvae (biological control), clearing vege-
Plasmodium parasites then move out of the mosquito tation around houses, planting trees that soak up water
and into the human’s bloodstream, multiply in the in low-lying marsh areas where mosquitoes thrive (a
liver, and enter blood cells to continue multiplying. method that can degrade or destroy ecologically impor-
Malaria can also be transmitted by blood transfusions tant wetlands), and using zinc and vitamin A supple-
or by sharing needles. ments to boost resistance to malaria in children.
The malaria cycle repeats itself until immunity de- Spraying the insides of homes with low concentra-
velops, treatment is given, or the victim dies. Over the tions of the pesticide DDT twice a year greatly reduces
course of human history, malarial protozoa probably have the number of malaria cases. Under an international
killed more people than all the wars ever fought. treaty enacted in 2002, DDT and five of its chlorinated-
During the 1950s and 1960s, the spread of malaria hydrocarbon cousins are being phased out in develop-
was sharply curtailed by draining swamplands and ing countries. However, the treaty allows 25 countries
marshes, spraying breeding areas with insecticides, to continue using DDT for malaria control until other
and using drugs to kill the parasites in the blood- alternatives become available. Health officials in de-
stream. Since 1970, however, malaria has come roaring veloping countries call for much greater funding of re-
back. Most species of the Anopheles mosquito have be- search geared toward finding ways to prevent and
come genetically resistant to most insecticides. Even treat malaria and of schemes to provide poor people in
malaria-prone countries with window screens and in-
secticide-treated bed nets.
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Mortality Existence
Agent Contagious Symptoms (if untreated) of vaccine Treatment
Smallpox Yes Fever, aches, headache, red 30% Yes Vaccination within 4 days after
(virus) spots on face and torso exposure, IV hydration
Hemorrhagic Yes Vary but include fever, Varies No Ebola has no cure; antiviral
fever (viruses) bleeding, shock, and coma riboflavin and some antibiotics
may help
Inhalation No Fever, chest pain, difficulty 90–100% Yes Early treatment with Cipro and
anthrax breathing, respiratory failure other antibiotics
(bacterium)
Botulism No Blurred vision, progressive 60–100% Yes Equine antitoxin given early.
(bacterium) paralysis, death within 24 hours Intensive care, respirator
if not treated
Figure 14-8 Bioterrorist weapons: characteristics of common agents that might be used by terrorists as
biological weapons.
Perhaps you are thinking, “Whoa, enough already. genetically modified to make such treatments fail.
This stuff is depressing and scary.” But it is a reality in Outbreaks can be kept under control if hospitals stock
today’s world. Let us look at some more hopeful news large supplies of antibiotics and vaccines for treat-
about bioterrorism. ment of common diseases, provide emergency and
Early detection of biological agents is the key in hospital workers with detection systems and protec-
treating exposed victims and preventing the spread of tive gear, and alert doctors to the symptoms of the
diseases to others. Some scientists are trapping com- most common biological warfare agents. Critical think-
mon insects such as bees, beetles, moths, and crickets ing: what three things would you do to reduce the threat of
to see whether they can be used as environmental bioterriorism?
monitors of chemical and biological agents. Others are
trying to develop inexpensive and easy-to-use DNA
detectors to quickly and accurately diagnose any in-
14-3 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
fectious disease such as smallpox. For example, MIT
biologist Todd Rider has developed a biological sensor
Science: Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals
that can detect dangerous biological agents such as an-
thrax within minutes. He made the sensor out of Toxic chemicals can harm or kill, and hazardous
mouse immune cells by inserting a gene for antibodies chemicals can cause various types of harm.
to a particular biological agent (such as anthrax) along A toxic chemical can cause temporary or permanent
with a gene that causes a jellyfish to glow. When a bio- harm or death to humans or animals. A hazardous
logical agent activates the antibody, the immune cells chemical can harm humans or other animals because
of the mouse light up. it is flammable or explosive or because it can irritate or
Treatments are available for the most common bi- damage the skin or lungs, interfere with oxygen up-
ological agents (Figure 14-8)—unless they have been take, or induce allergic reactions.
There are three major types of potentially toxic vading agents harmless. Ionizing radiation and some
agents: mutagens, teratogens, and carcinogens. chemicals such as arsenic and dioxins can weaken the
Mutagens include chemicals or ionizing radiation human immune system and leave the body vulnerable
that cause or increase the frequency of mutations, or to attacks by allergens, infectious bacteria, viruses, and
changes, in DNA molecules. An example is nitrous protozoans.
acid (HNO2), which is formed by the digestion of ni- Some natural and synthetic chemicals in the envi-
trite preservatives in foods. Harmful mutations occur- ronment, called neurotoxins, can harm the human ner-
ring in reproductive cells can be passed on to offspring vous system (brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves).
and to future generations. There is no safe threshold For example, many poisons and the venom of some
for exposure to mutagens. snakes are neurotoxins. They inhibit, damage, or de-
Teratogens are chemicals that cause harm or birth stroy nerve cells (neurons) that transmit electrochemi-
defects to a fetus or embryo. Ethyl alcohol is an exam- cal messages throughout the body. Effects can include
ple of a teratogen. Drinking during pregnancy can behavioral changes, paralysis, and death. Examples of
lead to offspring with low birth weight and a number chemical neurotoxins include PCBs, methyl mercury,
of physical, developmental, and mental problems. An- lead, and certain pesticides.
other potent teratogen is thalidomide, which was de- The endocrine system is a complex network of glands
veloped in the 1950s as a sleeping pill and a means to that releases tiny amounts of hormones into the blood-
help prevent nausea during pregnancy. Unfortunately, stream of humans and other vertebrate animals. Low
experience showed that even a single dose of this levels of these chemical messengers turn on and off
chemical during pregnancy could cause limb deformi- bodily systems that control sexual reproduction,
ties and organ defects in offspring. growth, development, learning ability, and behavior.
Carcinogens are chemicals or ionizing radiation Examples of hormone disrupters or hormonally ac-
that can cause or promote cancer—the growth of a ma- tive agents (HAAs) include DDT, PCBs, and certain her-
lignant (cancerous) tumor, in which certain cells multi- bicides. Exposure to low levels of HAAs may disrupt
ply uncontrollably. One example is benzene, a widely the effects of natural hormones in some animals, but
used chemical solvent. Another is formaldehyde, a more research is needed to verify their effects on hu-
major indoor air pollutant that is used to manufacture mans. Some scientists say we need to wait for the results
common household materials such as plywood, parti- of more research before banning or severely restricting
cleboard, flooring, furniture, and adhesives in carpet- HAAs—but this will take decades. Other scientists be-
ing and wallpaper. lieve that as a precaution, we should sharply reduce our
Many cancerous tumors spread by metastasis, in use of potential hormone disrupters.
which malignant cells break off from tumors and travel Critical thinking: should we ban or severely restrict
in body fluids to other parts of the body. There they start the use of potential hormone disrupters? Why hasn’t this
new tumors, making treatment much more difficult. been done?
Typically, 10–40 years may elapse between the ini-
tial exposure to a carcinogen and the appearance of de-
tectable symptoms. Partly because of this time lag,
14-4 TOXICOLOGY: ASSESSING
many healthy teenagers and young adults have trou-
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
ble believing that their smoking, drinking, eating, and
other lifestyle habits today could lead to some form of
Science: What Determines Whether
cancer before they reach age 50.
a Chemical Is Harmful?
The harm caused by exposure to a chemical depends
Science: Effects of Chemicals on the Immune, on the amount of exposure (dose), the frequency of
Nervous, and Endocrine Systems exposure, the person who is exposed, the effectiveness
Long-term exposure to some chemicals at low doses of the body’s detoxification systems, and one’s genetic
may disrupt the body’s immune, nervous, and makeup.
endocrine systems. Toxicity—a measure of how harmful a substance is in
Since the 1970s, a growing body of research on wild- causing injury, illness, or death to a living organism—
life and laboratory animals, along with some epidemi- depends on several factors. One is the dose, the amount
ological studies of humans, suggests that long-term of a substance a person has ingested, inhaled, or ab-
exposure to some chemicals in the environment can sorbed through the skin. Other factors are how often
disrupt the body’s immune, nervous, and endocrine the exposure occurred, who is exposed (adult or child,
systems. for example), and how well the body’s detoxification
The immune system consists of specialized cells and systems (such as the liver, lungs, and kidneys) work.
tissues that protect the body against disease and harm- Toxicity also depends on genetic makeup, which
ful substances by forming antibodies that render in- determines an individual’s sensitivity to a particular
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toxin. Some individuals are sensitive to a number of the response. An acute effect is an immediate or rapid
toxins—a condition known as multiple chemical sen- harmful reaction to an exposure—ranging from dizzi-
sitivity (MCS). This genetic variation in individual re- ness to death. A chronic effect is a permanent or long-
sponses to exposure to various toxins raises a difficult lasting consequence (kidney or liver damage, for ex-
ethical, political, and economic question: When regu- ample) from exposure to a single dose or to repeated
lating levels of a toxic substance in the environment, lower doses of a harmful substance.
should the allowed level be set to protect the most A basic concept of toxicology is that any synthetic
sensitive individuals (at great cost) or the average or natural chemical can be harmful if ingested in a large
person? enough quantity. For example, drinking 100 cups of
Five major factors can affect the harm caused by a strong coffee one after another would expose most
substance. One is its solubility. Water-soluble toxins people to a lethal dosage of caffeine. Similarly, down-
(which are often inorganic compounds) can move ing 100 tablets of aspirin or 1 liter (1.1 quarts) of pure
throughout the environment and get into water sup- alcohol (ethanol) would kill most people.
plies and the aqueous solutions that surround the cells The critical question is this: How much exposure to a
in our bodies. Oil- or fat-soluble toxins (which are usu- particular toxic chemical causes a harmful response? This
ally organic compounds) can penetrate the mem- is the meaning of the chapter-opening quote by the
branes surrounding cells because the membranes al- German scientist Paracelsus about the dose making
low similar oil-soluble chemicals to pass through the poison.
them. Thus, oil- or fat-soluble toxins can accumulate in People vary in terms of the dose of a toxin they
body tissues and cells. can tolerate without incurring significant harm, be-
A second factor is a substance’s persistence. Many cause of differences in their genetic makeup. For this
chemicals, such as DDT, are used precisely because of reason, a better way to state Paracelsus’s principle of
their persistence or resistance to breakdown. Of course, toxicology is this: The dose makes the poison, but dif-
this persistence also means they can have long-lasting ferently for different individuals.
harmful effects on the health of wildlife and people. Your body has three major mechanisms for reduc-
A third factor for some substances is bioaccumula- ing the harmful effects of some chemicals. First, it can
tion, in which some molecules are absorbed and stored break down (usually by enzymes found in the liver),
in specific organs or tissues at higher than normal lev- dilute, or excrete (for example, in your breath, sweat,
els. As a consequence, a chemical found at a fairly low and urine) small amounts of most toxins to keep them
concentration in the environment can build up to a from reaching harmful levels. However, accumu-
harmful level in certain organs and tissues. lations of high levels of toxins can overload the ability
A related factor is biomagnification, in which levels of your liver and kidneys to degrade and excrete such
of some potential toxins in the environment become substances.
magnified as they pass through food chains and webs. Second, your cells have enzymes that can some-
Organisms at low trophic levels might ingest only times repair damage to DNA and protein molecules.
small amounts of a toxin, but each animal on the next Third, cells in some parts of your body (such as your
trophic level up that eats many of those organisms will skin and the linings of your gastrointestinal tract,
take in increasingly larger amounts of that toxin (Fig- lungs, and blood vessels) can reproduce fast enough to
ure 9-16, p. 197). Examples of chemicals that can be replace damaged cells.
biomagnified include long-lived, fat-soluble organic
compounds such as DDT, PCBs (oily chemicals used in
Science: Effects of Trace Levels
electrical transformers), and some radioactive isotopes
of Toxic Chemicals
(such as strontium-90).
A fifth factor is chemical interactions that can de- Trace amounts of chemicals in the environment or
crease or multiply the harmful effects of a toxin. An your body may or may not be harmful.
antagonistic interaction can reduce harmful effects. For Should we be concerned about trace amounts of vari-
example, there is preliminary evidence that vitamins E ous chemicals in air, water, food, and our bodies? The
and A can interact to reduce the body’s response to honest answer is that, in most cases, we do not know
some cancer-causing chemicals. because of a lack of data and the difficulty of determin-
A synergistic interaction multiplies harmful effects. ing the effects of exposures to low levels of chemicals.
For instance, workers exposed to tiny fibers of asbestos Some scientists think that trace levels of most
increase their chances of getting lung cancer 20-fold. chemicals are not harmful. They point to the dramatic
But asbestos workers who also smoke have a 400-fold increase in average life expectancy in the United States
increase in lung cancer rates. In such cases, one plus since 1950. Other scientists are not so sure and suggest
one can be a lot greater than two. that much more research is needed to evaluate the pos-
The type and amount of health damage that result sible long-term harm caused by exposure to low levels
from exposure to a chemical or other agent are called of the thousands of new synthetic chemicals that we
have put into the environment during the past few 100
decades.
A poison or toxin is a chemical that adversely affects Figure 14-9 Science: hypothetical dose-response curve show-
the health of a living human or animal by causing in- ing determination of the LD50, the dosage of a specific chemi-
jury, illness, or death. One method for determining the cal that kills 50% of the animals in a test group. Toxicologists
use this method to compare the toxicities of different chemicals.
relative toxicities of various chemicals is to measure
their effects on test animals. For example, we can deter-
mine a chemical’s lethal dose (LD). A chemical’s median
Science: Using Case Reports and
lethal dose (LD50) means that the amount received in
Epidemiological Studies to Estimate
that dose kills 50% of the animals (usually rats and
Toxicity
mice) in a test population within a 14-day period (Fig-
ure 14-9). We can estimate toxicity by using case reports about
Chemicals vary widely in their toxicity (Table 14-1). the harmful effects of chemicals on human health and
Some poisons can cause serious harm or death after a by comparing the health of a group of people exposed
single acute exposure at very low dosages. Others cause to a chemical with the health of a similar group not
such harm only at dosages so huge that it is nearly im- exposed to the chemical.
possible to get enough into the body to cause injury or Scientists use several methods to get information about
death. Most chemicals fall between these two extremes. the harmful effects of chemicals on human health. For
Table 14-1 Toxicity Ratings and Average Lethal Doses for Humans
Supertoxic Less than 0.01 Less than 1 drop Nerve gases, botulism toxin, mushroom toxins,
dioxin (TCDD)
Extremely toxic Less than 5 Less than 7 drops Potassium cyanide, heroin, atropine, parathion,
nicotine
Very toxic 5–50 7 drops to 1 teaspoon Mercury salts, morphine, codeine
Toxic 50–500 1 teaspoon to 1 ounce Lead salts, DDT, sodium hydroxide, sodium
fluoride, sulfuric acid, caffeine, carbon
tetrachloride
Moderately toxic 500–5,000 1 ounce to 1 pint Methyl (wood) alcohol, ether, phenobarbital,
amphetamines (speed), kerosene, aspirin
Slightly toxic 5,000–15,000 1 pint to 1 quart Ethyl alcohol, Lysol, soaps
Essentially nontoxic 15,000 or greater More than 1 quart Water, glycerin, table sugar
*Dosage that kills 50% of individuals exposed
†Amounts of substances in liquid form at room temperature that are lethal when given to a 70.4-kilogram (155-pound) human
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example, case reports, usually made by physicians, pro- that some animal testing is needed because the alter-
vide information about people suffering some adverse native methods cannot adequately mimic the complex
health effect or death after exposure to a chemical. biochemical interactions taking place in a live animal.
Such information often involves accidental poisonings, Critical thinking: should animal testing be banned?
drug overdoses, homicides, or suicide attempts. Acute toxicity tests are run to develop a dose-
Most case reports are not reliable sources for es- response curve, which shows the effects of various
timating toxicity because the actual dosage and the dosages of a toxic agent on a group of test organisms.
exposed person’s health status are often not known. In controlled experiments, the effects of the chemical on a
Nevertheless, they can provide clues about environ- test group are compared with the responses of a control
mental hazards and suggest the need for laboratory group of organisms not exposed to the chemical. Care
investigations. is taken that organisms in each group are as identical
Epidemiological studies compare the health of peo- as possible in terms of age, health status, and genetic
ple exposed to a particular chemical (the experimental makeup, and that all are exposed to the same environ-
group) with the health of a similar group of people not mental conditions.
exposed to the agent (the control group). The goal is to Fairly high dosages are used to reduce the number
determine whether the statistical association between of test animals needed, obtain results quickly, and
exposure to a toxic chemical and a health problem is lower costs. Otherwise, tests would have to be run on
strong, moderate, weak, or undetectable. millions of laboratory animals for many years, and
Three factors can limit the usefulness of epidemio- manufacturers could not afford to test most chemicals.
logical studies. First, in many cases, too few people For the same reasons, scientists often use mathe-
have been exposed to high enough levels of a toxic matical models to extrapolate the results of high-dose
agent to detect statistically significant differences. Sec- exposures to low-dose levels. Then they extrapolate
ond, conclusively linking an observed effect with expo- the low-dose results from the test organisms to humans
sure to a particular chemical is difficult because people to estimate LD50 values for acute toxicity (Table 14-1).
are exposed to many different toxic agents throughout Two general types of dose-response curves exist
their lives and can vary in their sensitivity to such (Figure 14-10). With the nonthreshold dose-response model
chemicals. Third, we cannot use epidemiological stud- (Figure 14-10, left), any dosage of a toxic chemical or
ies to evaluate hazards from new technologies or ionizing radiation causes harm that increases with the
chemicals to which people have not yet been exposed. dosage. With the threshold dose-response model (Fig-
ure 14-10, right), a threshold dosage must be reached
before any detectable harmful effects occur, presum-
Science, Ethics, and Economics: Using
ably because the body can repair the damage caused
Laboratory Experiments to Estimate Toxicity
by low dosages of some substances.
Exposing a population of live laboratory animals Establishing which of these models applies at low
(especially mice and rats) to known amounts of a dosages is extremely difficult and controversial. To be
chemical is the most widely used method for on the safe side, the nonthreshold dose-response model
determining its toxicity. often is assumed.
The most widely used method for determining toxicity
is to expose a population of live laboratory animals
(especially mice and rats) to measured doses of a spe-
Nonlinear
cific substance under controlled conditions. Animal dose-response
tests take 2–5 years and cost $200,000–2,000,000 per Linear dose-
substance tested. Such tests can be painful to the test response
Effect
Effect
Some scientists challenge the validity of extrapo- they are all we have. To take this uncertainty into ac-
lating data from test animals to humans because hu- count and minimize harm, scientists and regulators
man physiology and metabolism often differ from typically set allowed exposure levels to toxic sub-
those of the test animals. Other scientists say that such stances and ionizing radiation at 1/100 or even 1/1,000
tests and models work fairly well (especially for re- of the estimated harmful levels.
vealing cancer risks) when the correct experimental According to risk assessment expert Joseph V.
animal is chosen or when a chemical is toxic or harm- Rodricks, “Toxicologists know a great deal about a few
ful to several different test-animal species. chemicals, a little about many, and next to nothing
The problem of estimating toxicities gets worse. In about most.” The U.S. National Academy of Sciences
real life, each of us is exposed to a variety of chemicals, estimates that only 10% of at least 80,000 chemicals in
some of which can interact in ways that decrease or commercial use have been thoroughly screened for
enhance their individual effects over the short and toxicity, and only 2% have been adequately tested to
long term. determine whether they are carcinogens, teratogens,
Toxicologists have great difficulty in estimating or mutagens. Hardly any of the chemicals in commer-
the toxicity of a single substance. But adding the prob- cial use have been screened for possible damage to hu-
lem of evaluating mixtures of potentially toxic sub- mans’ nervous, endocrine, and immune systems.
stances, separating out which ones are the culprits, Currently, federal and state governments do not
and determining how they can interact with one an- regulate about 99.5% of the commercially used chemi-
other is overwhelming from a scientific and economic cals in the United States. Several reasons explain this
standpoint. For example, just studying the interactions lack of regulation. For example, under existing U.S.
of three of the 500 most widely used industrial chemi- laws, most chemicals are considered innocent until proven
cals would take 20.7 million experiments—a physical guilty. Some analysts think this is the opposite of the
and financial impossibility. way it should be. Why, they ask, should chemicals have
the same legal rights as people? Critical thinking: should
Solutions: Protecting Children chemicals be considered guilty until proven innocent?
from Toxic Chemicals In addition, there are not enough funds, person-
Children tend to be much more vulnerable than adults nel, facilities, and test animals available to provide
to toxic chemicals. such information for more than a small fraction of
the many individual chemicals we encounter in our
Children are usually much more susceptible to the ef-
daily lives. It is also too difficult and expensive to
fects of toxic substances than are adults for three major
analyze the combined effects of multiple exposures to
reasons. First, children breathe more air, drink more
various chemicals and their possible interactions.
water, and eat more food per unit of body weight than
do adults. Second, they are exposed to toxins in dust or
soil when they put their fingers, toys, or other objects Science and Economics: Pollution Prevention
in their mouths (as they frequently do). Third, immune and the Precautionary Principle
systems and bodily processes for degrading or excret- Preliminary but not conclusive evidence that a
ing toxins and repairing damage are usually less well chemical causes significant harm should spur
developed in children than in adults. preventive action, some say.
In 2003, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
So where does this leave us? We do not know a lot about
(EPA) proposed that in determining risk, regulators
the potentially toxic chemicals around us and inside of
should assume children have 10 times the exposure
us, and estimating their effects is very difficult, time-
risk of adults to cancer-causing chemicals. Some health
consuming, and expensive. Is there a way out of this
scientists contend that these guidelines are too weak.
dilemma?
They suggest that, to be on the safe side, we should as-
Some scientists and health officials, especially
sume that the risk of harm from toxins for children is
those in European Union countries, are pushing for
100 times that of adults.
much greater emphasis on pollution prevention. They
say we should not release into the environment chemi-
Science, Politics, and Economics: Why Do
cals that we know or suspect can cause significant
We Know So Little about the Harmful
harm. This means looking for harmless or less harmful
Effects of Chemicals?
substitutes for toxic and hazardous chemicals or recy-
Under existing laws, most chemicals are considered cling them within production processes so they do not
innocent until proven guilty, and estimating their reach the environment.
toxicity to establish guilt is difficult, uncertain, and This prevention approach is based on the precau-
expensive. tionary principle: When there is plausible but incom-
As discussed previously, all methods for estimating plete scientific evidence (frontier science evidence) of
toxicity levels and risks have serious limitations. But significant harm to humans or the environment from a
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proposed or existing chemical or technology, we should ing options and making decisions about reducing or
take action to prevent or reduce the risk instead of wait- eliminating risks (risk management; Figure 14-2, right),
ing for more conclusive (sound or consensus science) and informing decision makers and the public about
evidence. risks (risk communication).
Under this approach, those proposing to introduce Statistical probabilities based on past experience,
a new chemical or technology would bear the burden animal testing and other tests, and epidemiological
of establishing its safety—a guilty-until-proven-innocent studies are used to estimate risks from older technolo-
approach. This means two major changes in the way we gies and chemicals. To evaluate new technologies and
evaluate risks. First, new chemicals and technologies products, risk evaluators use more uncertain statistical
would be assumed to be harmful until scientific stud- probabilities, based on models rather than actual expe-
ies can show otherwise. Second, existing chemicals and rience and testing.
technologies that appear to have a strong chance of Figure 14-11 lists the results of a comparative risk
causing significant harm would be removed from the analysis, summarizing the greatest ecological and
market until their safety can be established. health risks identified by a panel of scientists acting as
Some movement is being made in this direction, advisers to the EPA.
especially in the European Union. In 2000, negotiators
agreed to a global treaty that would ban or phase out
use of 12 of the most notorious persistent organic pollu- Comparative Risk Analysis
tants (POPs), also called the dirty dozen. The list in- Most Serious Ecological
cluded DDT and eight other persistent pesticides, and Health Problems
PCBs, and dioxins and furans. New chemicals would
be added to the list when the harm they could poten-
tially cause is seen as outweighing their usefulness.
High-Risk Health Problems
This treaty went into effect in 2004. • Indoor air pollution
Manufacturers and businesses contend that wide- • Outdoor air pollution
spread application of the precautionary principle • Worker exposure to industrial
or farm chemicals
would make it too expensive and almost impossible to • Pollutants in drinking water
introduce any new chemical or technology. They argue • Pesticide residues on food
that we can never have a risk-free society. • Toxic chemicals in consumer products
Conversely, proponents of increased reliance on
the precautionary principle say that it will encourage High-Risk Ecological Problems
innovation in developing less harmful alternative • Global climate change
• Stratospheric ozone depletion
chemicals and technologies, and in finding ways to • Wildlife habitat alteration and destruction
prevent as much pollution as possible instead of rely- • Species extinction and loss of biodiversity
ing mostly on pollution control. We can never have a
risk-free society. But proponents believe we should
make greater use of the precautionary principle to re- Medium-Risk Ecological Problems
duce many of the risks we face. • Acid deposition
• Pesticides
• Airborne toxic chemicals
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should we rely more on the pre-
cautionary principle as a way to reduce the risks from chemi-
• Toxic chemicals, nutrients, and
sediment in surface waters
cals and technologies? Cast your vote online at http://biology
.brookscole.com/miller11.
Low-Risk Ecological Problems
• Oil spills
• Groundwater pollution
• Radioactive isotopes
• Acid runoff to surface waters
14-5 RISK ANALYSIS • Thermal pollution
The greatest risks many people face today are Science: Estimating Risks
rarely dramatic enough to make the daily news. In from Technologies
terms of the number of premature deaths per year (Fig- Estimating risks from using certain technologies is
ure 14-12) and reduced life span (Figure 14-13, p. 342), difficult because of the unpredictability of human
the greatest risk by far is poverty. Its high death toll is a behavior, chance, and sabotage.
result of malnutrition, increased susceptibility to nor-
The more complex a technological system and the more
mally nonfatal infectious diseases, and often-fatal infec-
people needed to design and run it, the more difficult it
tious diseases from lack of access to a safe water supply.
is to estimate the risks. The overall reliability or the
A sharp reduction in or elimination of poverty would do
probability (expressed as a percentage) that a person or
far more to improve longevity and human health than any
device will perform without failure or error is the prod-
other measure. It would also greatly improve human
uct of two factors:
rights, provide more people with income to stimulate
economic development, and reduce environmental Technology Human
System reliability (%)
reliability reliability
degradation and the threat of terrorism. Sharply re-
ducing poverty is a win-win situation for people, With careful design, quality control, maintenance,
economies, and the environment. and monitoring, a highly complex system such as a nu-
After the health risks associated with poverty and clear power plant or space shuttle can achieve a high
gender, the greatest risks of premature death mostly re- degree of technological reliability. But human reliabil-
sult from voluntary choices people make about their ity usually is much lower than technological reliability
lifestyles (Figures 14-12 and 14-13). The best ways to re- and almost impossible to predict: To err is human.
duce one’s risk of premature death and serious health Suppose the technological reliability of a nuclear
risks are to avoid smoking and exposure to smoke, lose power plant is 95% (0.95) and human reliability is 75%
excess weight, reduce consumption of foods contain- (0.75). Then the overall system reliability is 71% (0.95
ing cholesterol and saturated fats, eat a variety of fruits 0.75 71%). Even if we could make the technology
and vegetables, exercise regularly, not drink alcohol or 100% reliable (1.0), the overall system reliability would
drink no more than two drinks in a single day, avoid still be only 75% (1.0 0.75 100 75%). The crucial
excess sunlight (which ages skin and causes skin can- dependence of even the most carefully designed sys-
cer), and practice safe sex (including abstinence). tems on unpredictable human reliability helps explain
Figure 14-12 Global outlook: number of deaths per year in the world from various causes. Numbers in
parentheses give these deaths in terms of the number of fully loaded 400-passenger jumbo jets crashing
every day of the year with no survivors. Because of sensational media coverage, most people have a distorted
view of the largest annual causes of death. Critical thinking: which three of these items are most likely to
shorten your life span?
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than they do of an older, more familiar one. Examples something, the most important question to ask is, “Do
include a greater fear of genetically modified food I have any control over this?”
than of food produced by traditional plant-breeding You have control over major ways to reduce risks
techniques, and a greater fear of nuclear power plants from heart attack, stroke, and many forms of cancer
than of more familiar coal-fired power plants. because you can decide whether you smoke, what you
Third is whether we voluntarily take the risk. For ex- eat, how much exercise you get, how much alcohol
ample, we might perceive that the risk from driving, you consume, how often you expose yourself to the
which is largely voluntary, is less than that from a nu- sun’s ultraviolet rays, and whether you practice safe
clear power plant, which is mostly imposed on us sex. Concentrate on evaluating these important
whether we like it or not. choices, and you will have a much greater chance of
Fourth is whether a risk is catastrophic, not chronic. living a longer, healthier, happier, and less fearful life.
We usually have a much greater fear of a well-publi-
cized death toll from a single catastrophic accident than The burden of proof imposed on individuals, companies, and
from the same or an even larger death toll spread out institutions should be to show that pollution prevention
over a longer time. Examples include a severe nuclear options have been thoroughly examined, evaluated, and used
power plant accident, an industrial explosion, or an ac- before lesser options are chosen.
cidental plane crash, as opposed to coal-burning power JOEL HIRSCHORN
plants, automobiles, or smoking. Critical thinking: what
three things do you fear that are not very risky?
There is also concern over the unfair distribution of CRITICAL THINKING
risks from the use of a technology or chemical. Citizens 1. Explain why you agree or disagree with the proposals
are outraged when government officials decide to put for reducing the death toll and other harmful effects of
a hazardous waste landfill or incinerator in or near smoking listed on p. 327. Do you believe that there
their neighborhood. Even when the decision is based should be a ban on smoking indoors in all public places?
on careful risk analysis, it is usually seen as politics, Explain.
not science. Residents will not be satisfied by estimates 2. Should we have zero pollution levels for all toxic and
that the lifetime risks of cancer death from the facility hazardous chemicals? Explain. What are the alternatives?
are not greater than, say, 1 in 100,000. Instead, they
3. Do you believe that health and safety standards in the
point out that living near the facility means that they workplace should be strengthened and enforced more
will have a much higher risk of dying from cancer than vigorously, even if this causes a loss of jobs when compa-
would people living farther away. nies transfer operations to countries with weaker stan-
dards? Explain.
Becoming Better at Risk Analysis 4. Evaluate the following statements:
a. We should not get worked up about exposure to
To become better at risk analysis, you can carefully
toxic chemicals because almost any chemical can
evaluate or tune out the barrage of bad news covered
cause some harm at a large enough dosage.
in the media, compare risks, and concentrate on b. We should not worry so much about exposure to
reducing risks over which you have some control. toxic chemicals because through genetic adaptation
You can do three things to become better at estimating we can develop immunity to such chemicals.
risks. c. We should not worry so much about exposure to
First, carefully evaluate news reports. Recognize toxic chemicals because we can use genetic engi-
that the media often give an exaggerated view of risks neering to reduce or eliminate such problems.
to capture our interest and sell newspapers or gain TV 5. How can changes in the age structure of a human pop-
viewers. ulation increase the spread of infectious diseases? How
Second, compare risks. Do you risk getting cancer can the spread of infectious diseases affect the age struc-
by eating a charcoal-broiled steak once or twice a ture of human populations?
week? Yes, because in theory anything can harm you. 6. Should laboratory-bred animals be used in laboratory
The question is whether this danger is great enough experiments in toxicology? Explain. What are the alterna-
for you to worry about. In evaluating a risk, the ques- tives?
tion is not “Is it safe?” but rather “How risky is it com-
7. What are the five major risks you face from (a) your
pared to other risks?” lifestyle, (b) where you live, and (c) what you do for a
Third, concentrate on the most serious risks to living? Which of these risks are voluntary and which are
your life and health that you have some control over involuntary? List the five most important things you can
and stop worrying about smaller risks and those over do to reduce these risks. Which of these things do you
which you have no control. When you worry about actually plan to do?
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8. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List Then choose Chapter 14, and select a learning resource.
the three most important features of your program to re- For access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter out-
duce the risk from exposure to (a) infectious disease or- lines and summaries, register and log in to
ganisms and (b) toxic and hazardous chemicals.
Figure 15-1 Natural capital: red and yellow crustose lichens grow-
ing on tundra rock in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada near Merced,
California (right), and Usnea trichodea lichen growing on a branch of
a larch tree in Gifford Pinchot National Park, Washington (left). The
vulnerability of various lichen species to specific air pollutants can
help researchers detect levels of these pollutants and track down
their sources.
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I thought I saw a blue jay this morning. But the smog was so 15-1 STRUCTURE AND SCIENCE
bad that it turned out to be a cardinal holding its breath. OF THE ATMOSPHERE
MICHAEL J. COHEN
Science: The Troposphere
This chapter discusses the types, sources, and effects The atmosphere’s innermost layer consists mostly of
of chemicals that pollute the outdoor and indoor air nitrogen and oxygen, plus smaller amounts of water
that we breathe and presents solutions for reducing vapor and carbon dioxide.
these threats to our health and to ecosystems. It ad-
dresses the following questions: We live at the bottom of a thin layer of gases surround-
ing the earth, called the atmosphere. It is divided into
■ What layers are found in the atmosphere? several spherical layers (Figure 15-2), each of which is
characterized by abrupt changes in temperature as a
■ What are the major outdoor air pollutants, and result of differences in the absorption of incoming solar
where do they come from? energy.
■ What are two types of smog? About 75–80% of the earth’s air mass is found in
the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to the
■ What is acid deposition, and how can it be
earth’s surface. This layer extends only 17 kilometers
reduced?
(11 miles) above sea level at the equator and 8 kilome-
■ What are the harmful effects of air pollutants? ters (5 miles) over the poles. If the earth were the size
■ How can we prevent and control air pollution? of an apple, this lower layer containing the air we
breathe would be no thicker than the apple’s skin.
Take a deep breath. About 99% of the volume of
the air you inhaled from the troposphere consists of
KEY IDEAS two gases: nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The re-
■ Burning fossil fuels in motor vehicles and power mainder consists of water vapor (varying from 0.01%
and industrial plants is the major source of air pollu- at the frigid poles to 4% in the humid tropics), slightly
tion from human activities. less than 1% argon (Ar), 0.038% carbon dioxide (CO2),
and trace amounts of several other gases.
■ Photochemical smog is a mixture of air pollutants
The troposphere is also involved in the chemical
formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides and volatile
cycling of the earth’s vital nutrients. In addition, this
organic hydrocarbons under the influence of sunlight.
thin and turbulent layer of rising and falling air cur-
■ Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide, rents and winds is largely responsible for the planet’s
droplets of sulfuric acid, and suspended solid particles short-term weather and long-term climate.
emitted or formed in the atmosphere when coal and
oil are burned.
Science: The Stratosphere
■ Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates pro-
Ozone in the atmosphere’s second layer filters out
duced mostly by burning coal can react in the atmo-
most of the sun’s UV radiation that is harmful to us
sphere to produce acidic chemicals that can travel
and most other species.
long distances before returning to the earth’s surface
as harmful acid deposition. The atmosphere’s second layer is the stratosphere,
which extends 17–48 kilometers (11–30 miles) above
■ Indoor air pollution usually poses a much greater the earth’s surface (Figure 15-2). Although the stratos-
threat to human health than outdoor air pollution, phere contains less matter than the troposphere, its
especially for the poor in developing countries. composition is similar, with two notable exceptions: its
■ At least 3 million people (most of them in Asia) die volume of water vapor is about 1/1,000 as much and
prematurely each year from the effects of air pollu- its concentration of ozone (O3) is much higher.
tion—mostly from burning wood or coal inside Stratospheric ozone is produced when oxygen
dwellings in developing countries. molecules there interact with ultraviolet (UV) radiation
emitted by the sun (3 O2 UV 2 O3). This
■ The Clean Air Acts in the United States have greatly “global sunscreen” of ozone in the stratosphere pre-
reduced outdoor air pollution from six major pollu- vents 95% of the sun’s harmful UV radiation from
tants but these laws can be made more effective. reaching the earth’s surface.
■ We need to focus on preventing air pollution, with The UV filter of “good” ozone in the lower stratos-
emphasis on sharply reducing indoor air pollution in phere allows us and other forms of life to exist on land
developing countries. and helps protect us from sunburn, skin and eye can-
cer, cataracts, and damage to our immune systems. It
Atmospheric pressure (millibars) ganisms and materials (such as metals and stone used
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 in buildings and statues) and to alter climate. The ef-
120 75
Temperature fects of air pollution range from annoying to lethal.
110 Air pollutants come from both natural and human
Pressure
Thermosphere 65 sources. Natural sources include dust blowing off the
100 earth’s surface (Figure 5-1, p. 78), forest fires, volcanic
eruptions volatile organic chemicals released by some
90 plants, the decay of plants, and sea spray. Most natural
Mesopause 55
Heating via ozone sources of air pollution are spread out and, except for
80
those from volcanic eruptions and some forest fires,
Altitude (kilometers)
Altitude (miles)
70
Air pollution from human activities is not new
60 Stratopause (Science Spotlight, p. 350). Since our discovery of fire,
35 we have added various types of pollutants to the tropo-
50 sphere. Our inputs increased when we began extract-
Stratosphere ing and burning coal, first for heat and later for gener-
40 25
ating electricity and producing materials such as steel.
30
Most outdoor pollutants from human activities in
Tropopause
today’s urban areas enter the atmosphere from the
Ozone “layer” 15
20 burning of fossil fuels in power plants and factories
Heating from the earth (stationary sources, Figure 1-8, p. 12) and in motor vehi-
10 Troposphere cles (mobile sources). Pollutants from such activities can
5
reach harmful levels in the troposphere, especially in
0 Pressure =
(Sea –80 –40 0 40 80 120 1,000 urban areas where people, cars, and industrial activi-
level) Temperature (˚C) millibars at ties are concentrated.
ground level Scientists classify outdoor air pollutants into two
Figure 15-2 Natural capital: the earth’s atmosphere consists
categories. Primary pollutants are emitted directly
of several layers. The average temperature of the atmosphere into the troposphere in a potentially harmful form. Ex-
varies with altitude (red line). Most UV radiation from the sun is amples include soot and carbon monoxide. While in
absorbed by ozone (O3), found primarily in the stratosphere in the troposphere, some primary pollutants may react
the ozone layer 17–26 kilometers (10–16 miles) above sea with one another or with the basic components of air
level.
to form new pollutants, called secondary pollutants
(Figure 15-3, p. 348).
Because of their high concentrations of cars and
also prevents much of the oxygen in the troposphere
factories, cities normally have higher air pollution lev-
from being converted to photochemical ozone, a harm-
els than rural areas. However, prevailing winds can
ful air pollutant.
spread long-lived primary and secondary air pollu-
Some human activities are decreasing the amount of
tants from urban and industrial areas to the country-
beneficial or “good” ozone in the stratosphere and in-
side as well as to other urban areas.
creasing the amount of harmful or “bad” ozone in the
Indoor air pollutants come from infiltration of
troposphere—especially in some urban areas. Ozone in
polluted outdoor air and chemicals used or produced
this portion of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface
inside buildings. Experts in risk analysis rate indoor
damages plants, lung tissues, and some materials such
and outdoor air pollution as high-risk human health
as rubber.
problems.
According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), one of every six people on the earth (more
than 1.1 billion people) lives in an urban area where
15-2 OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION
the outdoor air is unhealthy to breathe. Most of these
individuals live in densely populated cities in devel-
Science: Types and Sources
oping countries where air pollution control laws do
of Air Pollution
not exist or are poorly enforced. The biggest health
Outdoor air pollutants come mostly from natural threat comes from indoor air pollution when the poor
sources and burning fossil fuels in motor vehicles and must burn wood, charcoal, coal, or dung in open fires
power and industrial plants. or poorly designed stoves to heat their dwellings and
Air pollution is the presence of chemicals in the at- cook their food. In other words, poverty can mean
mosphere in concentrations high enough to harm or- poor air for poor people.
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Primary Pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
CO CO2
SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons SO3
Most suspended particles HNO3 H3SO4
H2O2 O3 PANs
Mobile
Figure 15-3 Natural capital degradation: sources and types of air pollutants. Human inputs of air pollutants
may come from mobile sources (such as cars) and stationary sources (such as industrial and power plants).
Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air
pollutants.
In the United States and most other developed 15-3 PHOTOCHEMICAL AND
countries, government-mandated standards set maxi- INDUSTRIAL SMOG
mum allowable atmospheric concentrations, or criteria,
for six criteria or conventional air pollutants commonly Science: Photochemical Smog
found in outdoor air. Table 15-1 lists the properties,
Photochemical smog is a mixture of air pollutants
sources, and effects of these six types of pollutants.
formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides and
Study this table carefully.
volatile organic hydrocarbons under the influence of
Most scientists would add two other chemicals to
sunlight.
the six criteria pollutants shown in Table 15-1. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), mostly hydrocarbons, play A photochemical reaction is any chemical reaction acti-
a role in the formation of the photochemical smog that vated by light. Air pollution known as photochemical
plagues many cities. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has the abil- smog forms when a mix of nitrogen oxides (NO and
ity to increase the temperature of the troposphere and NO2, collectively called NOx) and volatile organic
thus change climate, as discussed in Chapter 16. hydrocarbon compounds from natural and human
Many oil and coal companies do not want carbon sources react under the influence of UV radiation from
dioxide classified as a pollutant and have lobbied U.S. the sun to produce a mixture of more than 100 pri-
elected officials successfully to prevent such classifica- mary and secondary pollutants. In greatly simplified
tion. Otherwise, we might use less of these fuels and the terms,
companies would have to spend more money control-
ling CO2 emissions. Twelve U.S. states have sued the ground level ozone (O3)
EPA for failure to regulate CO2 emissions. Some states other photochemical
oxidants
are also passing their own laws that regulate CO2 emis- VOCs NOx heat sunlight
aldehydes
sions. Critical thinking: do you believe that carbon dioxide other secondary air
should be classified as a pollutant? pollutants
Table 15-1 Science: Types, Sources, and Effects of Major Outdoor Air Pollutants*
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) increases susceptibility to res- eat away stone on buildings, in the troposphere as a
Description: Colorless, odor- piratory infections such as the statues, and monuments; SO2 major component of photo-
less gas that is poisonous to flu and common colds (espe- can damage paint, paper, and chemical smog.
air-breathing animals; forms dur- cially in young children and leather. Major human sources:
ing the incomplete combustion older adults). Chemical reaction with volatile
of carbon-containing fuels Environmental effects: SUSPENDED PARTICULATE organic compounds (VOCs,
Reduces visibility; acid depo- MATTER (SPM)
(2 C O2 2 CO). emitted mostly by cars and in-
Major human sources: sition of HNO3 can damage Description: Variety of dustries) and nitrogen oxides
Cigarette smoking, incom- trees, soils, and aquatic life in particles and droplets to form photochemical smog.
plete burning of fossil fuels. lakes. (aerosols) small and light Health effects: Breathing
About 77% (95% in cities) Property damage: HNO3 can enough to remain suspended problems; coughing; eye,
comes from motor vehicle corrode metals and eat away in atmosphere for short periods nose, and throat irritation; ag-
exhaust. stone on buildings, statues, (large particles) to long periods gravates chronic diseases
Health effects: Reacts with and monuments; NO2 can (small particles; such as asthma, bronchitis,
hemoglobin in red blood cells damage fabrics. cause smoke, dust, and emphysema, and heart dis-
and reduces the ability of blood haze. ease; reduces resistance to
SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO2)
to bring oxygen to body cells Major human sources: Burn- colds and pneumonia; may
Description: Colorless, irritat- ing coal in power and industrial speed up lung tissue aging.
and tissues. This impairs per-
ing; forms mostly from the com- plants (40%), burning diesel
ception and thinking; slows re- Environmental effects:
bustion of sulfur-containing and other fuels in vehicles
flexes; causes headaches, Ozone can damage plants
fossil fuels such as coal and oil (17%), agriculture (plowing,
drowsiness, dizziness, and and trees; smog can reduce
(S O2 SO2); in the at- burning off fields), unpaved
nausea; can trigger heart at- visibility.
mosphere can be converted to roads, construction.
tacks and angina; damages the Property damage: Damages
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a major Health effects: Nose and
development of fetuses and rubber, fabrics, and paints.
component of acid deposition. throat irritation, lung damage;
young children; and aggra-
Major human sources: Coal aggravates bronchitis and LEAD
vates chronic bronchitis, em-
burning in power plants (88%) asthma; shortens life; toxic Description: Solid toxic metal
physema, and anemia. At high
and industrial processes particulates (such as lead, and its compounds, emitted
levels it causes collapse, coma,
(10%). cadmium, PCBs, and dioxins) into the atmosphere as partic-
irreversible brain cell damage,
and death. Health effects: Breathing prob- can cause mutations, re- ulate matter.
lems for healthy people; restric- productive problems, Major human sources: Paint
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) tion of airways in people with cancer. (old houses), smelters (metal
Description: Reddish-brown asthma; chronic exposure can Environmental effects: Re- refineries), lead manufacture,
irritating gas that gives cause a permanent condition duces visibility; acid deposi- storage batteries, leaded gaso-
photochemical smog its brown- similar to bronchitis. According tion of H2SO4 droplets can line (being phased out in devel-
ish color; in the atmosphere to the WHO, at least 625 million damage trees, soils, and oped countries).
can be converted to nitric acid people are exposed to unsafe aquatic life in lakes. Health effects: Accumulates
(HNO3), a major component of levels of sulfur dioxide from fos- Property damage: Corrodes in the body; brain and other
acid deposition. sil fuel burning. metal; soils and discolors nervous system damage and
Major human sources: Fossil Environmental effects: Re- buildings, clothes, fabrics, and mental retardation (especially
fuel burning in motor vehicles duces visibility; acid deposi- paints. in children); digestive and
(49%) and power and indus- tion of H2SO4 can damage other health problems; some
trial plants (49%). trees, soils, and aquatic life in OZONE (O3) lead-containing chemicals
Health effects: Lung irritation lakes. Description: Highly reactive, cause cancer in test animals.
and damage; aggravates Property damage: SO2 and irritating gas with an un- Environmental effects: Can
asthma and chronic bronchitis; H2SO4 can corrode metals and pleasant odor that forms harm wildlife.
The formation of photochemical smog involves a choking odor. NO2 is the cause of the brownish haze
complex series of chemical reactions. It begins inside that hangs over many cities during the afternoons of
automobile engines and in the boilers of coal-burning sunny days, explaining why photochemical smog
power and industrial plants. At the high temperatures sometimes is called brown-air smog.
found there, nitrogen and oxygen in air react to pro- When exposed to UV radiation from the sun,
duce colorless nitric oxide (N2 O2 2 NO). In some of the NO2 engages in a complex series of reac-
the atmosphere, some of the NO is converted to nitro- tions with hydrocarbons (mostly released by vegeta-
gen dioxide (NO2), a yellowish-brown gas with a tion, motor vehicles, and other human activities) that
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Modern civiliza- is much cleaner, and “pea soup” air over New York City, killing
tion did not invent fogs are a thing of the past. Instead, about 300 people and injuring thou-
air pollution. It the major threat comes from air pol- sands. Other episodes in New York,
probably began lutants emitted by motor vehicles. Los Angeles, and other large cities
SCIENCE when humans dis- The Industrial Revolution, pow- in the 1960s resulted in much
SPOTLIGHT covered fire, began ered by coal-burning factories and stronger air pollution control pro-
to burn wood in homes, brought air pollution to the grams in the 1970s.
poorly ventilated caves for warmth United States. Large industrial cities In 1952, Oregon became the
and cooking, and inhaled unhealthy such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, first state to pass a law controlling
smoke and soot. and St. Louis, Missouri, were notori- air pollution. The U.S. Congress
During the Middle Ages, a haze ous for their smoky air. By the 1940s, passed the original version of the
of wood smoke hung over densely the air over some cities was so pol- Clean Air Act in 1963. It did not
packed urban areas. The Industrial luted that people had to use their au- have much effect until a stronger
Revolution brought even worse air tomobile headlights during the day. version was enacted in 1970 and the
pollution as coal was burned to The first documented air pollu- Environmental Protection Agency
power factories and heat homes. tion disaster in the United States (EPA) was created and empowered
By the 1850s, London had be- occurred on October 29, 1948, at the to set and enforce national air pol-
come famous for its “pea soup” small industrial town of Donora in lution standards. Even stricter emis-
fog—a mixture of coal smoke and Pennsylvania’s Monongahela River sion standards were imposed by
fog that blanketed the city. In 1880, Valley. Pollutants from the area’s amendments to the Clean Air Act in
a prolonged coal fog killed an esti- coal-burning industries became 1977 and 1990. Mostly as a result of
mated 2,200 people. Another in 1911 trapped in a dense fog that stag- these laws and actions by states and
killed more than 1,100 Londoners. nated over the valley for 5 days. local areas, air quality has dramati-
The authors of a report on this dis- About 6,000 of the town’s 14,000 in- cally improved throughout the
aster coined the word smog to de- habitants became sick, and 22 of United States.
scribe the deadly mixture of smoke them died. This killer fog resulted
and fog that enveloped the city. from a combination of mountain-
Critical Thinking
In 1952, an even worse yellow ous terrain surrounding the valley
fog lasted for 5 days and killed and weather conditions that Explain why you agree or disagree
4,000–12,000 Londoners, prompting trapped and concentrated deadly with the following statement: “Air
Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act pollutants emitted by the commu- pollution in the United States is no
of 1956. Air pollution disasters in nity’s steel mill, zinc smelter, and longer a major concern because of
1956, 1957, and 1962 killed 2,500 sulfuric acid plant. the significant progress made in
more people. Because of strong air In 1963, high concentrations of reducing outdoor air pollution
pollution laws, London’s air today air pollutants accumulated in the since 1970.”
produce photochemical smog—a mixture of ozone, ni- smog could cover the entire western Pacific with
tric acid, aldehydes, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), and ozone, extending to the United States.
other secondary pollutants.
Hotter days lead to higher levels of ozone and
other components of smog. As traffic increases on a See how photochemical smog forms and how it affects us at
Environmental ScienceNow.
sunny day, photochemical smog (dominated by O3)
usually builds up to peak levels by early afternoon, ir-
ritating people’s eyes and respiratory tracts.
Science: Industrial Smog
All modern cities suffer from some photochemical
smog, but it is much more common in cities with Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide,
sunny, warm, dry climates and lots of motor vehi- droplets of sulfuric acid, and suspended solid
cles—for example, Los Angeles, Denver, and Salt Lake particles emitted by burning coal and oil.
City in the United States; Sydney, Australia; São Fifty years ago, cities such as London, England, and
Paulo, Brazil; Buenos Aires, Argentina; and Mexico Chicago and Pittsburgh in the United States burned
City, Mexico (Figure 15-4). According to a 1999 study, large amounts of coal and heavy oil (which contain
if 400 million people in China drive gasoline-powered sulfur impurities) in power plants and factories and
cars by 2050 as projected, the resulting photochemical for heating homes and cooking food. During winter,
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Wind
Transformation to
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) Windborne ammonia gas
and particles of cultivated soil
partially neutralize acids and Wet acid depostion
form dry sulfate and nitrate salts (droplets of H2SO4 and
HNO3 dissolved in rain
Nitric oxide (NO) and snow)
Sulfur dioxide Dry acid deposition
(SO2) and NO (sulfur dioxide gas
and particles of
sulfate and nitrate salts)
Acid fog
Farm
Active Figure 15-6 Natural capital degradation: acid deposition, which consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas
with a pH lower than 5.6, is commonly called acid rain. Soils and lakes vary in their ability to buffer or remove
excess acidity. See an animation based on this figure and take a short quiz on the concept.
has a pH of 4.4–4.7 (Figure 15-7). This is 10 or more The worst acid deposition occurs in Asia, espe-
times the acidity of natural precipitation, which has a cially China, which gets about 59% of its energy from
pH of 5.6. Some mountaintop forests in the eastern burning coal. Scientists estimate that by 2025, China
United States and east of Los Angeles are bathed in fog will emit more sulfur dioxide than the United States,
and dews as acidic as lemon juice, with a pH of 2.3— Canada, and Japan combined.
about 1,000 times the acidity of normal precipitation.
In some areas, soils contain basic compounds such
as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or limestone that can re-
Learn more about the sources of acid deposition, how it
act with and neutralize, or buffer, some inputs of acids. forms, and what it can do to lakes and soils at Environmental
The areas most sensitive to acid deposition are those ScienceNow.
containing thin, acidic soils without such natural
buffering (Figure 15-8, green and most red areas) and
those in which the buffering capacity of soils has been
Science: Harmful Effects of Acid Deposition
depleted by decades of acid deposition.
Many acid-producing chemicals generated in one Acid deposition can cause or worsen respiratory
country are exported to other countries by prevailing disease, attack metallic and stone objects, decrease
winds. For example, acidic emissions from indus- atmospheric visibility, and kill fish.
trialized areas of western Europe (especially the Acid deposition has a number of harmful effects. It
United Kingdom and Germany) and eastern Europe contributes to human respiratory diseases such as
blow into Norway, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, the bronchitis and asthma, and can leach toxic metals
Netherlands, and Finland. Some SO2 and other emis- (such as lead and copper) from water pipes into drink-
sions from coal-burning power and industrial plants ing water. It also damages statues, national monu-
in the Ohio Valley of the United States (Figure 15-7, ments, buildings, metals, and car finishes.
red dots, p. 354) end up in southeastern Canada. Some Acid deposition decreases atmospheric visibility,
acidic emissions in China end up in Japan and North mostly because of the sulfate particles it contains. On
and South Korea. some days, the air in Grand Canyon National Park and
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4.7
5.1
5.4 4.7
5.2 5.3
5.3 5.5 5.9 5.5 4.7
5.3 5.9 5.2 5.0 4.5 4.6 4.7
5.4 5.3
5.3 5.5 5.2 5.2 4.9 4.8 4.6
5.4 5.8
5.4 4.6 4.7
5.4 5.6 5.3 4.8 4.4 4.5 4.5
5.0 4.5
5.3 5.3
4.4
5.7 5.7
5.7 4.9 4.5 4.6
5.4 5.1 4.7 4.5 4.5
5.3 4.8 4.4
5.8 5.8 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.4
5.5 5.3 4.5
5.4 4.7
5.5 4.9 4.4 4.5
4.4 4.5
4.4 4.4
5.5 5.6 4.8 4.8 4.7
5.6 4.4
5.4 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.6
5.8 5.3 5.1 4.7 4.6
6.0 5.6 4.6 4.5 4.8
5.6 4.5
6.2 5.3 5.2 4.8
5.4 4.6
5.5 5.5 4.7 4.6
5.6 5.1 5.1 5.8 5.4 4.6 4.6
5.7 5.2 5.0 4.8 4.6
5.1 4.7 4.7 4.6
5.1 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.6
5.6 4.5 4.6
5.6 4.6 4.8 4.8
4.8 4.9 4.8
5.5 6.7 5.2
5.4 5.1 5.1 4.9
5.1 4.7 4.8
5.4 4.8 4.9 4.7 4.7
5.2 4.8 4.8
5.0
5.2 5.1 4.8
5.4 4.8
5.2 4.8 4.8
5.4 5.2 4.9
5.2 4.7
4.8 4.9
5.8 4.8 4.8
4.5
5.1 4.8 4.8
5.0
4.5
5.0 4.9
Major coal-burning power and industrial plants
≥5.3 5.0–5.1 4.7–4.8 4.4–4.5 5.0
Figure 15-7 Natural capital degradation: pH values from field measurements at 250 sites (red dots) in 48
states in 2002. Yellow, tan, and orange indicate the areas with lowest pH (highest acidity). Red dots show major
sources of sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions, mostly large coal-burning power plants. The damaging acidic rain
and snow that fall in the Northeast result from coal-fired power and industrial plants and cars in the region and
from pollution that blows in from such plants in the Midwest. In the East, the primary component of acid deposi-
tion is H2SO4 (formed from SO2 emitted by coal-burning plants). In the West, HNO3 predominates (formed
mostly from NOx emissions from motor vehicles). According to the EPA, two-thirds of the SO2 and one-fourth of
the NOx that are the primary causes of acid deposition come from coal-burning power plants. (Data from Na-
tional Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network, 2003)
certain other national parks is so smoggy from sulfate lakes are acidic because they are surrounded by natu-
particles and other pollutants that visitors cannot see rally acidic soils.
the magnificent vistas. Acid deposition (often along with other air pollu-
Acid deposition has harmful ecological effects on tants such as ozone) can harm forests and crops—espe-
aquatic systems as well. Most fish cannot survive in cially when the soil pH falls below 5.1—by leaching es-
water with a pH less than 4.5. Acid deposition can also sential plant nutrients such as calcium and magnesium
release aluminum ions (Al3) attached to minerals in salts from soils. This reduces plant productivity and
nearby soil into lakes. These ions asphyxiate many the soils’ ability to buffer or neutralize acidic inputs.
kinds of fish by stimulating excessive mucus forma- Acid deposition rarely kills trees directly, but can
tion, which clogs their gills. weaken them and leave them vulnerable to stresses
Because of excess acidity, several thousand lakes in such as severe cold, diseases, insect attacks, drought,
Norway and Sweden contain no fish, and many more and harmful mosses. Effects of acid deposition on
lakes there have lost most of their acid-neutralizing ca- trees and other plants are caused partly by chemical
pacity. In Canada, at least 1,200 acidified lakes contain interactions in forest and cropland soils (Figure 15-9,
few if any fish, and fish populations in thousands more p. 356).
lakes are declining because of increased acidity. In the Mountaintop forests are the terrestrial areas hard-
United States, several hundred lakes (most in the est hit by acid deposition (Figure 15-10, p. 356). They
Northeast) are threatened with excess acidity. Acid de- tend to have thin soils without much buffering capac-
position is not always the main culprit, however. Some ity, and trees on mountaintops (especially conifers
Figure 15-8 Natural capital degradation: regions where acid deposition is now a problem and regions with
the potential to develop this problem. Such regions have large inputs of air pollution (mostly from power plants,
industrial plants, and ore smelters) or are sensitive areas with soils and bedrock that cannot neutralize (buffer)
inputs of acidic compounds. (Data from World Resources Institute and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
such as red spruce and balsam fir that keep their leaves systems it affects often are quite distant from those
year-round) are bathed almost continuously in very that cause the problem. Also, countries with large sup-
acidic fog and clouds. plies of coal (such as China, India, Russia, and the
Most of the world’s forests and lakes are not being de- United States) have a strong incentive to use it as a ma-
stroyed or seriously harmed by acid deposition. Rather, jor energy resource. Owners of coal-burning power
this regional problem is harming forests and lakes that plants say the costs of adding pollution control equip-
lie downwind from coal-burning facilities and from ment, using low-sulfur coal, or removing sulfur from
large car-dominated cities without adequate pollution coal are too high and would increase the cost of elec-
controls. tricity for consumers.
Environmental scientists respond that affordable
and much cleaner ways are available to produce elec-
Examine how acid deposition can harm a pine forest and tricity—including wind turbines and burning natural
what it means to surrounding land and waters at Environ-
gas in turbines. They also point out that the largely
mental ScienceNow.
hidden health and environmental costs of burning coal
amount to roughly twice its market cost. Including
these costs would spur prevention of acid deposition.
Solutions: Reducing Acid Deposition
Large amounts of limestone or lime can be used to
Acid deposition can be prevented and cleaned up, neutralize acidified lakes or surrounding soil—the
but this is politically difficult. only cleanup approach now being used. Liming cre-
Figure 15-11 (p. 357) summarizes ways to reduce acid ates several problems, however. But this expensive
deposition. According to most scientists studying the and temporary remedy usually must be repeated an-
problem, the best solutions are prevention approaches nually. Also, it can kill some types of plankton and
that reduce or eliminate emissions of sulfur dioxide, aquatic plants and can harm wetland plants that need
nitrogen oxides, and particulates. acidic water. Finally, it is difficult to know how much
Currently, controlling acid deposition is a political lime to put where (in the water or at selected places on
hot potato. One problem is that the people and eco- the ground).
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Emissions
SO2 NOx
Acid H2O2 O3
deposition
PANs Others
Lake
Groundwater
Active Figure 15-9 Natural capital degradation: air pollutants are one of several interacting stresses that
can damage, weaken, or kill trees and pollute surface and groundwater. See an animation based on this figure
and take a short quiz on the concept.
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and wallpaper, urethane-formaldehyde insulation, fin- ample of the relationship between poverty and envi-
gernail hardener, and wrinkle-free coating on perma- ronmental quality.
nent-press clothing (Figure 15-12). The EPA estimates
that as many as 1 of every 5,000 people who live in
Science Case Study: Exposure to Radioactive
manufactured homes for more than 10 years will de-
Radon Gas
velop cancer from formaldehyde exposure.
In developing countries, the indoor burning of Radon-222, a radioactive gas found in some soil and
wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, and coal in open rocks, can seep into some houses and increase the risk
fires or in unvented or poorly vented stoves for cook- of lung cancer.
ing and heating exposes inhabitants to high levels of Radon-222—a naturally occurring radioactive gas that
particulate air pollution. According to the World Bank, you cannot see, taste, or smell—is produced by the ra-
as many as 2.8 million people (most of them women dioactive decay of uranium-238. Most soils and rocks
and children) in developing countries die prematurely contain small amounts of uranium-238. This isotope is,
each year from breathing elevated levels of such in- however, much more concentrated in underground
door smoke. Indoor air pollution for the poor is by far the deposits of minerals such as uranium, phosphate,
world’s most serious air pollution problem—a glaring ex- granite, and shale.
Styrene
Source: Carpets,
Nitrogen oxides
plastic products
Source: Unvented gas
Threat: Kidney and
stoves and kerosene
liver damage
heaters, woodstoves
Threat: Irritated lungs,
children's colds, Benzo-α-pyrene
headaches Source: Tobacco smoke,
woodstoves
Threat: Lung cancer
Particulates
Source: Pollen, pet
dander, dust mites,
cooking smoke particles
Threat: Irritated lungs,
asthma attacks, itchy
eyes, runny nose,
lung disease Tobacco smoke Radon-222
Source: Cigarettes Source: Radioactive soil
Threat: Lung cancer, and rock surrounding
respiratory ailments, foundation, water supply
heart disease Threat: Lung cancer
Figure 15-12 Science: Some important indoor air pollutants. Critical thinking: which of these are you probably
exposed to? (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
When colorless and odorless radon Outlet vents for furnaces and dryers
gas from such deposits seeps upward
through the soil and is released outdoors,
it disperses quickly in the atmosphere Open
window
and decays to harmless levels. However,
Cracks in wall
in buildings above such deposits, radon Openings
gas can enter through cracks in founda- around
pipes
tions and walls, openings around sump
Slab joints
pumps and drains, and hollow concrete
blocks (Figure 15-13). Once inside, it can
build up to high levels, especially in unven-
tilated lower levels of homes and buildings. Wood stove
Radon-222 gas quickly decays into solid Cracks in floor
particles of other radioactive elements, such Clothes Sump
Furnace dryer pump
as polonium-210, that if inhaled expose lung
tissue to a large amount of ionizing radiation
from alpha particles. This exposure can dam- Slab
age lung tissue and lead to lung cancer over Radon-222 gas
Uranium-238
the course of a 70-year lifetime. Such exposure
makes radon the second-leading cause of lung
cancer (after smoking) in the United States.
Your chances of getting lung cancer from radon Soil
depend mostly on how much radon is in your
home, how much time you spend in your home,
and whether you are a smoker or have ever
smoked.
According to the EPA, nearly 1 in every 15
homes in the United States has a potentially dan- Figure 15-13 Science: sources and paths of entry for radon-222 gas. Have
you monitored the indoor air where you live for radon-222? (Data from U.S.
gerous level of indoor radon. Ideally, radon lev-
Environmental Protection Agency)
els should be monitored continuously in the
main living areas (not basements or crawlspaces)
for 2 months to a year. Only 6% of U.S. households had pollution. Hairs in your nose filter out large particles.
followed the EPA’s recommendation to conduct radon Sticky mucus in the lining of your upper respiratory
tests (most lasting only 2–7 days and costing $20–100 tract captures smaller (but not the smallest) particles
per home). and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. Sneezing and
For information about radon testing, visit the EPA coughing expel contaminated air and mucus when pol-
website at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/radon. According lutants irritate your respiratory system.
to the EPA, radon control could add $350–500 to the In addition, hundreds of thousands of tiny mucus-
cost of a new home, and correcting a radon problem in coated hairlike structures called cilia line your upper
an existing house could run $800–2,500. Remedies respiratory tract. They continually wave back and
include sealing cracks in the foundation and walls, in- forth and transport mucus and the pollutants they trap
creasing ventilation by cracking a window or installing to your throat (where they are swallowed or expelled).
vents, and using a fan to create cross ventilation. Prolonged or acute exposure to air pollutants, in-
cluding tobacco smoke, can overload or break down
these natural defenses. This can cause or contribute
to various respiratory diseases. An example is asthma—
15-6 HARMFUL EFFECTS
typically an allergic reaction causing sudden episodes
OF AIR POLLUTION
of muscle spasms in the bronchial walls—results in
acute shortness of breath. More than 17 million Ameri-
Science: How Does Your Respiratory System
cans have asthma, about 5 million of them children
Help Protect You from Air Pollution?
younger than age 5.
Your respiratory system has several ways to help Years of smoking and breathing air pollutants can
protect you from air pollution, but some air pollutants lead to lung cancer and chronic bronchitis, which in-
can overcome these defenses. volves persistent inflammation and damage to the
Your respiratory system (Figure 15-14, p. 360) has a cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles. The results are
number of mechanisms that help protect you from air mucus buildup, painful coughing, and shortness of
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Epithelial cell
Cilia
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Goblet cell
(secreting
Pharynx (throat) mucus)
Mucus
Trachea (windpipe)
Bronchioles
Bronchus
Alveolar duct
Right lung
breath. Damage deeper in the lung can cause emphy- tants. According to the WHO, worldwide at least 3
sema, in which irreversible damage to air sacs or alve- million people (most of them in Asia) die prematurely
oli leads to abnormal dilation of air spaces, loss of lung each year from the effects of air pollution—an average
elasticity, and acute shortness of breath (Figure 15-15). of 8,200 deaths per day. About 2.8 million of these
People with respiratory diseases are especially deaths (93%) result from indoor air pollution, typically
vulnerable to air pollution, as are older adults, infants, from heart attacks, respiratory diseases, and lung can-
pregnant women, and people with heart disease. cer related to prolonged breathing of polluted air. The
WHO and the World Bank consider indoor air pollution to
be one of the world’s most serious environmental problems.
Science: Harmful Health Effects of Key
In the United States, the EPA estimates that annual
Air Pollutants
deaths related to indoor and outdoor air pollution
Air pollutants damage materials and human lungs range from 150,000 to 350,000 people—equivalent to
and worldwide prematurely kill at least 3 million one to two fully loaded 400-passenger jumbo jets
people each year. crashing each day with no survivors. Millions more be-
Table 15-1 lists some of the harmful health effects of come ill and lose work time. Most of these deaths are
prolonged or chronic exposure to six major air pollu- related to inhalation of fine and ultrafine particulates
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Average temperature over past 900,000 years Temperature change over past 22,000 years
Temperature change over past 1,000 years Average temperature over past 130 years
14.8
0.5 14.6
14.4
0.0 14.2
14.0
−0.5 13.8
13.6
−1.0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2101 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year Year
Figure 16-2 Science: estimated changes in the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the
earth’s surface over different periods of time. Although a particular place might have much lower or much
higher readings than the troposphere’s average temperature, such averages provide a valuable way to
measure long-term trends. (Data from Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, National Academy of Sciences, National Aeronautics and Space Agency, National Center
for Atmospheric Research, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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Average Relative
Time in the Warming Potential
Greenhouse Gas Human Sources Troposphere (compared to CO2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Fossil fuel burning, especially coal (70–75%), 100–120 years 1
deforestation, and plant burning
Methane (CH4) Rice paddies, guts of cattle and termites, landfills, 12–18 years 23
coal production, coal seams, and natural gas leaks
from oil and gas production and pipelines
Nitrous oxide (N2O) Fossil fuel burning, fertilizers, livestock wastes, 114–120 years 296
and nylon production
Chlorofluorocarbons Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foams 11–20 years (65–110 years 900–8,300
(CFCs)* in the stratosphere)
Hydrochloro- Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foams 9–390 470–2,000
fluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foams 15–390 130–12,700
(HFCs)
Halons Fire extinguishers 65 5,500
Carbon tetrachloride Cleaning solvent 42 1,400
*CFC use is being phased out, but these compounds remain in the troposphere for 1–2 decades
and then enter the stratosphere.
Is Warming
320
300
A considerable body of scientific evidence indicates
that the earth’s troposphere is warming, partly
280
Carbon dioxide because of human activities.
260
In 1988, the United Nations and the World Meteoro-
Variation of temperature (˚C)
240
+2.5
logical Organization established the Intergovernmen-
220 tal Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to document past
from current level
0
200 climate changes and project future climate changes.
180 –2.5 The IPCC network includes more than 2,000 climate
–5.0 experts from 70 nations.
–7.5 Since 1861, the concentrations of the greenhouse
Temperature gases CO2, CH4, and N2O in the troposphere have risen
change End of –10.0
last ice age
sharply, especially since 1950 (Figure 16-5). According
to studies by IPCC and the U.S. National Academy of
160 120 80 40 0
Sciences, humans have increased concentrations of
Thousands of years before present
these greenhouse gases in the troposphere by burning
Figure 16-4 Science: atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and fossil fuels (which adds CO2 and CH4), clearing and
global temperature. Estimated long-term variations in average burning forests and grasslands (which add CO2 and
global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface N2O), and planting rice and using inorganic fertilizers
are graphed along with average tropospheric CO2 levels over
the past 160,000 years. The rough correlation between CO2
(which release N2O into the troposphere). Since 1980,
levels in the troposphere and temperature shown in these esti- the concentration of CO2 in the troposphere has in-
mates based on ice core data suggests a connection between creased from 280 parts per million (ppm) to 380 ppm,
the two variables, although no definitive causal link has been the highest estimated level in 420,000 years. Within a
established. In 1999, the world’s deepest ice core sample re- few decades, CO2 levels are projected to exceed 500
vealed a similar correlation between air temperatures and the
greenhouse gases CO2 and CH4 going back for 460,000 years.
ppm and lead to significant warming of the planet.
(Data from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Although the United States has only 4.6% of the
National Center for Atmospheric Research) world’s population it is by far the world’s largest emit-
410 also has the world’s highest per capita CO2 emissions,
followed by Australia, Canada, and the Netherlands.
Parts per million In its 2001 report, the IPCC listed a number of
360 findings indicating that is it very likely (90–99% proba-
bility) that the troposphere is getting warmer (Fig-
ure 16-2, bottom right).
310 First, the 20th century was the hottest century in
the past 1,000 years (Figure 16-2, bottom left).
Second, since 1861 the average global temperature
260 of the troposphere near the earth’s surface has risen
1800 1900 2000 2100 0.6°C (1.1°F) over the entire globe (Figure 16-2, bottom
Year right) and about 0.8°C (1.4°F) over the continents.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Most of this increase has taken place since 1980.
Third, the 16 warmest years on record have oc-
2.4 curred since 1980 and the 10 warmest years have oc-
curred since 1990.
Fourth, glaciers and floating sea ice in some parts
Parts per million
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1979 2003
Russia Russia
Figure 16-6 Science: satellite data showing Arctic sea ice in 1979 (left) and in 2003 (right). According to
NASA, the ice cover shrunk by 9% during this period. Critical thinking: why should you care if ice melts in
the artic sea? (Data collected by Defense Satellite Program [DMSP] Special Sensor Microwave Imager[SSMI],
Image: NASA)
Troposphere
Cooling
from
increase
Greenhouse CO2 removal CO2 emissions from Heat and Heat and
Aerosols gases Warming by plants and land clearing, CO2 removal CO2 emissions
from soil organisms fires, and decay
decrease
Shallow ocean
Deep ocean
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ing effect, by absorbing and releasing heat into the tro- Some studies suggest that larger amounts of CO2 in
posphere, or a cooling effect, by reflecting more sunlight the atmosphere could increase the rate of photosynthe-
back into space. sis in some areas with adequate water and soil nutri-
An increase in thick and continuous clouds at low ents. This would remove more CO2 from the tropos-
altitudes can decrease surface warming by reflecting phere and help slow global warming.
and blocking more sunlight. In contrast, an increase in However, recent studies indicate that this effect
thin and discontinuous cirrus clouds at high altitudes would be temporary for two reasons. First, the increase
can warm the lower troposphere and increase surface in photosynthesis would slow as the plants reach matu-
warming. rity and take up less CO2 from the troposphere. Second,
In addition, infrared satellite images indicate that carbon stored by the plants would be returned to the at-
the wispy condensation trails (contrails) left behind by mosphere as CO2 when the plants die and decompose
jet planes might have a greater impact on the tempera- or burn.
ture of the troposphere than scientists once thought.
NASA scientists found that jet contrails expand and Science: Effects of a Warmer Troposphere
turn into large cirrus clouds that tend to release heat on Methane Emissions
into the upper troposphere. If these preliminary re-
Warmer air can release methane gas stored in bogs,
sults are confirmed, emissions from jet planes could be
wetlands, and tundra soils and make the air even
responsible for as much as half of the tropospheric
warmer.
warming in the northern hemisphere.
Global warming could be accelerated by an increased
Science: Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution release of methane (a potent greenhouse gas; see
Table 16-1) from two major sources: bogs and other
Aerosol pollutants and soot produced by human wetlands and ice-like compounds called methane hy-
activities can warm or cool the atmosphere, but such drates trapped beneath arctic permafrost. Significant
effects will decrease with any decline in outdoor air amounts of methane would be released into the tro-
pollution. posphere if the permafrost in tundra and boreal forest
Aerosols (microscopic droplets and solid particles) of soils melts, as is currently occurring in parts of
various air pollutants are released or formed in the Canada, Alaska, China, and Mongolia. The resulting
troposphere by volcanic eruptions (Figure 16-1) and tropospheric warming could lead to more methane re-
human activities. They can either warm or cool the air lease and still more warming.
depending on factors such as their size and the reflec-
tivity of the underlying surface.
Most tropospheric aerosols, such as sulfate parti- 16-4 POSSIBLE EFFECTS
cles produced by fossil fuel combustion, tend to cool OF A WARMER WORLD
the atmosphere and thus temporarily slow global
warming. However, a recent study by Mark Jacobson Science: Projected Effects
of Stanford University indicated that tiny particles of a Warmer Troposphere
of soot or black carbon aerosols—produced mainly from A warmer climate would have beneficial and harmful
incomplete combustion in coal burning, diesel en- effects, but poor nations in the tropics would suffer
gines, and open fires—may be the second biggest the most.
contributor to global warming after the greenhouse A warmer global climate could have a number of
gas CO2. harmful and beneficial effects (Figure 16-10, p. 376) for
Climate scientists do not expect aerosol pollutants humans, other species, and ecosystems, depending
to counteract or enhance projected global warming mostly on location and the rate at which the climate
very much in the next 50 years for two reasons. First, changes.
aerosols and soot fall back to the earth or are washed Some areas will benefit because of less severe win-
out of the lower atmosphere within weeks or months, ters, more precipitation in some dry areas, less precipi-
whereas CO2 and other greenhouse gases remain in tation in wet areas, and increased food production.
the atmosphere for decades to several hundred years. Also, some plant and animal species adapted to higher
Second, aerosol inputs into the atmosphere are being temperatures may be able to expand their populations
reduced—especially in developed countries. and range.
Other areas will suffer harm from excessive heat,
Science: Effects of Higher CO2 Levels lack of water, and decreased food production. Wildfires
on Photosynthesis are likely to increase in forest and grassland areas where
Increased CO2 in the troposphere could increase plant the climate becomes drier. Also, tree deaths would in-
photosynthesis, but several factors can limit or offset crease from larger disease and pest populations that
this effect. would thrive in areas with a warmer climate. Many
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Figure 16-10 Science: Winners and losers. Projected effects of a warmer atmosphere for the world and the
United States. Most of these effects could be harmful or beneficial depending on where one lives. Current mod-
els of the earth’s climate cannot make reliable projections about where such effects might take place at a re-
gional level and how long they might last. Critical thinking: which five of these projected effects do you believe
are the most serious? How could they affect your life? (Data from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
U.S. Global Climate Change Research Program, and U.S. National Academy of Sciences)
plant and animal species that cannot migrate or adapt emissions are drastically reduced. According to the
to higher temperatures could suffer a reduction in their IPCC, the ecosystems most likely to be disrupted and
range (Figure 16-11), population losses, and perhaps lose species are coral reefs, polar seas, coastal wet-
premature extinction. lands, arctic and alpine tundra, and high-elevation
Shifts in regional climate would also threaten mountaintops.
many parks, wildlife reserves, wilderness areas, wet-
lands, and coral reefs—wiping out the positive effects
Science: Sea Level Rise
of our current efforts to stem the loss of biodiversity.
Also, species likely to thrive in a warmer world in- During this century, rising sea levels are projected
clude certain rapidly multiplying weeds, insect pests, to flood low-lying urban areas, coastal estuaries,
and disease-carrying organisms such as mosquitoes wetlands, coral reefs, and barrier islands and
and water-borne bacteria. beaches.
A 2004 report by the UN Environment Programme According to the 2001 IPCC report, the world’s aver-
estimated that at least 1 million species could face age sea level is expected to rise 9–88 centimeters (4–35
premature extinction by 2050 unless greenhouse gas inches) during this century. The worst-case scenario—
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16-5 DEALING WITH THE THREAT There are three schools of thought concerning what
OF GLOBAL WARMING we should do about projected global warming. The
first suggests a wait-and-see strategy, with many scien-
Why Is Climate Change Such a Difficult tists and economists calling for more research and a
Problem to Deal with? better understanding of the earth’s climate system
Climate change is hard to deal with because it has before we make far-reaching and controversial eco-
many causes (some poorly understood), its effects are nomic and political decisions such as phasing out fos-
uneven and long-term, and controversy persists sil fuels. The U.S. government currently advocates
regarding how it should be addressed. this approach.
A second and rapidly growing group of scientists,
Several characteristics of global warming lead to diffi-
economists, business leaders, and political leaders (es-
cult and often controversial scientific, economic, po-
pecially in the European Union) believe that we
litical, and ethical questions about how to address
should act now to reduce the risks from climate change
this threat.
brought about by global warming. They argue that the po-
tential for harmful economic, ecological, and social
■ The problem has many complex causes. It is unlikely
consequences is so great that action to slow the rate of
that we will have the degree of scientific certainty that
change should not be delayed.
some decision makers want before substantial climate
In 1997, more than 2,500 scientists signed the Sci-
change is under way.
entists’ Statement on Global Climate Disruption,
■ The problem is global. Dealing with this threat will which concluded, “We endorse those [IPCC] reports
require unprecedented international cooperation. We and observe that the further accumulation of green-
are all in the climate lifeboat together. house gases commits the earth irreversibly to further
global climatic change and consequent ecological, eco-
■ The problem is a long-term issue. People generally nomic, and social disruption. The risks associated with
respond well to short-term problems, but we have such changes justify preventive action through reduc-
difficulty acknowledging and coping with long-term tions in emissions of greenhouse gases.” In the same
threats. The elected officials who must make tough year, 2,700 economists led by eight Nobel laureates de-
decisions about the climate issue will be long gone clared, “As economists, we believe that global climate
when the beneficial or harmful effects of their actions change carries with it significant environmental, eco-
occur. The long-term effects of climate also raise an nomic, social, and geopolitical risks and that preven-
important ethical question: How much are we willing to tive steps are justified.”
sacrifice now for benefits that may not be realized in The third approach is to act now as part of a no-re-
our lifetimes but could greatly improve life for our grets strategy. Scientists and economists supporting
children, grandchildren, more distant generations, this position say we should take the key actions
and the plants and animals that share the planet needed to slow global warming—even if the threat
with us? does not materialize—because such actions lead to
■ The harmful and beneficial impacts of climate change other important environmental, health, and economic
are not spread evenly. There will be winners and losers. benefits. For example, a reduction in the combustion
Winning nations are less likely to bring about contro- of fossil fuels, especially coal, would lead to sharp re-
versial changes or spend large sums of money to slow ductions in the air pollution that lowers food and tim-
down something that will benefit them. The catch: We ber productivity, decreases biodiversity, and prema-
will not know which countries and parts of countries turely kills large numbers of people. Reducing a coun-
will be winners and losers until it is too late to avoid try’s use of oil would also decrease its dependence on
harmful effects. imported oil, which threatens its economic and mili-
tary security.
■ We cannot stop climate change but we can use existing
technological and policy options to help slow the rate of cli-
mate change and adapt to its effects.
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should we act now to help
slow global warming? Cast your vote online at http://biology
.brookscole.com/miller11.
■ Many actions that might reduce the threat of climate
change, such as phasing out fossil fuels, are controversial
because they can disrupt economies and lifestyles.
Solutions: Reducing the Threat
We can improve energy efficiency, rely more on
Solutions: What Are Our Options? carbon-free renewable energy resources, and find
Disagreement persists regarding what we should do ways to keep much of the CO2 we produce out of the
about the threat of global warming. troposphere.
Prevention Cleanup
Science: Removing and Storing CO2
Cut fossil fuel Remove CO2
use (especially from smokestack
We can prevent some of the CO2 we produce from
coal) and vehicle circulating in the troposphere, but the costs may be
emissions high and the effectiveness of various approaches
Shift from coal
to natural gas
remains unknown.
Store (sequester)
Improve energy CO2 by planting Figure 16-14 (p. 380) shows several techniques to re-
efficiency trees move CO2 from the troposphere or from smokestacks,
and store (sequester) it in other parts of the environ-
Shift to Sequester
renewable ment. One possible way to remove more CO2 from the
CO2 deep
energy resources underground troposphere is to plant trees that store it in biomass.
However, this approach works only temporarily, be-
Transfer energy
efficiency and Sequester CO2 cause trees release their stored CO2 back into the at-
renewable energy in soil by using mosphere when they die and decompose or if they
technologies no-till cultivation
are burned (for example, by forest fires or to clear
to developing and taking crop
land out of land for crops).
countries
production A second approach is soil sequestration in which
Reduce plants such as switchgrass are used to remove CO2
deforestation Sequester CO2 from the air and store it in the soil. But warmer tem-
in the deep ocean
Use more peratures can increase decomposition in soils and re-
sustainable turn some of this stored CO2 to the atmosphere.
agriculture Repair leaky natural
gas pipelines and A third strategy is to reduce the release of carbon
Limit urban facilities dioxide and nitrous oxide from soil. Ways to do so include
sprawl
no-till cultivation and setting aside depleted crop fields
Use animal feeds
Reduce poverty as conservation reserves.
that reduce CH4
Slow population emissions by A fourth approach is to remove CO2 from smoke-
growth belching cows stacks and inject it into the deep ocean or pump it deep un-
derground into coal seams that are too deep to mine,
depleted oil fields and natural gas reservoirs, and un-
Figure 16-13 Solutions: methods for slowing atmospheric
derground pockets of saltwater (called saline aquifers),
warming during this century. Critical thinking: which five of
these solutions do you believe are the most important? as shown in Figure 16-14. Scientists are concerned that
placing vast amounts of CO2 into the ocean will create
acidic plumes, which can disrupt deep-water ocean
Figure 16-13 presents a variety of prevention and ecosystems.
cleanup solutions that climate analysts have suggested Many scientists see capturing CO2 and pumping it
for slowing the rate and degree of global warming. deep underground as the best sequestration strategy.
Most of these suggestions are based on what we know Oil companies have been piping CO2 underground for
about how the earth’s climate system works (Fig- decades as a way to help extract more oil from wells. Re-
ure 16-7, p. 372) and how the earth sustains itself cent studies indicate that this CO2 has remained under-
(Figure 6-19, p. 126). ground. In 2004, Ronald Oxburgh, Shell’s CEO in the
The solutions come down to three major strate- United Kingdom, called underground sequestration es-
gies: improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use, shift sentially the last hope to slow the rate of climate change:
from carbon-based fossil fuels to carbon-free renewable en- “If we don’t have sequestration, then I see very little
ergy resources, and sequester or store as much CO2 as pos- hope for the world.”
sible in soil, vegetation, the underground, and the deep This strategy is costly because current methods
ocean. The effectiveness of these strategies would be can remove only about 30% of the CO2 from smoke-
enhanced by reducing population, which would de- stack emissions and using them would double or triple
crease the number of fossil fuel consumers and CO2 the cost of producing electricity by burning coal. In
emitters, and by reducing poverty, which would de- addition, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates that
crease the need of the poor to clear more land for crops the cost of sequestering carbon dioxide in various
and fuelwood. underground and deep-ocean repositories must be re-
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CO2 is pumped
down from rig for Abandoned
deep ocean disposal oil field
Crop field
Switchgrass
= CO2 pumping
= CO2 deposit
duced at least 10-fold to make this approach economi- that is burned. Decreasing taxes on income, labor, and
cally feasible. profits to offset increases in consumption taxes on car-
bon emissions or fossil fuel use could help make such
Economics and Politics: Government Roles a strategy more politically acceptable.
in Reducing the Threat of Climate Change A second strategy is to level the economic playing
Governments can tax greenhouse gas emissions and field by greatly increasing government subsidies for
energy use, increase subsidies and tax breaks for energy-efficiency technologies, carbon-free renew-
saving energy and using renewable energy, and able-energy technologies, carbon sequestration, and
decrease subsidies and tax breaks for fossil fuels. more sustainable agriculture, and by phasing out or
sharply reducing subsidies and tax breaks for using
According to a 2004 study by Princeton University re-
fossil fuels.
searchers Stephen Pacala and Robert Sololow, as many
The third strategy focuses on technology transfer.
as 15 existing technologies (Figures 16-13 and 16-14)
Governments of developed countries could fund the
could be deployed to prevent CO2 emissions from in-
transfer of energy-efficiency, carbon-free renewable-
creasing over the next 50 years. The question is whether
energy, carbon-sequestration, and more sustainable
elected officials, spurred by political pressure from
agriculture technologies to developing countries. In-
citizens, have the political will to implement a crash
creasing the current tax on each international currency
program to help decrease this serious threat to the
transaction by a quarter of a penny could finance this
earth’s natural systems and to economies throughout
technology transfer, which would then generate wealth
the world.
for developing countries and help stimulate the global
Governments could use three major methods to
economy.
promote the solutions to slowing global warming
identified in Figures 16-13 and 16-14. One is to phase
in carbon taxes on each unit of CO2 emitted by fossil fu- Politics and Economics: The Kyoto Protocol
els (especially coal and gasoline) or energy taxes on Getting countries to agree on reducing their
each unit of fossil fuel (especially coal and gasoline) greenhouse gas emissions is difficult.
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According to the latest global climate models, the • Use low-flow shower head
world needs to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
(not just CO2) by at least 50% by 2018 to stabilize con-
centrations of CO2 in the air at their present levels.
Figure 16-15 Individuals matter: ways to reduce your annual
Such a large reduction in emissions is extremely un- emissions of CO2. Critical thinking: which three of these actions
likely because it would require rapid, widespread do you believe are the most important? Which things in this list
changes in industrial processes, energy sources, trans- do you do or plan to do? (Data from U.S. Department of Energy)
portation options, and individual lifestyles.
Connect wildlife
reserves with corridors Move people away
from low-lying
coastal areas
Expand existing
wildlife reserves
toward poles
As a result, many analysts suggest we should be- Rowland and Molina’s research led them to four
gin to prepare for the possible harmful effects of long- major conclusions. First, CFCs remain in the tropo-
term atmospheric warming and climate change. Fig- sphere because they are insoluble in water and chemi-
ure 16-16 shows some ways to implement this adapta- cally unreactive.
tion strategy. Second, over 11–20 years these heavier-than-air
compounds rise into the stratosphere mostly through
convection, random drift, and the turbulent mixing of
16-6 OZONE DEPLETION air in the troposphere.
IN THE STRATOSPHERE Third, once they reach the stratosphere, the CFC
molecules break down under the influence of high-
Science: Annual Drops in Ozone Levels energy UV radiation. This releases highly reactive chlo-
over the Earth's Poles rine atoms (Cl), as well as atoms of fluorine (F),
Less ozone in the stratosphere allows more harmful bromine (Br), and iodine (I), which accelerate the break-
UV radiation to reach the earth’s surface. down of ozone (O3) into O2 and O in a cyclic chain of
chemical reactions. As a consequence, ozone in some
A layer of ozone in the lower stratosphere keeps about
parts of the stratosphere is destroyed faster than it
95% of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
forms.
from reaching the earth’s surface. Measuring instru-
Fourth, each CFC molecule can last in the strato-
ments on balloons, aircraft, and satellites show consid-
sphere for 65–385 years, depending on its type. During
erable seasonal depletion (thinning) of ozone concen-
that time, each chlorine atom released during the
trations in the stratosphere above Antarctica and the
breakdown of CFC can convert hundreds of O3 mole-
Arctic. Similar measurements reveal a lower overall
cules to O2.
thinning everywhere except over the tropics.
According to Rowland and Molina’s calculations
Based on these measurements and mathematical
and later models and atmospheric measurements of
and chemical models, the overwhelming consensus of
CFCs in the stratosphere, these dream molecules had
researchers in this field is that ozone depletion (thin-
turned into global ozone destroyers.
ning) in the stratosphere poses a serious threat to hu-
The CFC industry (led by DuPont), a powerful,
mans, other animals, and some of the sunlight-driven
well-funded adversary with a lot of profits and jobs at
primary producers (mostly plants) that support the
stake, attacked Rowland and Molina’s calculations
earth’s food webs.
and conclusions. The two researchers held their
ground, expanded their research, and explained its
Science: What Causes Ozone Depletion?
meaning to other scientists, elected officials, and the
Widespread use of a number of long-lived chemicals media. After 14 years of delaying tactics, DuPont offi-
has reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere. cials acknowledged in 1988 that CFCs were depleting
Thomas Midgley, Jr., a General Motors chemist, dis- the ozone layer and agreed to stop producing them
covered the first chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) in 1930. once they found substitutes.
Chemists soon developed similar compounds to create In 1995, Rowland and Molina received the Nobel
a family of highly useful CFCs, known by their trade Prize in chemistry for their work. In awarding the
name as Freons. prize, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said
These chemically unreactive, odorless, nonflam- that they contributed to “our salvation from a global
mable, nontoxic, and noncorrosive compounds seemed environmental problem that could have catastrophic
to be dream chemicals. Inexpensive to manufacture, consequences.”
they became popular as coolants in air conditioners and Measurements and models indicate that 75–85%
refrigerators, propellants in aerosol spray cans, cleaners of the observed ozone losses in the stratosphere since
for electronic parts such as computer chips, fumigants 1976 are the result of CFCs and other ozone-depleting
for granaries and ship cargo holds, and bubbles in plas- chemicals (ODCs) released into the atmosphere by hu-
tic foam used for insulation and packaging. Between man activities beginning in the 1950s.
1960 and the early 1990s, CFC production rose sharply.
But it turned out that CFCs were too good to
be true. In 1974, calculations by chemists Sherwood Learn more about how chlorine-containing compounds
destroy stratospheric ozone at Environmental ScienceNow.
Rowland and Mario Molina at the University of
California–Irvine indicated that CFCs were lowering
the average concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
They shocked both the scientific community and the Science: Effects of Ozone Depletion
$28-billion-per-year CFC industry by calling for an im- During four months of each year, as much as half of
mediate ban of CFCs in spray cans (for which substi- the ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica and a
tutes were available). smaller amount over the Arctic is depleted.
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Squamous
cells
Epidermis
Basal
layer Sweat
gland
Melanocyte
cells
Basal Dermis
cell
Blood
vessels
Figure 16-18 Science: structure of the human skin and the relationships between ultraviolet (UV-A and UV-
B) radiation and the three types of skin cancer. (Data from the Skin Cancer Foundation)
which amounts to about 2,300 deaths in the United A 2003 study found that women who visited tan-
States each year. ning parlors once a month or more increased their
A third type of skin cancer, malignant melanoma chance of developing malignant melanoma by 55%.
(Figure 16-18, right), occurs in pigmented areas such as The risk was highest for young adults. A 2004 study at
moles. Within a few months, this type of cancer can Dartmouth College found that people using tanning
spread to other organs. beds were also more likely to develop basal cell and
Melanoma kills about one-fourth of its victims squamous cell skin cancers.
(most younger than age 40) within 5 years, despite People (especially Caucasians) who experience
surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation treatments. Each three or more blistering sunburns before age 20 are
year it kills about 100,000 people (including 7,400 five times more likely to develop malignant melanoma
Americans), mostly Caucasians. The disease can be than those who have never had severe sunburns.
cured if it is detected early enough, but recent studies About one of every ten people who get malignant
show that some melanoma survivors have a recur- melanoma has an inherited gene that makes them es-
rence more than 15 years later. pecially susceptible to the disease.
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resources of the private sector to find even more prof- 6. What consumption patterns and other features of your
itable substitute chemicals. lifestyle directly add greenhouse gases to the atmo-
sphere? Which, if any, of these things would you be will-
The atmosphere is the key symbol of global interdependence. If ing to give up to slow global warming?
we can’t solve some of our problems in the face of threats to 7. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List
this global commons, then I can’t be very optimistic about the your three most important actions for dealing with the
future of the world. problems of (a) global warming and (b) depletion of
MARGARET MEAD ozone in the stratosphere.
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Soil
Nutrient
Recycling
Waste
Treatment
CASE STUDY with one illness after another (see her Guest Essay,
on the website for this chapter), the state acted. It
Love Canal: There Is closed the school and arranged for the 239 homes
No “Away” closest to the dump to be evacuated, purchased, and
destroyed.
Between 1942 and 1953, Hooker Chemicals and Two years later, after protests from families still
Plastics (owned by OxyChem since 1968) sealed chem- living fairly close to the landfill, President Jimmy
ical wastes containing at least 200 different chemicals Carter declared Love Canal a federal disaster area,
into steel drums and dumped them into an old canal had the remaining families relocated, and offered fed-
excavation (called Love Canal after its builder, eral funds to buy 564 more homes. Because of the dif-
William Love) near Niagara Falls, New York. ficulty in linking exposure to a variety of chemicals to
In 1953, Hooker Chemicals filled the canal, cov- specific health problems, the long-term health effects
ered it with clay and topsoil, and sold it to the Niagara of Love Canal residents’ exposure to hazardous chem-
Falls school board for $1. The icals remain unknown and
company inserted a disclaimer in controversial.
the deed denying legal liability The dumpsite has been
for any injury caused by the covered with a new clay
wastes. In 1957, Hooker warned cap and surrounded by a
the school board not to disturb drainage system for pump-
the clay cap because of possible ing leaking wastes to a new
danger from the buried toxic treatment plant. In June
wastes. 1990, state officials began
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Solid wastes are only raw materials we’re too stupid to use. 17-1 WASTING RESOURCES
ARTHUR C. CLARKE
Science: Solid Waste
This chapter examines what types of solid and haz-
ardous wastes we produce, how we can deal with Most solid waste is a symptom of unnecessary waste
such wastes, and how we can reduce our output of of resources whose production causes pollution and
such wastes. It addresses the following questions: environmental degradation.
Solid waste is any unwanted or discarded material
■ What is solid waste, and how much do we produce?
that is not a liquid or a gas. In nature, there is essen-
■ How can we produce less solid waste? tially no solid waste because the wastes of one organ-
■ What is the ecoindustrial revolution, and how can ism become nutrients for other organisms.
we shift from selling things to selling services? We will always produce some solid waste directly
■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of and indirectly in creating the goods and services we
reusing and recycling materials? use. The solid waste we produce directly is called
■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of garbage. For most people in developed countries,
burning or burying solid waste? garbage trucks arrive and whisk away this waste—out
■ What is hazardous waste, and how can we deal of sight, out of mind. But most people do not realize
with it? that mines, factories, food growers, and businesses
that supply people with goods and services produce
■ What can we do to reduce exposure to lead and
about 98% of the world’s solid waste as they provide
mercury?
us with an incredible array of goods and services.
■ How can we make the transition to a more sustain- Why should we care about the amount of solid
able, low-waste society? waste we produce directly and indirectly? First, be-
cause much of it represents an unnecessary waste
of the earth’s precious resources. Second, because pro-
KEY IDEAS
ducing the solid products we use and often
■ Most solid waste is a symptom of unnecessary discard leads to huge amounts of air pollution (in-
waste of resources whose production causes pollution cluding greenhouse gases), water pollution, and land
and environmental degradation. degradation.
■ Scientists urge us to put much more emphasis on Good news. We could reduce our direct and indi-
producing less solid waste (waste prevention) through rect production of solid waste by 75–90%, as you will
reduced resource use, reuse, recycling, and compost- learn in this chapter.
ing than on burning or burying the solid wastes we
produce. Solid Waste in the United States
■ To make industrial manufacturing processes more
The United States produces one-third of the world’s
sustainable, we can redesign them to mimic how na-
solid waste and buries more than half of that waste in
ture deals with wastes—a process known as the
landfills.
ecoindustrial revolution.
The United States, with only 4.6% of the world’s popu-
■ Business can greatly decrease their pollution and
lation, produces about one-third of the world’s solid
waste by shifting from selling goods to leasing the ser-
waste—a glaring symptom of affluenza (p. 14).
vices that those goods provide.
About 98.5% of the solid waste in the United
■ Developed countries produce 80–90% of the States (and in most developed countries) comes from
world’s hazardous wastes, and most such wastes are mining, oil and natural gas production, agriculture,
not regulated. sewage sludge, and industrial activities (Figure 17-2,
■ Chemical and biological methods can be used to re- p. 390). This solid waste is produced indirectly to pro-
move hazardous wastes or to reduce their toxicity, and vide goods and services to meet the needs and grow-
are preferred for most such wastes over burning or ing wants of consumers.
burying them. The remaining 1.5% of solid waste is municipal
■ Toxic lead and mercury threaten the health of many solid waste (MSW)—often called garbage or trash—
children, but methods for reducing these hazards are generated mostly by homes and workplaces. This
available. small part of the overall solid waste problem is still
■ We need to focus on preventing waste production huge. Each year, the United States generates enough
by shifting from unsustainable, high-waste societies to MSW to fill a bumper-to-bumper convoy of garbage
more sustainable, low-waste societies over the next 50 trucks encircling the globe almost eight times! Between
years. 1960 and 1990, the amount of MSW produced per per-
son in the United States increased by 70%.
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Figure 17-2 Natural capital waste and degradation: sources Critical thinking: what contribution do you make in the
of the estimated 11 billion metric tons (12 billion tons) of solid United States or in the country where you live to each of
waste produced each year in the United States. Mining, oil and these items?
gas production, agricultural, and industrial activities produce
65 times as much solid waste as household activities. (Data
from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Bureau 17-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTE
of Mines)
First Priority Second Priority Last Priority Figure 17-3 Solutions: priorities
suggested for dealing with material
use and solid waste. To date, these
Primary Pollution Secondary Pollution Waste Management waste-reduction priorities have not
and Waste Prevention and Waste Prevention been followed in the United States
• Treat waste to reduce
• Change industrial • Reuse products toxicity and in most other countries. Instead,
process to eliminate • Repair products most efforts are devoted to waste
• Incinerate waste
use of harmful • Recycle management (bury it or burn it).
• Bury waste in
chemicals Critical thinking: why do most coun-
• Compost landfills
• Purchase different tries not follow these priorities? (Data
• Buy reusable and • Release waste into
products from U.S. Environmental Protection
recyclable products environment for
• Use less of a harmful dispersal or dilution Agency and U.S. National Academy
product of Sciences)
• Reduce packaging
and materials in
products
• Make products that
last longer and are
recyclable, reusable,
or easy to repair
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Improvements in resource productivity and envi- being developed on abandoned industrial sites, called
ronmental design are very important. But we can do brownfields, which are cleaned up and redeveloped.
much better if we encourage the resource productivity In Europe, at least one-third of all industrial wastes
revolution. In their 1999 book Natural Capitalism, Paul are sent to waste-material exchanges or clearinghouses
Hawken, Amory Lovins, and Hunter Lovins contend where they are sold or given away as raw materials for
that we have the knowledge and technology to greatly other industries. About one-tenth of the industrial
increase resource productivity by getting 75–90% more waste in the United States is sent to such clearing-
work or service from each unit of material resources houses, a proportion that could be greatly increased.
we use. To these analysts, the only major obstacles to In addition to eliminating most waste and pollu-
such an economic and ecological revolution are laws, tion, these industrial forms of biomimicry provide many
policies, taxes, and subsidies that continue to reward economic benefits for businesses. They reduce the
inefficient resource use and fail to reward efficient re- costs of controlling pollution and complying with pol-
source use. There are many fulfilling career choices for lution regulations. If a company does not add pollu-
people wanting to become part of the resource produc- tants to the environment, it does not have to worry
tivity revolution. about government regulations or being sued because
the wastes harm someone. The company also improves
the health and safety of its workers by reducing their
exposure to toxic and hazardous materials, thereby re-
17-3 THE ECOINDUSTRIAL ducing company health-care insurance costs.
REVOLUTION AND SELLING Biomimicry also stimulates companies to come up
SERVICES INSTEAD OF THINGS with new, environmentally beneficial chemicals, pro-
cesses, and products that can be sold worldwide. Such
Science: The Ecoindustrial Revolution companies also have a better image among consumers
We can make industrial manufacturing processes based on results rather than public relations campaigns.
more sustainable by redesigning them to mimic how In 1975, the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing
nature deals with wastes. Company (3M), which makes 60,000 different products
in 100 manufacturing plants, began a Pollution Preven-
Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial revolution tak-
tion Pays (3P) program. It redesigned its equipment
ing place over the next 50 years. The goal is to make in-
and processes, used fewer hazardous raw materials,
dustrial manufacturing processes cleaner and more
identified hazardous chemical outputs (and recycled
sustainable by redesigning them to mimic how nature
or sold them as raw materials to other companies), and
deals with wastes. In nature, the waste outputs of one
began making more nonpolluting products.
organism become the nutrient inputs of another or-
By 1998, 3M’s overall waste production was down
ganism, so that all of the earth’s nutrients are endlessly
by one-third, its air pollutant emissions per unit of
recycled.
production were 70% lower, and the company had
One way we can mimic nature is to recycle and
saved more than $750 million in waste disposal and
reuse most chemicals used in industries instead of
material costs. Since 1990, a growing number of com-
dumping them into the environment. Another is to
panies have adopted similar pollution prevention pro-
have industries interact in complex resource exchange
grams. See the Guest Essay by Peter Montague on
webs in which the wastes of one manufacturer become
cleaner production on the website for this chapter.
raw materials for another—similar to food webs in
natural ecosystems (Figure 3-17, p. 48). This is happen-
ing in Kalundborg, Denmark, where an electric power Economics: Selling Services Instead
plant and nearby industries, farms, and homes are col- of Things
laborating to save money and reduce their outputs of Some businesses can greatly decrease their pollution
waste and pollution. To do so, they exchange waste and waste by shifting from selling goods to selling the
outputs and convert them into resources, as shown in services the goods provide.
Figure 17-5.
In the mid-1980s, German chemist Michael Braungart
and Swiss industry analyst Walter Stahel indepen-
Review the workings of a rain forest ecosystem and com- dently proposed a new economic model that would
pare it to the industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg at provide profits while greatly reducing resource use and
Environmental ScienceNow. waste. Their idea for more sustainable economies fo-
cuses on shifting from the current material-flow economy
Today about 20 ecoindustrial parks similar to the (Figure 2-12, p. 32) to a service-flow economy. Instead of
one in Kalundborg operate in various parts of the buying most goods outright, customers would use eco-
world, and more are being built or planned. Some are leasing, renting the services that such goods provide.
Sludge
Sludge
Greenhouses
Waste
Waste
heat
heat
Waste
heat
Fish farming
Waste heat
Wallboard factory
Area homes
Figure 17-5 Solutions: the industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg, Denmark, reduces waste production by mim-
icking a natural food web. The wastes of one business become the raw materials for another.
In a service-flow economy, a manufacturer makes install superefficient windows and more efficient
more money if its product uses the minimum amount lighting and to make other energy-efficiency upgrades
of materials, lasts as long as possible, and is easy to that reduce the cooling needs of its customers. Carrier
maintain, repair, remanufacture, reuse, or recycle. makes money by providing these services rather than
Such an economic shift based on eco-leasing is installing equipment. They also increase profits by
already under way in some businesses. Since 1992, making their air conditioning equipment very efficient
Xerox has been leasing most of its copy machines as and easy to repair, remanufacture, and recycle.
part of its mission to provide document services instead Dow and several other chemical companies are
of selling photocopiers. When a customer’s service doing a booming business in leasing organic solvents
contract expires, Xerox takes the machine back for (used mostly to remove grease from surfaces), photo-
reuse or remanufacture; it has a goal of sending no graphic developing chemicals, and dyes and pig-
material to landfills or incinerators. To save money, ments. In this chemical service business, the company
machines are designed to use recycled paper, have delivers the chemicals, helps the client set up a recov-
few parts, be energy efficient, and emit as little noise, ery system, takes away the recovered chemicals, and
heat, ozone, and copier chemical waste as possible. delivers new chemicals as needed.
Canon in Japan and Fiat in Italy are taking similar Finally, Ray Anderson, CEO of a large carpet tile
measures. company, plans to lease rather than sell carpet (Individ-
Similarly, Carrier, the world’s leading maker of air uals Matter, p. 394). There are many entrepreneurial
conditioning equipment, now leases cooling services. and career opportunities in the emerging service-flow
The company teams up with other service providers to economy.
INDIVIDUALS MATTER
Ray Anderson
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Ray Anderson
Ray Anderson By 1999, his company had re- ecosystem—and run the whole
(Figure 17-A) is duced its resource waste by almost thing on sunlight.”
CEO of Interface, a 30% and reduced its energy waste Anderson is one of a growing
company based in enough to save $100 million. One of number of business leaders who
INDIVIDUALS
MATTER Atlanta, Georgia. Interface’s factories in California are committed to finding more
Interface is the runs on solar cells to produce the economically and ecologically
world’s largest commercial manu- world’s first solar-made carpet. sustainable ways to do business
facturer of carpet tiles, with 26 fac- To achieve the goal of zero while still making a profit for stock-
tories in six countries, customers in waste, Interface plans to stop selling holders. Between 1993 and 1998,
110 countries, and more than $1 bil- carpet and lease it as a way to en- Interface’s revenues doubled and
lion in annual sales. courage recycling. For a monthly its profits tripled, mostly
Anderson changed the way he fee, the company will install, because the company
viewed the world—and his busi- clean, and inspect the saved $130 million in
ness—after reading Paul Hawken’s carpet on a monthly material costs with an
book The Ecology of Commerce. In basis, repair worn carpet investment of less
1994, he announced plans to de- tiles overnight, and re- than $40 million.
velop the nation’s first totally sus- cycle worn-out tiles Andersen says he
Interface
tainable green corporation. into new carpeting. As is having a blast.
Since then, Anderson has imple- Anderson says, “We
mented hundreds of projects with want to harvest yester-
the goals of zero waste, greatly re- day’s carpets and recy-
duced energy use, and eventually cle them with zero scrap
zero use of fossil fuels by relying on going to the landfill and
renewable solar energy. zero emissions into the Figure 17-A Ray Anderson
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glass, paper, metals, certain types of plastics, and com- Cargill Dow is manufacturing biodegradable and
postable materials. These segregated wastes are then recyclable plastic containers made from a polymer
collected and sold to scrap dealers, compost plants, called polyactide (ACT), made from the sugar in corn
and manufacturers. syrup. Instead of being sent to landfills, these bioplas-
The source separation approach offers several ad- tic containers could be composted to produce a soil
vantages over the centralized approach. It produces conditioner.
much less air and water pollution and has low start-up Toyota, the world’s second-leading automaker, is
costs and moderate operating costs. It also saves more investing $38 billion in a process that makes plastics
energy, provides more jobs per unit of material, and from plants. By 2020, it expects to control two-thirds of
yields cleaner and usually more valuable recyclables. the world’s supply of such bioplastics.
In addition, it educates people about the need for
waste reduction, reuse, and recycling.
Trade-Offs: Advantages and Disadvantages
To promote separation of wastes for recycling,
of Recycling
many communities have implemented a pay-as-you-
throw (PAUT) waste collection system. Households Recycling materials such as paper and metals has
and businesses are charged according to the amount both environmental and economic benefits.
of mixed waste picked up but not for collection of ma- Figure 17-8 lists the advantages and disadvantages of
terials separated for recycling. Does your city use this recycling. Whether recycling makes economic sense
approach? depends on how you look at the economic and envi-
ronmental benefits and costs of recycling. Critics say
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should households and busi-
nesses be charged for the amount of mixed waste picked
recycling does not make sense if it costs more to recycle
materials than to send them to a landfill or incinerator.
up but not charged for pickup of materials separated for re- They also point out that many areas are not running
cycling? Cast your vote online at http://biology.brookscole
out of landfill space, so recycling may be unnecessary.
.com/miller11.
Proponents of recycling concede that this may
make economic sense for valuable and easy-to-recycle
materials such as aluminum, paper, and steel, but not
Science and Economics Case Study: Problems
with Recycling Plastics
Recycling many plastics is chemically and
economically difficult. Tr a d e - O f f s
Many plastic containers and other items are thrown Recycling
away and end up as litter on roadsides and beaches.
Could more widespread recycling of plastics reduce Advantages Disadvantages
this unsightly problem?
Currently, only 10% by weight of all plastic wastes Reduces air and Does not save
in the United States is recycled, for three reasons. First, water pollution landfill space in
areas with ample
many plastics are challenging to isolate from other Saves energy land
wastes because the various resins used to make them
Reduces mineral
are often difficult to identify, and some plastics are demand
composites of different resins. Most plastics also con- May lose money for
Reduces greenhouse items such as glass
tain stabilizers and other chemicals that must be re- gas emissions and most plastics
moved before recycling.
Reduces solid waste
Second, recovering individual plastic resins does disposal
not yield much material because only small amounts Reduces profits
Helps protect biodiversity from landfills and
of any given resin are used per product. incinerators
Third, the inflation-adjusted price of oil used to Can save money
for items such as
produce petrochemicals for making plastic resins is so paper, metals,
low that the cost of virgin plastic resins is much lower and some plastics
Source separation
than that of recycled resins. An exception is PET, used Important part of is inconvenient for
mostly in plastic soft-drink bottles. economy some people
Thus, mandating that plastic products contain a
certain amount of recycled plastic resins is unlikely to
work. It could also hinder the use of recycled plastics Figure 17-8 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
in reducing the resource content and weight of many recycling solid waste. Critical thinking: pick the single advan-
items, such as plastic bags and bottles. tage and disadvantage that you think are the most important.
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for cheap or plentiful resources such as glass from sil- How can we encourage recycling and reuse? Pro-
ica and most plastics. ponents say that leveling the economic playing field is
Critics of recycling also argue that this process the best way to start. Governments can increase subsi-
should pay for itself. Proponents of recycling counter dies and tax breaks for reuse and recycling materials
that conventional garbage disposal systems are (the carrot) and decrease subsidies and tax breaks for
funded by charges to households and businesses. Why making items from virgin resources (the stick).
should recycling be held to a different standard and Other strategies are to greatly increase use of the
forced to compete on an uneven playing field? pay-as-you-throw system and to encourage or require
Recycling advocates also note that reducing the government purchases of recycled products to help
use of landfills and incinerators is not as important as increase demand and lower prices. Governments
the other benefits of recycling (Figure 17-8). They point can also pass laws requiring companies to take back and
to studies showing that the net economic, health, and recycle or reuse packaging discarded by consumers. In
environmental benefits of recycling far outweigh the the Netherlands, all packaging waste is banned from
costs. landfills. By 2008, EU countries must recycle 55–80% of
Cities that make money by recycling and have all packaging waste. The EU also requires companies to
higher recycling rates tend to use a single-pickup sys- take back electronic products from consumers without
tem, collecting both materials to be recycled and charge and bans e-waste in MSW. These product steward-
garbage that cannot be recycled at the same time, in- ship policies create a strong economic incentive for com-
stead of a more expensive dual-pickup system. In sin- panies to redesign products for safer and easier recy-
gle-pickup systems, dealing with recyclables costs cling, reuse, and remanufacturing.
about half as much per metric ton as disposing of the
same amount of waste in most modern landfills.
Successful systems also tend to use a pay-as-you-
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should governments pass laws
requiring manufacturers to take back and reuse or recycle all
throw system. San Francisco, California, uses such a packaging waste, appliances, electronic equipment, and
motor vehicles at the end of their useful lives? Cast your vote
system to recycle almost half of its MSW.
online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
Reuse and recycling are hindered by prices Japan and a few European countries incinerate most
of goods that do not reflect the ecological truth, of their municipal waste, but this practice has fallen
too few government subsidies and tax breaks, out of favor in the United States and most European
low landfill dumping costs, and price countries.
fluctuations. Globally, municipal solid waste is burned in more than
Four factors hinder reuse and recycling. First, there is a 1,000 large waste-to-energy incinerators, which boil wa-
faulty accounting system. The market price of a prod- ter to make steam for heating water or space, or for
uct does not include the harmful environmental health producing electricity. Trace the flow of materials
costs associated with the product during its life cycle through this process as diagrammed in Figure 17-9.
from production to discarding or recycling. Japan and Switzerland burn more than half of their
Second, there is an uneven economic playing field. MSW in incinerators, as compared to 16% in the
In most countries, resource-extracting industries re- United States and about 8% in Canada. Figure 17-10
ceive more government tax breaks and subsidies than lists the advantages and disadvantages of using incin-
recycling and reuse industries. We get more of what we erators to burn solid and hazardous wastes.
reward. Since 1985, more than 280 new incinerator projects
Third, charges for depositing wastes in landfills have been delayed or canceled in the United States be-
(called tipping fees) in the United States are lower than cause of high costs, concern over air pollution, and in-
those in most of Europe. tense citizen opposition.
Fourth, the demand and thus the price paid for re-
cycled materials fluctuate, mostly because buying x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do the advantages of incinerat-
ing solid waste outweigh the disadvantages? Cast your vote
goods made with recycled materials is not a priority
for most governments, businesses, and individuals. online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
Electricity
Smokestack
Steam Turbine
Crane
Generator
Furnace Wet
scrubber
Boiler
Electrostatic
precipitator
Waste
pit
Water
added Bottom Dirty
Conveyor ash water
Fly ash
Conventional
landfill Waste
treatment Hazardous
waste landfill
Figure 17-9 Solutions: this waste-to-energy incinerator with pollution controls burns mixed solid waste and
recovers some of the energy to produce steam used for heating or producing electricity. (Adapted from U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Let’s Reduce and Recycle)
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Sand Electricity
generator
Clay building
Probes to
detect
methane Pipes collect explosive
leaks Methane gas methane as used as fuel
recovery well to generate eleectricity
Leachate
storage
tank
Compacted
solid waste
Groundwater
Leachate Leachate pumped monitoring
Garbage pipes up to storage tank well
Sand for safe disposal
Synthetic Leachate
liner monitoring
well
Sand Groundwater
Figure 17-11 Solutions: state-of-the-art sanitary landfill, which is designed to eliminate or minimize environ-
mental problems that plague older landfills. Even these landfills are expected to leak eventually, passing both
the effects of contamination and the cleanup costs on to future generations. Since 1997, only sanitary landfills
have been able to operate in the United States. As a result, many older and small landfills have been closed
and replaced with larger local and regional modern landfills.
before being filled with garbage, as shown in Fig- treatment plant or an on-site treatment plant. When it
ure 17-11. The landfill bottom is covered with a second becomes full, the landfill is covered with clay, sand,
impermeable liner, usually made of several layers of gravel, and topsoil to prevent water from seeping in.
clay, thick plastic, and sand. This liner collects leachate Sanitary landfills have a network of vent pipes to
(rainwater contaminated as it percolates through the collect landfill gases (consisting mostly of two green-
solid waste) and is intended to prevent its leakage into house gases, methane and carbon dioxide) released by
groundwater. Wells are drilled around the landfill to the underground decomposition of wastes. The
monitor any leakage. methane is filtered out and burned in small gas tur-
The leachate is pumped from the bottom of the bines to produce steam or electricity for nearby facili-
landfill, stored in tanks, and sent to a regular sewage ties or sold to utilities for use as a fuel.
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Cleaning Gardening
• Disinfectants • Pesticides
• Drain, toilet, and • Weed killers
window cleaners • Ant and rodent killers
• Spot removers • Flea powders
• Septic tank cleaners
Paint
Figure 17-13 Science: harmful chemicals found in many homes. Congress has exempted
disposal of these materials from government regulation. Critical thinking: which of these
chemicals are in your home? Which ones could you do without?
Figure 17-14 lists the priorities that prominent sci- 100,00 to more than 1 million people. The 2001 attacks
entists believe we should follow in dealing with haz- on New York City’s World Trade Center Towers and
ardous waste. Denmark is following these priorities the Pentagon have heightened concerns about terrorist
but most countries are not. acts against such plants.
Analysts view such plants as easy targets for acts
of sabotage. There are no federal laws establishing
Science and Politics: How Safe Are U.S.
minimum security at these chemical facilities. In addi-
Chemical Plants from Terrorist Attacks?
tion, slow-moving railcars carrying hazardous chemi-
Large amounts of hazardous wastes could be released cals to and from such plants regularly pass through
into the environment by terrorist attacks on major urban areas. And some of the railcars are parked near
chemical plants in the United States. residential areas for extended periods. Barges carrying
Managers of industrial plants that manufacture and hazardous chemicals that move up and down the
use chemicals work hard to prevent accidental release country’s waterways are also largely unprotected.
of chemicals that can harm workers or nearby resi- In 2004, a study by the Working Group on the Com-
dents. But accidents can happen, as thousands of peo- munity Right-to-Know pointed out that terrorist acts or
ple living near a pesticide manufacturing plant in accidents could release large quantities of gaseous am-
Bhopal, India, learned in 1984 (see Case Study, p. 403). monia or chlorine used at some 275 of the nation’s
Roughly 15,000 chemical plants, refineries, and power plants. Such releases pose a potential danger to
other sites in the United States contain large quantities 3.5 million Americans. The study noted that less harm-
of hazardous chemicals. According to the EPA, at ful substitutes for these chemicals are available. Critical
about 790 sites the toll of death or injury from a cata- thinking: what three things would you do to reduce such
strophic disaster at a chemical plant could reach from risks?
Science, Economics, and Ethics Case Study: age, and neurological problems. Clearly, this was the
A Black Day in Bhopal, India world’s largest industrial tragedy.
The world’s worst industrial accident occurred in 1984 Indian officials claim that Union Carbide might
at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. have prevented the tragedy by spending no more
than $1 million to upgrade plant equipment and im-
December 2, 1984, will long stand as a black day in
prove safety. According to an investigation by India’s
Indian history. On that date, the world’s worst indus-
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the company’s
trial accident occurred at a Union Carbide pesticide
U.S. corporate managers decided to save money by
plant in Bhopal, India.
cutting back on maintenance and safety because the
An explosion in an underground storage tank
plant had proven to be a financial disappointment for
released a large quantity of highly toxic methyl iso-
the firm. The CBI found that on the night of the dis-
cyanate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbamate pesti-
aster six safety measures designed to prevent a leak
cides. Water leaking into the tank through faulty valves
of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down, or
and corroded pipes caused the explosive chemical
malfunctioning.
reaction.
In 1989, Union Carbide agreed to pay $470 million
Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC
to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt
was converted to more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
or negligence concerning the accident. The Indian gov-
The toxic cloud of gas settled over an area of 78 square
ernment has distributed only part of these funds to the
kilometers (30 square miles), exposing as many as
victims or their families, with the average payment
600,000 people. Many were illegal squatters living near
amounting to $500.
the plant because they had no other place to go. The
In 1992, the Court of the Chief Judicial Magistrate
deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning
for Bhopal charged Warren Anderson, CEO of Union
because the plant’s warning sirens had been turned off
Carbide at the time of the accident, with “culpable
to save money.
homicide” (the equivalent of manslaughter) and issued
Indian officials say that at least 10,000 people died
a warrant for his arrest. He has refused to appear in
within a few days after the accident. Union Carbide put
court, and the U.S. government has not responded to
the death toll at 3,800. The International Campaign for
India’s request to extradite him to India to stand trial.
Justice in Bhopal estimates that by 2001 the accident
had killed 20,000. It also puts the number of people suf-
fering from chronic illnesses from the accident at Science: Detoxifying Hazardous Waste
120,000–150,000. An international team of medical spe- Chemical and biological methods can be used to
cialists estimated in 1996 that 50,000–60,000 people sus- remove hazardous wastes or to reduce their toxicity.
tained permanent injuries such as blindness, lung dam- In Denmark, all hazardous and toxic waste from in-
dustries and households is delivered to 21 transfer
stations throughout the country. The waste is then
Produce Less Waste
transferred to a large treatment facility. There, three-
fourths of the waste is detoxified by physical, chemi-
Manipulate
processes
cal, and biological methods; the rest is buried in a
Recycle and carefully designed and monitored landfill.
to eliminate
reuse
or reduce Some scientists and engi-
production
neers consider biological treat-
ment of hazardous waste as the
wave of the future for cleaning
Convert to Less Hazardous or Nonhazardous Substances
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Landfill
Oil
spill
Polluted
groundwater Decontaminated
Polluted
in water out
Soil leachate Soil
Groundwater Groundwater
Figure 17-15 Solutions: phytoremediation. Various types of plants can be used as pollution sponges to
clean up soil and water and radioactive substances (left), organic compounds (center), and toxic metals
(right). (Data from American Society of Plant Physiologists, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
Edenspace)
Tr a d e - O f f s Tr a d e - O f f s
Phytoremediation Deep Underground Wells
Tr a d e - O f f s
Surface Impoundments
Figure 17-16 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
using phytoremediation to remove or detoxify hazardous waste.
Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage Advantages Disadvantages
that you think are the most important.
Low construction Groundwater
costs contamination
air pollutants such as toxic dioxins and produces a from leaking liners
Low operating (or no lining)
highly toxic ash that must be safely and permanently costs
stored. Air pollution from
Most hazardous waste in the United States is volatile organic
Can be built compounds
disposed of on land in deep underground wells; sur- quickly
face impoundments such as ponds, pits, or lagoons; Overflow from
and state-of-the-art landfills. In deep-well disposal, liq- Wastes can be flooding
retrieved if
uid hazardous wastes are pumped under pressure necessary Disruption and
through a pipe into dry, porous geologic formations or leakage from
zones of rock far beneath the aquifers tapped for Can store wastes earthquakes
indefinitely with
drinking and irrigation water. Theoretically, these secure double Promotes waste
liquids soak into the porous rock material and are iso- liners production
lated from overlying groundwater by essentially im-
permeable layers of rock.
Figure 17-17 lists the advantages and disadvan- Figure 17-18 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of
tages of deep-well disposal of liquid hazardous storing liquid hazardous wastes in surface impoundments.
wastes. Many scientists believe that current regula- Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and disadvantage
that you think are the most important.
tions for deep-well disposal are inadequate and should
be improved.
Surface impoundments are excavated depressions
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ?Do the advantages of deep-well
disposal of hazardous waste from soil and water outweigh
such as ponds, pits, or lagoons into which liquid haz-
ardous wastes are drained and stored (Figure 11-26,
the disadvantages? Cast your vote online at http://biology p. 258). As water evaporates, the waste settles and
.brookscole.com/miller11. becomes more concentrated. Figure 17-18 lists the
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Earth
Water
table
Leak
Groundwater detection
system
Double leachate
collection system Plastic Groundwater
double Reactive monitering
liner wastes well
in drums
children. Each year in the United States, 12,000–16,000 U.S. children still have unsafe blood levels of lead
children younger than age 9 are treated for acute lead caused by exposure from a number of sources. A major
poisoning, and about 200 die. About 30% of the sur- source is inhalation or ingestion of lead particles from
vivors suffer from palsy, partial paralysis, blindness, peeling lead-based paint found in about 38 million
and mental retardation. houses built before 1960. Lead can also leach from wa-
Children younger than age 6 and unborn fetuses ter lines and pipes and faucets containing lead. In ad-
even with low blood levels of lead are especially vul- dition, a 1993 study by the U.S. National Academy of
nerable to nervous system impairment, lowered IQ Sciences and numerous other studies indicate there is
(by an average of 7.4 points), shortened attention span, no safe level of lead in children’s blood.
hyperactivity, hearing damage, and various behavior Health scientists have proposed a number of ways
disorders. to help protect children from lead poisoning, as listed
Good news. Between 1976 and 2000, the percentage in Figure 17-21. Although the threat from lead has
of U.S. children ages 1–5 with blood lead levels above been reduced in the United States, it remains a danger
the safety standard dropped from 85% to 2.2%, so that in many developing countries. About 80% of the gaso-
at least 9 million childhood lead poisonings were pre- line sold in the world today is unleaded, but about 100
vented. The primary reason for this trend was that gov- countries still use leaded gasoline. The World Health
ernment regulations banned leaded gasoline in 1976 Organization (WHO) estimates that 130–200 million
(with complete phaseout by 1986) and lead-based children around the world are at risk from lead poi-
paints in 1970 (but illegal use continued until about soning, and 15–18 million children in developing
1978). This is an excellent example of the power of pol- countries have permanent brain damage because of
lution prevention. lead poisoning—mostly from use of leaded gasoline.
Bad news. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control Good news. China recently phased out leaded gasoline
and Prevention (CDC) estimates that at least 400,000 in less than three years.
Solutions
Lead Poisoning
Prevention Control
Figure 17-21 Solutions: ways to help protect children from lead poisoning. Critical thinking:
which three of the solutions do you believe are the most important?
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AIR
Photo-
Human sources chemical Inorganic mercury
Elemental Inorganic
oxidation and acids
mercury mercury
Coal- vapor and acids (Hg2+)
Incinerator burning (Hg) (Hg2+)
Deposition
plant
2+
ff of Hg and acids
Runo
Vaporization
Deposition
Deposition
Phytoplankton Zooplankton
Bacteria
Elemental Oxidation Inorganic and acids Organic
mercury liquid mercury mercury
(Hg) (Hg2+) Bacteria (CH3Hg+)
Settles Settles Settles
out out out
SEDIMENT
Figure 17-22 Science: cycling of mercury in aquatic environments, in which mercury is converted
from one form to another. The most toxic form to humans is methylmercury (CH3Hg+), which can be bio-
logically magnified in aquatic food chains. Some mercury is also released back into the atmosphere as
mercury vapor.
Solutions
Mercury Pollution
Prevention Control
Figure 17-23 Solutions: ways to prevent or control inputs of mercury into the environment from
human activities—mostly through control of coal-burning plants and incinerators. Critical thinking:
which four of these solutions do you believe are the most important?
mackerel, or tilefish and to limit their consumption of In the United States, individuals have organized to
albacore tuna to no more than 170 grams (6 ounces) prevent hundreds of incinerators, landfills, and treat-
per week. They also advised these populations to ment plants for hazardous and radioactive wastes
check local advisories about the safety of fish caught in from being built in or near their communities. Opposi-
local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. tion has grown as numerous studies have shown that
In 2004, the EPA warned that one-fourth of the na- such facilities have traditionally been located in com-
tion’s rivers, one-third of its lakes (including all of the munities populated mostly by African Americans,
Great Lakes), and three-fourths of its coastal waters are Asian Americans, Latinos, and poor whites. This prac-
contaminated with mercury and other pollutants that tice has been cited as an example of environmental in-
could cause health problems for children and pregnant justice. See the Guest Essay on this subject by Robert
women who eat too much fish caught in them. Bullard on the website for this chapter.
Figure 17-23 lists ways to prevent or control hu- Health risks from incinerators and landfills, when
man exposure to mercury. In its 2003 report on global averaged over the entire country, are quite low. How-
mercury pollution, the UN Environment Programme ever, the risks for people living near these facilities are
recommended phasing out coal burning and waste in- much higher. They are the ones whose health, lives,
cineration as rapidly as possible. and property values are being threatened.
Manufacturers and waste industry officials point
out that something must be done with the toxic and
hazardous wastes produced while providing people
17-9 ACHIEVING A LOW-WASTE with certain goods and services. They contend that if lo-
SOCIETY cal citizens adopt a “not in my back yard” (NIMBY) ap-
proach, the waste still ends up in someone’s back yard.
Politics: Grassroots Action for Better Solid Many citizens do not accept this argument. To
and Hazardous Waste Management them, the best way to deal with most toxic or haz-
In the United States, citizens have kept large numbers ardous wastes is to produce much less of them, as sug-
of incinerators, landfills, and hazardous waste gested by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
treatment plants from being built in their local areas. (Figure 17-14). For such materials, their goal is “not in
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anyone’s back yard” (NIABY) or “not on planet Earth” According to physicist Albert Einstein, “A clever per-
(NOPE) by emphasizing pollution prevention and use son solves a problem, a wise person avoids it.” To pre-
of the precautionary principle. vent pollution and reduce waste, many environmental
scientists urge us to understand and live by four key
principles:
Global Outlook: International Action
to Reduce Hazardous Waste ■ Everything is connected.
An international treaty calls for phasing out the use of ■ There is no “away” for the wastes we produce.
harmful persistent organic pollutants. ■ Dilution is not always the solution to pollution.
Between 1989 and 1994, an international treaty to limit ■ The best and cheapest way to deal with waste and
transfer of hazardous waste from one country to an- pollution is to produce fewer pollutants and to reuse
other was developed. In 2000, delegates from 122 and recycle most of the materials we use.
countries completed a global treaty to control 12 persis-
tent organic pollutants (POPs). Good news. There is growing interest in and greater
These widely used toxic chemicals are insoluble in use of resource productivity, pollution prevention, eco-
water and soluble in fat. In the fatty tissues of humans industrial systems, and service-flow businesses. In addi-
and other organisms feeding at high trophic levels in tion, at least 24 countries have eco-labeling programs
food webs, they can become concentrated to levels that certify a product or service as having met speci-
hundreds of thousand times higher than in the general fied environmental standards.
environment (Figure 9-16, p. 197). POPs can also be Such changes start off slowly but can accelerate
transported long distances by wind and water. rapidly as their economic, ecological, and health ad-
The list of 12 chemicals covered by the 2000 vantages become more apparent to investors, business
treaty—the dirty dozen—includes DDT and 8 other leaders, elected officials, and citizens.
chlorine-containing persistent pesticides, PCBs, diox-
ins, and furans. The treaty seeks to ban or phase out
Learn more about how shifting to a low-waste (low-
use of these chemicals and detoxify or isolate stock- throughput) economy would be the best long-term solution
piles of them. About 25 countries can continue using to environmental and resource problems at Environmental
DDT to combat malaria until safer alternatives become ScienceNow.
available.
Environmentalists consider the POPs treaty to be
an important milestone in international environmental The key to addressing the challenge of toxics use and wastes
rests on a fairly straightforward principle: harness the inno-
law because it uses the precautionary principle to man-
vation and technical ingenuity that has characterized the
age and reduce the risks from toxic chemicals. This list
chemicals industry from its beginning and channel these
is expected to grow as scientific studies uncover evi- qualities in a new direction that seeks to detoxify our economy.
dence of toxic and environmental damage from other
ANNE PLATT MCGINN
chemicals.
In 2000, the Swedish Parliament enacted a law
that by 2020 will ban all chemicals that are persistent CRITICAL THINKING
and can bioaccumulate in living tissue. This law also 1. Collect all of the trash (excluding food waste) that you
requires an industry to perform risk assessments on all generate in a typical week. Measure its total weight and
old and new chemicals and show that these chemicals volume. Sort it into major categories such as paper, plas-
are safe to use, as opposed to requiring the govern- tic, metal, and glass. Then weigh each category and cal-
ment to show that they are dangerous. In other words, culate the percentage by weight of the trash in each cate-
chemicals are assumed to be guilty until proven inno- gory. What percentage by weight of this waste consists of
cent—the reverse of the current policy in the United materials that could be recycled or reused? What percent-
States and most countries. There is strong opposition age by weight of the items could you have done without?
to this approach in the United States, especially by the Tally and compare the results for your entire class.
industries producing potentially dangerous chemicals. 2. Are you for or against bringing about an ecoindustrial
revolution in the country and community where you live?
Explain. Do you believe it will be possible to phase in
Solutions: Making the Transition to a Low- such a revolution over the next two to three decades?
Waste Society Explain. What are the three most important strategies for
A number of the principles and programs discussed in doing this?
this chapter can be used to make the transition to a 3. Are you for or against shifting to a service-flow economy
low-waste society during this century. based on eco-leasing in the country and community
where you live? Explain. Do you believe it will be possi- LEARNING ONLINE
ble to shift to such an economy over the next two to three
decades? Explain. What are the three most important The website for this book includes review questions for
strategies for doing this? the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
4. Would you oppose having a hazardous waste landfill, references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
waste treatment plant, deep-injection well, or incinerator InfoTrac ® College Edition articles.
in your community? Explain. If you oppose these dis- Visit
posal facilities, how do you believe the hazardous waste
generated in your community and your state should be http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11
managed? Then choose Chapter 17, and select a learning resource.
5. Give your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with For access to animations, additional quizzes, chapter out-
each of the following proposals for dealing with haz- lines and summaries, register and log in to
ardous waste:
a. Reduce the production of hazardous waste and en-
courage recycling and reuse of hazardous materials at esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 using the access code
by charging producers a tax or fee for each unit of card in the front of your book.
waste generated.
b. Ban all land disposal and incineration of hazardous
waste to encourage recycling, reuse, and treatment, Active Graphing
and to protect air, water, and soil from contamina-
tion. Visit http://esnow.brookscole.com/miller11 to
c. Provide low-interest loans, tax breaks, and other fi- explore the graphing exercise for this chapter.
nancial incentives to encourage industries produc-
ing hazardous waste to reduce, recycle, reuse, treat,
and decompose such waste.
6. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List
the three most important components of your strategy
for dealing with (a) solid waste and (b) hazardous waste.
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18 Environmental Economics,
Politics, and Worldviews
The main ingredients of an environmental ethic are caring ■ How can we shift to more environmentally
about the planet and all of its inhabitants, allowing unselfish- sustainable economies over the next few decades?
ness to control the immediate self-interest that harms others,
and living each day so as to leave the lightest possible foot-
■ How is environmental policy formulated in the
prints on the planet. United States?
ROBERT CAHN ■ What are some guidelines for making environmen-
tal policy? How can people affect such decisions?
This chapter examines the basic principles underlying
■ What are three major environmental worldviews?
environmental economics and environmental politics
and looks at three environmental worldviews that ■ How can we live more sustainably?
guide human behavior toward the environment. It ad-
dresses the following questions:
18-1 ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
■ How do neoclassical and ecological economists
AND SUSTAINABILITY
differ in their view of the earth’s economic
systems?
Economic Resources
■ How can we monitor environmental progress? An economic system produces goods and services by
■ What economic tools can we use to shift to full-cost using natural, human, and manufactured resources.
pricing? An economic system is a social institution through
■ How does poverty reduce environmental quality, which goods and services are produced, distributed,
and how can we reduce poverty? and consumed to satisfy people’s needs and unlimited
wants in the most efficient possible way. In a market-
based economic system, buyers (demanders) and sellers
KEY IDEAS (suppliers) interact in markets to make economic deci-
sions about which goods and services are produced,
■ Economists differ in their views about the impor- distributed, and consumed.
tance of natural capital and the long-term sustainabil- Three types of resources are used to produce
ity of economic growth. goods and services (Figure 18-2, p. 414). Natural re-
■ Environmentalists and many economists call for sources, or natural capital, includes the goods and ser-
prices of goods and services to include indirect envi- vices produced by the earth’s natural processes, which
ronmental, health, and other harmful costs associated support all economies and all life. (See Figure 1-3, p. 7,
with their production and use. They suggest removing and the Guest Essay on natural capital by Paul
environmentally harmful government subsidies and Hawken on the website for this chapter.) Human re-
tax breaks and shifting taxes from wages and profits to sources, or human capital, includes people’s physical
pollution and waste. and mental talents that provide labor, innovation, cul-
ture, and organization. Manufactured resources, or
■ Sharply cutting poverty can improve environmental
manufactured capital, includes items such as machin-
quality and human health.
ery, equipment, and factories made from natural re-
■ To shift to more environmentally sustainable sources with the help of human resources.
economies, we can design them to use the four prin-
ciples of sustainability found in nature.
Neoclassical, Environmental,
■ Most improvements in environmental quality result and Ecological Economists
from millions of citizens putting pressure on elected of-
Economists differ in their opinion of the importance
ficials and individuals developing innovative solutions
of natural capital and the long-term sustainability
to environmental problems.
of economic growth.
■ Planetary management, stewardship, and earth Neoclassical economists such as Milton Friedman and
wisdom are three major environmental worldviews Robert Samuelson view natural resources as important
■ The message of environmentalism is not gloom but not vital because of our ability to find substitutes
and doom, fear, and catastrophe, but rather hope, for scarce resources and ecosystem services. They also
a positive vision of the future, and a call for responsi- contend that continuing economic growth is necessary,
bility in dealing with the environmental challenges desirable, and essentially unlimited.
we face. Ecological economists such as Herman Daly and
Robert Costanza view economic systems as subsystems
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+ + =
Figure 18-2 Three types of resources are used to produce goods and services.
of the environment that depend heavily on the earth’s Taking the middle ground in this debate are en-
irreplaceable natural resources (Figure 18-3). They vironmental economists. They generally agree with eco-
point out that there are no substitutes for many natural logical economists that some forms of economic
resources, such as air, water, fertile soil, and biodiver- growth are not sustainable. At the same time, they be-
sity. They also believe that conventional economic lieve we can modify the principles of neoclassical eco-
growth eventually will become unsustainable because nomics and reform current economic systems, rather
it can deplete or degrade many of the natural resources than having to redesign them to provide more envi-
on which economic systems depend. ronmentally sustainable economic development.
Sun EARTH
Heat
Economic
Systems
Depletion of nonrenewable
Production resources
Natural
Capital
R e c y c li n g a n d r e u s e
Active Figure 18-3 Solutions: ecological economists see all economies as human subsystems that depend
on resources and services provided by the sun and the earth’s natural resources.
Ecological and environmental economists distin- ■ Use indicators that monitor economic and environ-
guish between unsustainable economic growth and mental health.
environmentally sustainable economic development ■ Include in the market prices of goods and services
(Figure 18-4).
their estimated harmful effects on the environment
Ecological and environmental economists call for
and human health (full-cost pricing).
making a shift from our current economy based on
unlimited economic growth to a more environmentally ■ Phase out environmentally harmful government
sustainable economy, or eco-economy, over the next sev- subsidies and tax breaks while increasing such subsi-
eral decades. See the Guest Essay on this topic by dies and breaks for environmentally friendly activi-
Herman Daly on the website for this chapter. Fig- ties, goods, and services.
ure 18-5 (p. 416) shows some of the goods and ser- ■ Lower taxes on income and wealth but increase
vices these economists would encourage in such an green taxes and fees— those levied on pollution, re-
eco-economy. source waste, and environmentally harmful goods
and services.
■ Pass laws and regulations to prevent pollution and
Learn more about how ecological economists view market- resource depletion in certain areas.
based systems, and contrast those views with conventional
economics at Environmental ScienceNow. ■ Use tradable permits or rights to pollute or use re-
sources to limit overall pollution and resource use in
given areas.
Ecological and environmental economists have ■ Reduce poverty, one of the basic causes of resource
suggested several strategies to help make the transi-
depletion and pollution.
tion to a more sustainable eco-economy over the next
several decades: Let’s look at these proposed solutions in more detail.
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Production of
energy-efficient
fuel-cell cars
Underground CO2
Forest storage using
conservation abandoned oil wells
High-speed trains
No-till
cultivation
Deep-sea
Solar-cell CO2 storage
fields
Bicycling
Recycling
plant
Water
conservation
Recycling, reuse,
and composting
Figure 18-5 Solutions: Some components of the more environmentally sustainable economic development
favored by ecological economists, environmental economists, and environmental scientists. The goal is to have
economic systems that put more emphasis on conserving and sustaining the air, water, soil, biodiversity, and
other natural resources that sustain all life and all economies.
added to the GDP. Examples include unpaid volunteer All economic goods and services have internal or direct
work, health care for family members, child care, and costs associated with producing them. For example, if
housework. Then the estimated harmful environmen- you buy a car, the direct price you pay includes the costs
tal costs (such as pollution and resource depletion and of raw materials, labor, and shipping, as well as a
degradation) and social costs (such as crime) are sub- markup to allow the car company and its dealers to earn
tracted from the GDP. some profits. Once you buy the car, you must pay addi-
tional direct costs for gasoline, maintenance, and repair.
Genuine benefits not harmful
progress GDP included in environmental
Making, distributing, and using economic goods
indicator market transactions and social costs or services also lead to indirect or external costs that are
not included in their market prices and that affect peo-
Figure 18-6 compares the per capita GDP and GPI ple other than the buyer and seller. For example, ex-
for the United States between 1950 and 2002. While the tracting and processing raw materials to make a car
per capita GDP rose sharply over this period, the per use nonrenewable energy and mineral resources, pro-
capita GPI stayed nearly flat and even declined slightly duce solid and hazardous wastes, disturb land, and
between 1975 and 2002. pollute the air and water. These external costs can have
The GPI and other environmental indicators un- short- and long-term harmful effects on other people
der development are far from perfect and include and on the earth’s life-support systems.
many crude estimates. Nevertheless, without such in- Because these costs are not included in the market
dicators, we would not know much about what is hap- price, most people do not connect them with car own-
pening to people, the environment, and the planet’s ership. Even so, the car buyer and other people in a so-
natural capital. With them, we have a way to deter- ciety pay these hidden costs sooner or later, in the form
mine which policies work. In essence, according to of poorer health, higher costs of health care and insur-
ecological and environmental economists, if we ignore ance, higher taxes for pollution control, traffic conges-
these indicators, we attempt to guide national and tion, and land used for highways and parking.
global economies through treacherous economic and
environmental waters at ever-increasing speeds using
Full-Cost Pricing
faulty radar.
Including external costs in market prices informs
consumers about the impacts that their purchases
Internal and External Costs have on the earth’s life-support systems and human
The direct price you pay for something does not health.
include indirect environmental, health, and other For most economists, an environmentally honest market
harmful costs associated with its production system provides a way to deal with the harmful costs of
and use. goods and services. In this system, the harmful indi-
rect or external costs of goods and services are in-
cluded in the market price of any good or service, so
35,000 that its price comes as close as possible to its full
cost—its internal costs plus its external costs. Such a
30,000 system would allow consumers to make more in-
formed choices because they would be aware of most
1996 Dollars per person
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First, many producers of harmful and wasteful Green Taxes and Fees and Tax Shifting
goods would have to charge more, and some would go Taxes and fees on pollution and resource use can take
out of business. Naturally, they oppose such pricing. us closer to full-cost pricing, and shifting taxes from
Second, it is difficult to put a price tag on many en- wages and profits to pollution and waste helps makes
vironmental and health costs. But to ecological and en- this feasible.
vironmental economists, making the best possible esti-
Another way to discourage pollution and resource
mates is far better than not including such costs in
waste is to use green taxes to include many of the harm-
what we pay for most goods and services.
ful environmental costs of production and consump-
tion in market prices. Taxes can be levied on a per-unit
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Should full-cost pricing be used
in setting the market prices of goods and services? Cast your
basis on the amount of pollution produced and the
amount of hazardous or nuclear waste produced, and
vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
on the use of fossil fuels, timber, and minerals. Higher
fees can also be charged for extracting lumber and
Phasing in such a system will require government minerals from public lands, using water provided by
action. Few companies will volunteer to reduce their government-financed projects, and using public lands
short-term profits in an effort to become more environ- for livestock grazing. Figure 18-7 lists advantages and
mentally responsible. Governments can use several disadvantages of using green taxes and fees.
strategies to encourage or force producers to work to-
ward full-cost pricing, including phasing out environ-
mentally harmful subsidies, levying taxes on envi-
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do the advantages of relying
more on environmental or green taxes and fees to reduce pol-
ronmentally harmful goods and services, passing lution and resource waste outweigh their disadvantages? Cast
laws to regulate pollution and resource depletion, and your vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
using tradable permits for reducing pollution or re-
source use.
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Confronts ethical
Administrative costs
high with many
participants
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do the advantages of using trad-
able pollution and resource-use permits to reduce pollution
problem of how and resource waste outweigh the disadvantages? Cast your
much pollution or Emissions and
resource waste is resource wastes vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
acceptable must be monitored
Self-monitoring can
promote cheating Eco-Labeling
Confronts
problem of how Sets bad example by Labeling environmentally beneficial goods and
permits should selling legal rights to resources extracted by more sustainable methods can
be fairly pollute or waste
distributed resources help consumers decide which goods and services to
buy.
Product eco-labeling can encourage companies to de-
Figure 18-9 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of us- velop green products and services and help consumers
ing tradable resource-use permits to reduce pollution and re-
source waste. Critical thinking: pick the single advantage and
select more environmentally beneficial products and
disadvantage that you think are the most important. services. Eco-labeling programs have been developed
in Europe, Japan, Canada, and the United States (for
example, the Green Seal labeling program that has cer-
tified more than 300 products; see Figure 18-10).
Figure 18-10 Solutions: symbols used in some eco-labeling programs that evaluate green or environmentally
favorable products.
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and human well-being. Poverty is also sustained by According to the United Nations Development
corruption, the absence of property rights, insufficient Program (UNDP), it will cost about $50 billion per
legal protection, and the inability of many people to year to provide universal access to basic services such
borrow money to grow crops or start a small business. as education, health, nutrition, family planning, safe
water, and sanitation. This amount is less than 0.1% of
the world’s annual income and a mere fraction of what
Solutions: Reducing Poverty
the world devotes each year to military spending (Fig-
We can sharply cut poverty by forgiving the ure 18-13).
international debts of the poorest countries and
greatly increasing international aid and small
individual loans to help the poor help themselves. Solutions: Making the Transition
to an Eco-Economy
Analysts point out that reducing poverty will require
the governments of most developing countries to An eco-economy copies nature’s four principles of
make policy changes. For example, they need to shift sustainability and uses various economic strategies to
more of the national budget to help the rural and ur- help implement full-cost pricing.
ban poor work their way out of poverty. They also An eco-economy mimics the processes that sustain
need to give villages, villagers, and the urban poor the earth’s natural systems (Figure 6-19, p. 126). Fig-
title to common lands and to crops and trees they plant ure 18-14 lists principles that Paul Hawken and other
on them. business leaders and economists have suggested for
One way to help reduce global poverty might be to using the sustainability strategies and economic tools
forgive at least 60% of the $2.4 trillion debt that devel- discussed in this chapter to make the transition to
oping countries owe to developed countries and inter- more environmentally sustainable economies over the
national lending agencies, and all of the $422 billion next several decades. Hawken has a simple golden
debt of the poorest and most heavily indebted coun- rule for such an economy: “Leave the world better than
tries. This would be done on the condition that the you found it, take no more than you need, try not to harm
money saved on interest debt be devoted to meeting life or the environment, and make amends if you do.”
basic human needs. Currently, de-
veloping countries pay almost $300
Expenditures per year (2003)
billion per year in interest to devel-
oped countries to service their debt. World military $956 billion
Developed countries can also
take the following steps: U.S. military $449 billion
■ Increase nonmilitary govern-
U.S. highways $29 billion
ment and private aid, with mecha-
nisms to assure that most of it
U.S. pet foods $12 billion
goes directly to the poor to help
them become more self-reliant
U.S. EPA $8 billion
and to help provide social safety
nets such as welfare, unemploy- U.S. foreign aid $8 billion
ment payments, and pension
benefits U.S. cosmetics $8 billion
■ Mount a massive global effort
to combat malnutrition and the in-
fectious diseases that kill millions Expenditures per year needed to
Eliminate
of people prematurely and help hunger and $19 billion
perpetuate poverty malnutrition
■ Have lending agencies make Provide clean
small loans to poor people who drinking water $12 billion
for all
want to increase their income (see
Provide basic
Solutions, p. 423) health care $11 billion
■ Make investments in small- for all
scale infrastructure such as solar- Protect
Figure 18-13 Ethics: what should our prior-
cell power facilities in villages tropical $8 billion
forests ities be? (Data from United Nations, World
(Figure 13-34, p. 316), small-scale Health Organization, U.S. Department of
irrigation projects, and farm-to- Eliminate Commerce, and U.S. Office of Management
$5 billion
market roads illiteracy and Budget)
Most of the world’s own small businesses as seam- by the Grameen Bank are being
poor desperately stresses, weavers, bookbinders, or used to develop day-care centers,
want to earn more, vendors. health clinics, reforestation projects,
become more self- To stimulate repayment and drinking-water supply projects,
SOLUTIONS reliant, and have a provide support, the Grameen Bank literacy programs, and group insur-
better life. But they organizes microborrowers into five- ance programs. Microloans are also
have no credit record. Also, they member “solidarity” groups. If being used to bring small-scale solar
have few assets to use for collateral one member of the group misses a and wind power systems to rural
to secure a loan to buy seeds and fer- weekly payment or defaults on the villages.
tilizer for farming or tools and mate- loan, the other members of the Grameen’s model has inspired
rials for a small business. group must make the payments. the development of microcredit
During the last 28 years, an in- The Grameen Bank’s experience projects in more than 58 countries
novation called microlending, or mi- has shown that microlending is that have reached 36 million people
crofinance, has helped deal with both successful and profitable. For (including dependents), and the
this problem. For example, since example, fewer than 3% of micro- number is growing rapidly.
economist Muhammad Yunus loan repayments to the Grameen
started it in 1976, the Grameen Bank are late, and the repayment
Critical Thinking
(Village) Bank in Bangladesh has rate on its loans is an astounding
provided more than $4 billion in 90–95%. Why do you think international de-
microloans (ranging from $50 to About half of Grameen’s borrow- velopment and lending agencies
$500) to several million mostly ers move above the poverty line such as the World Bank and the
poor, rural, and landless women in within five years, and domestic vio- International Monetary Fund have
40,000 villages. About 94% of the lence, divorce, and birth rates are largely ignored microloans? How
loans go to women who start their lower among borrowers. Microloans would you change this situation?
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Environmental Leadership
Figure 18-16 Individuals matter: ways you can influence envi-
Each of us can play a leadership role in establishing ronmental policy. Critical thinking: which three of these actions
and changing environmental policy. do you believe are the most important? Which things in this list
do you do or plan to do?
Each of us can provide environmental leadership in
four ways. First, we can lead by example, using our own
lifestyle to show others that change is possible and Third, we can run for some sort of local office. Look in
beneficial. the mirror. Maybe you are one who can make a differ-
Second, we can work within existing economic and ence as an office holder.
political systems to bring about environmental improve- Fourth, we can propose and work for better solutions
ment. We can influence political decisions by cam- to environmental problems. Leadership is more than be-
paigning and voting for candidates and by commu- ing against something. It also involves coming up with
nicating with elected officials. We can also send a better ways to accomplish goals and persuading peo-
message to companies making harmful environment ple to work together to achieve such goals. If we care
products or policies by voting with our wallets and let- enough, each of us can make a difference.
ting them know what choices we have made. In addi-
tion, we can work within the system by choosing envi-
Case Study: Environmental Policy in the
ronmental careers.
United States
Figure 18-15 Global Formulating, legislating, and executing
outlook: democracy environmental policy in the United States is a
in action. Anti-logging complex, lengthy, and controversial process.
demonstration in the
Philippines. Deforesta- The major function of the federal government in the
tion caused by com- United States (and in other democratic countries) is to
mercial and illegal log- develop and implement policy for dealing with various
ging led to flash floods issues. Policy is typically composed of various laws
that wreaked havoc on
passed by the legislative branch, regulations instituted
towns and communi-
ties near rivers. In one by the executive branch to put laws into effect, and
night, 7,000 people funding to implement and enforce the laws and regula-
lost their lives from tions and oversight of the process by the judicial
such floods. branch. Figure 18-17 (p. 426) presents a greatly simpli-
Nigel Dickinson/Peter Arnold, Inc.
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Lobbyists Lobbyists
Lawmaking body
Public hearing
Special-interest groups
Laws and
regulations
Lawyers Lawyers
Membership support
Boycotts
Individual
Purchase recyclable, Recycle cans, Plant a Donate clothes Use water, energy, Use mass transit,
recycled, and environmentally bottles, paper, garden and used goods and other walk, ride a bike,
safe products and plastic to charities resources efficiently or carpool
Figure 18-17 Individuals matter: greatly simplified overview of how individuals and lobbyists for and against
a particular environmental law interact with the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the U.S. gov-
ernment. The bottom of this diagram also shows some ways in which individuals can bring about environmen-
tal change through their own lifestyles. See the website for this book for details on contacting your elected
representatives.
Passing an environmental law is not enough to Politics plays an important role in the policies
make policy. The next step involves trying to get and staffing of environmental regulatory agencies—
enough funds appropriated to implement and enforce depending on which political party is in power and
each law. Indeed, developing and adopting a budget is which environmental attitudes prevail at the time.
the most important and controversial activity of the Industries facing environmental regulations often put
executive and legislative branches. political pressure on regulatory agencies and lobby to
Once a law has been passed and funded, the ap- have the president appoint people to high positions in
propriate government department or agency must such agencies who come from the industries being
draw up regulations for implementing it. An affected regulated. In other words, the regulated try to take
group may take the agency to court for failing to im- over the agencies and become the regulators—de-
plement and enforce the regulations or for enforcing scribed by some as “putting foxes in charge of the
them too rigidly. henhouse.”
In addition, people in regulatory agencies work 1969 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
closely with and often develop friendships with
officials in the industries they are regulating. Some 1970 Clean Air Act
Mainline and Grassroots 1980 Superfund (CERCLA); National Energy Act Amendments;
Coastal Zone Management Act Amendments
Environmental Groups
1981
Environmental groups monitor environmental
activities, work to pass and strengthen 1982 Endangered Species Act Amendments
environmental laws, and work with corporations
1983
to find solutions to environmental problems.
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendment Act (SARA);
The spearhead of the global conservation and environ- 1984
Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments
mental movement consists of more than 100,000 non-
1985 Endangered Species Act Amendments
profit NGOs working at the international, national,
state, and local levels—up from about 2,000 such 1986 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
groups in 1970. The growing influence of these organi-
zations is one of the most important changes related to 1987 Clean Water Act Amendments
environmental decisions and policies. 1988 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
NGOs range from grassroots groups that have Act Amendments; Endangered Species Act Amendments
just a few members to global organizations like the 1989
5-million-member World Wide Fund for Nature,
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments; Reauthorization of Superfund;
which has offices in 48 countries. Other international Waste Reduction Act
groups with large memberships include Greenpeace, 1991
the World Wildlife Fund, the Nature Conservancy,
1992 Energy Policy Act
Grameen Bank (see Solutions, p. 423), and Conserva-
tion International. 1993
In the United States, more than 8 million citizens
belong to more than 30,000 NGOs dealing with envi- 1994
ronmental issues. They range from small grassroots 1995 Endangered Species Act Amendments
groups to large heavily funded groups, the latter staffed
by expert lawyers, scientists, and economists. 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments
The large groups have become powerful and im-
portant forces within the political system. They have Figure 18-18 Solutions: some major environmental laws and
persuaded Congress to pass and strengthen environ- their amended versions enacted in the United States since
1969. A more detailed list is found on the website for this
mental laws (Figure 18-18) and work to fight off at-
chapter.
tempts to weaken or repeal such laws.
Some industries and environmental groups are
working together to find solutions to environmental The base of the environmental movement in the
problems. For example, the Environmental Defense United States and throughout the world consists of
has worked with McDonald’s to redesign its pack- thousands of grassroots citizens’ groups organized to
aging system to eliminate its plastic hamburger con- improve environmental quality, often at the local level.
tainers, and with General Motors to remove high- According to political analyst Konrad von Moltke,
pollution cars from the road. “There isn’t a government in the world that would
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Figure 18-19
Solutions: positions
of several major envi- Recognition Formulation Implementation Control
ronmental problems Identify the problem. Look for solutions. Implement solutions. Things are improving.
in the policy life cycle
in most developed Nonpoint-source Global warming Acid deposition Outdoor air pollution
countries. water pollution
Urban sprawl Ozone depletion Sewage treatment
Indoor air pollution
Nuclear wastes Municipal solid waste Drinking water
Reuse treatment
Biodiversity protection Protecting
Mining wastes endangered Point-source water
Pollution prevention species pollution
Groundwater
contamination Toxic wastes Pest control Recycling
have done anything for the environment if it weren’t marches, tree sitting (see Individuals Matter, p. 166),
for the citizen groups.” and other devices for generating publicity to help edu-
Taken together, a loosely connected worldwide cate and sway members of the public to oppose vari-
network of grassroots NGOs working for bottom-up ous environmentally harmful activities. Much more
political, social, economic, and environmental change controversial are militant environmental groups that
can be viewed as an emerging citizen-based global sus- use violent means to achieve their ends. Most environ-
tainability movement. The Internet is informing and mentalists oppose such tactics.
connecting a global citizenry as people begin collabo-
rating to bring about environmental, social, and eco- x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Do you support the use of
nonviolent and nondestructive civil disobedience tactics
nomic change from the bottom up. Top-down control
by some environmental groups? Cast your vote online at
by corporations and governments is being weakened.
http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
As environmental educator David W. Orr puts it, “It is
not possible for long to organize our affairs around
greed, illusion, and ill will.
Case Study: Environmental Action
These groups have worked with individuals and
by Students in the United States
communities to oppose harmful projects such as
landfills, waste incinerators, nuclear waste dumps, Many student environmental groups work to bring
clear-cutting of forests (Figure 18-15), pollution from about environmental improvements in their schools
factories and refineries, and a variety of development and local communities.
projects. They have also taken action against environ- Since 1988, there has been a boom in environmental
mental injustice. (See the Guest Essay on this topic by awareness on college campuses and in public schools
Robert D. Bullard on the website for this chapter.) across the United States. Most student environmental
Grassroots groups have formed land trusts and other groups work with members of the faculty and admin-
local organizations to save wetlands, forests, farm- istration to bring about environmental improvements
land, and ranchland from development and have in their schools and local communities.
helped restore forests (see Individuals Matter, p. 172), Many of these groups make environmental audits of
degraded rivers, and wetlands. their campuses or schools. They use the data gathered
Some grassroots environmental groups use the in this way to propose changes that will make their
nonviolent and nondestructive tactics of protest campus or school more environmentally sustainable,
usually saving money in the process. As a result, stu- ments made in environmental understanding and sup-
dents have helped convince almost 80% of universities port for environmental concerns in the United States.
and colleges in the United States to develop recycling Three major groups are strongly opposed to many en-
programs. vironmental proposals, laws, and regulations. First,
Students at Oberlin College in Ohio helped design leaders of some corporations and people in positions
a more sustainable environmental studies building. of economic and political power see environmental
At Northland College in Wisconsin, students helped laws and regulations as threats to their wealth and
design a “green” dorm that features a large wind gen- power. Second, some citizens see environmental laws
erator, panels of solar cells, recycled furniture, and wa- and regulations as threats to their private property
terless (composting) toilets. rights and jobs. Third, some state and local govern-
At Minnesota’s St. Olaf College, students have car- ment officials are tired of having to implement federal
ried out sustainable agriculture and ecological restora- environmental laws and regulations without federal
tion projects. At Temple University in Philadelphia, funding (unfunded mandates) or disagree with certain
students passed a resolution expressing a willingness regulations.
to pay an extra fee if the school gets much of its elec- One problem is that the focus of environmental is-
tricity from wind power. sues has shifted from easy-to-see dirty smokestacks
Students also recognize that college campuses are and burning rivers to more complex and controversial
major polluters. A recent Yale University study re- environmental problems such as climate change and
ported that the school emits more greenhouse gases biodiversity loss. Explaining such complex issues to
than 32 developing countries. Students at Columbia the public and mobilizing support for often controver-
University are pressuring the New York legislature to sial, long-range solutions to such problems is difficult.
cap carbon dioxide emissions and the university to See the Guest Essay on environmental reporting by
make more socially and environmentally investments Andrew C. Revkin on the website for this chapter.
with its endowment funds.
Such student-spurred environmental activities
Solutions: Developing Environmentally
and research studies are spreading to universities in at
Sustainable Political and Economic Systems
least 42 other countries. See Noel Perrin’s Guest Essay
on environmental activities at U.S. colleges on this We need to work together to find and implement
chapter’s website. innovative solutions to local, national, and global
environmental, economic, and social problems.
Many environmentalists call for people from all politi-
How Successful Have U.S. Environmental
cal persuasions and walks of life to work together to
Groups and Their Opponents Been?
develop a positive vision for a transition to more en-
Environmental groups have helped educate the vironmentally sustainable societies and economies
public and business and political leaders about throughout the world.
environmental issues and pass environmental laws, A major goal is to promote the development of
but an organized movement has undermined many creative experiments at local levels—such as the one in
of these efforts. Curitiba, Brazil (p. 152)—that could be implemented
Since 1970, a variety of environmental groups in the in other areas over the next few decades. A second goal
United States and other countries have helped in- is to get citizens, business leaders, and elected officials
crease public understanding of environmental issues to cooperate in trying to find and implement innova-
and have gained public support for an array of envi- tive solutions to local, national, and global environ-
ronmental and resource-use laws in the United States mental, economic, and social problems.
and other countries. In addition, they have helped in- According to business leader Paul Hawken, mak-
dividuals deal with a number of local environmental ing a cultural shift to more environmentally sustain-
problems. able societies over the next 50 years
Polls show that about 80% of the U.S. public
means thinking big and long into the future. It also
strongly supports environmental laws and regulations
means doing something now. It means electing people
and does not want them weakened. Polls also show
who really want to make things work, and who can
that less than 10% of the U.S. public views the environ-
imagine a better world. It means writing to companies
ment as one of the nation’s most pressing problems. As
and telling them what you think. It means never for-
a result, environmental concerns often do not get
getting that the cash register is the daily voting booth
transferred to the ballot box. As one political scientist
in democratic capitalism.
put it, “Environmental concerns are like the Florida
Everglades, a mile wide but only a few inches deep.” Several guidelines have been suggested for foster-
Since 1980, a well-organized and well-funded ing cooperation instead of confrontation as we deal
movement has also undermined much of the improve- with important environmental problems.
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First, recognize that business is not the enemy. fabric deteriorate, and its political structure become
Businesses want to make money for their investors and destabilized as growing numbers of people seek to sus-
stockholders. Why not reward them while simultane- tain themselves from declining resource stocks. Thus,
ously encouraging new environmental innovations by national security is no longer about fighting forces and
shifting government subsidies from earth-degrading weaponry alone. It relates increasingly to watersheds,
activities to earth-sustaining activities and by shifting croplands, forests, genetic resources, climate, and other
taxes from income and wealth to pollution and re- factors that, taken together, are as crucial to a nation’s
source waste? In this way, environmentalists and lead- security as are military factors.
ers of corporations could become partners in a joint
Proponents of Myers’ view call for all countries to
quest for environmental and economic sustainability.
make environmental security a major focus of diplo-
Second, shift the emphasis from dealing with en-
macy and government policy at all levels. This perspec-
vironmental problems after the fact to preventing or
tive would be implemented by a council of advisers
minimizing them.
made up of highly qualified experts in environmental,
Third, use well-designed and carefully monitored
economic, and military security who integrate all three
marketplace solutions to prevent most environmental
security concerns in making major decisions. Propo-
problems instead of relying primarily on laws, regula-
nents note that failure to protect chemical and nuclear
tions, and litigation.
plants and water supplies from terrorist acts can lead to
Fourth, cooperate and innovate to find win-win so-
serious environmental harm.
lutions to environmental problems instead of using
Likewise, acting to prevent pollution and reduce
confrontational tactics to come up with less effective I-
resource waste can improve economic and environ-
win-you-lose solutions in which the earth always ends
mental security. For example, reducing dependence on
up losing.
imported oil by improving gas mileage saves con-
Fifth, stop exaggerating. People on both sides of
sumers money, reduces air pollution, helps slow global
thorny environmental issues should take a vow not to
warming, and improves military security by reducing
exaggerate or distort their positions in attempts to play
the need for troops from oil-addicted countries to help
win-lose or winner-take-all environmental games.
protect Middle East oil supplies.
There are trade-offs in any environmental decision—as
presented throughout this book—so they must work
together to find balanced win-win solutions that are
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Is environmental security just as
important as economic and military security? Cast your vote
implemented in a flexible and adaptive manner. online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11.
In working to make the earth a better place to live,
we should be guided by historian Arnold Toynbee’s ob-
servation, “If you make the world ever so little better,
you will have done splendidly, and your life will have Global Outlook: International
been worthwhile,” and by George Bernard Shaw’s re- Environmental Organizations
minder that “indifference is the essence of inhumanity.” International environmental organizations
In the end, it comes back to each of us taking respon- gather and evaluate environmental data, help
sibility. We must decide whether we want to be part of develop environmental treaties, and provide
the problem or part of the solution to the environmen- funds and loans for sustainable economic
tal challenges we face. development.
A variety of international environmental organizations
help shape and set environmental policy. Perhaps the
18-5 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL most influential is the United Nations, the umbrella
POLICY that shelters a large family of organizations such as
the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the World
National and Global Security Health Organization (WHO), the UN Development
Many analysts believe that environmental security is Programme (UNDP), and the Food and Agriculture
as important as military and economic security. Organization (FAO).
Countries are legitimately concerned with military se- Other organizations that make or influence envi-
curity and economic security. However, ecologists and ronmental decisions include the World Bank, the
many economists point out that all economies are sup- Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the World
ported by the earth’s natural capital (Figure 1-9, p. 13). Conservation Union (IUCN).
According to environmental expert Norman These and other organizations have played impor-
Myers, tant roles in
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E nv i ro n m e n t a l Wo r l d v i e w s
populations of species are capable, through evolution 18-7 LIVING MORE SUSTAINABLY
and speciation, of adapting to changing environmental
conditions. Environmental Literacy
Some people believe we must go beyond focusing Environmentally literate citizens and leaders are
mostly on species. According to these people, we have needed to build more environmentally sustainable
an ethical responsibility not to degrade the earth’s and just societies.
ecosystems, biodiversity, and biosphere for this and
Most environmentalists believe that learning how
future generations of humans and other species. This
to live more sustainably requires a foundation of en-
earth-centered, or ecocentric, environmental worldview
vironmental education. They cite the key goals of envi-
is devoted to preserving the earth’s biodiversity and
ronmental education or ecological literacy:
the functioning of its life-support systems for all forms
of life. ■ Develop respect or reverence for all life.
One earth-centered worldview is called the envi- ■ Understand as much as we can about how the
ronmental wisdom worldview. Figure 18-21 (right) earth works and sustains itself, and use such knowl-
summarizes its major beliefs. In many respects, it is edge to guide our lives, communities, and societies.
the opposite of the planetary management worldview
■ Look for connections within the biosphere and be-
(Figure 18-21, left). According to this worldview, we
tween our actions and the biosphere.
are part of—not apart from—the community of life
and the ecological processes that sustain all life (Fig- ■ Use critical thinking skills to become seekers of en-
ure 18-22). vironmental wisdom instead of overfilled vessels of
This worldview suggests that the earth does not environmental information.
need us managing it to go on, whereas we do need the ■ Understand and evaluate our environmental
earth to survive. We cannot save the earth because it worldview and see this as a lifelong process.
does not need saving. What we need to save is the ex- ■ Learn how to evaluate the beneficial and harmful
istence of our own species and other species that may consequences to the earth of our choices of lifestyle
become extinct because of our activities. See Lester and profession, today and in the future.
Milbrath’s Guest Essay on this topic on the website for ■ Foster a desire to make the world a better place
this chapter.
and act on this desire.
x H OW W OULD Y OU V OTE ? Which of the following comes
closest to your environmental worldview: planetary manage-
Specifically, an ecologically literate person should
have a basic comprehension of the following:
ment, stewardship, or environmental wisdom? Cast your vote
online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller11. ■ Concepts such as environmental sustainability, nat-
ural capital, exponential growth, carrying capacity,
and risks and risk analysis
■ Environmental history (to help keep us from re-
peating past mistakes)
■ The laws of thermodynamics and the law of con-
servation of matter
■ Basic principles of ecology
■ Human population dynamics
■ Sustainable cities and design
■ Ways to sustain biodiversity
■ Sustainable agriculture and forestry
■ Soil conservation
■ Sustainable water use
Courtesy of Earth Flag Co.
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gion and philosophy. Yet, this message is preached in- philosophy, solutions, and scientific information be-
cessantly by modern advertising, which encourages us fore doing anything), and faith in simple, easy answers.
to buy more and more things. As humorist Will Rogers They also urge us to keep our empowering feelings
put it, “Too many people spend money they haven’t of hope slightly ahead of our immobilizing feelings of
earned to buy things they don’t want, to impress peo- despair.
ple they don’t like.” Recognizing that no single correct or best solution
Some affluent people in developed countries are to the environmental problems we face exists is also
adopting a lifestyle of voluntary simplicity, doing and important. Indeed, one of nature’s most important
enjoying more with less by learning to live more simply. lessons is that preserving diversity—in this case, being
Voluntary simplicity is based on Mahatma Gandhi’s flexible and adaptable in trying a variety of solutions
principle of enoughness: “The earth provides enough to to our problems—is the best way to adapt to the earth’s
satisfy every person’s need but not every person’s largely unpredictable, ever-changing conditions.
greed. . . . When we take more than we need, we are Finally, we should have fun and take time to enjoy
simply taking from each other, borrowing from the fu- life. Laugh every day and enjoy nature, beauty, friend-
ture, or destroying the environment and other species.” ship, and love. This empowers us to become good
As environmental educator David W. Orr puts it, “We earth citizens who practice good earthkeeping.
do not have to rob the world and steal from our children
to live well.”
Components of the Sustainability Revolution
Most of the world’s major religions have similar
teachings. “Why do you spend your money for that The message of environmentalism is not gloom and
which is not bread, and your labor for that which does doom, fear, and catastrophe, but rather hope, a
not satisfy?” (Christianity: Old Testament, Isaiah 55:2). positive vision of the future, and a call for
“Eat and drink, but waste not by excess” (Islam: Koran commitment in dealing with the environmental
7.31). “One should abstain from acquisitiveness” (Hin- challenges we face.
duism: Acarangastura 2.119). “He who knows he has The environmental or sustainability revolution that many
enough is rich” (Taoism: Tao Te Ching, Chapter 33). environmental scientists and environmentalists call for
Implementing this principle means asking your- us to achieve during this century would have several
self, “How much is enough?” This is not easy because interrelated components:
people in affluent societies are conditioned to want ■ A biodiversity protection revolution devoted to pro-
more and more.
tecting and sustaining the genes, species, natural sys-
tems, and chemical and biological processes that make
Becoming Better Environmental Citizens up the earth’s biodiversity
We can help make the world a better place by not ■ An efficiency revolution that minimizes the wasting
falling into mental traps that lead to denial and of matter and energy resources
inaction and by keeping our empowering feelings of ■ An energy revolution based on decreasing our de-
hope slightly ahead of our immobilizing feelings of pendence on carbon-based, nonrenewable fossil fuels
despair. and increasing our dependence on forms of renewable
We all make some direct or indirect contributions to energy such as the wind, sun, flowing water, and geo-
the environmental problems we face. However, be- thermal energy
cause we do not want to feel guilty about the environ- ■ A pollution prevention revolution that reduces pollu-
mental harm we may be creating, we try not to think tion and environmental degradation from harmful
about this issue too much—a path that can lead to de- chemicals
nial and inaction. ■ A sufficiency revolution dedicated to meeting the ba-
Analysts suggest that we move beyond fear, de-
sic needs of all people on the planet while affluent soci-
nial, apathy, and guilt to more responsible environ-
eties learn to live more sustainably by living with less
mental actions in our daily lives by recognizing and
avoiding common mental traps that lead to denial, in- ■ A demographic revolution based on bringing the size
difference, and inaction. These traps include gloom- and growth rate of the human population into balance
and-doom pessimism (it is hopeless), blind technological with the earth’s ability to support humans and other
optimism (science and technofixes will save us), fatalism species sustainably
(we have no control over our actions and the future), ■ An economic and political revolution in which we use
extrapolation to infinity (if I cannot change the entire economic systems to reward environmentally benefi-
world quickly, I will not try to change any of it), paraly- cial behavior and discourage environmentally harm-
sis by analysis (searching for the perfect worldview, ful behavior
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We possess an incredible array of scientific, tech- 4. What are the greatest strengths and weaknesses of the
nological, and economic solutions to the environmen- system of government in your country with respect to
tal problems we face. Our challenge is to implement (a) protecting the environment and (b) ensuring environ-
such solutions by converting environmental knowl- mental justice for all? What three major changes, if any,
edge, wisdom, and beliefs into political action. would you make in this system?
This requires understanding that individuals mat- 5. This chapter summarized several different environ-
ter. Virtually all of the environmental progress we mental worldviews. Go through these worldviews and
have made during the last few decades occurred be- find the beliefs you agree with to describe your own en-
cause individuals banded together to insist that we vironmental worldview. Which of your beliefs were
can do better. added or modified as a result of taking this course?
This journey begins in your own community, be- 6. Would you (or do you already) use the principle of
cause in the final analysis all sustainability is local. We voluntary simplicity in your life? How?
help make the world more sustainable by working to 7. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following
make our local communities more sustainable. This ideas:
endeavor begins with your own lifestyle. It is the a. Everyone has the right to have as many children as
meaning of the motto: “Think globally, act locally.” they want.
It is an incredibly exciting time to be alive as we b. Each member of the human species has a right to
struggle to implement such ideals by entering into a use as many resources as they want.
new relationship with the earth that keeps us all alive c. Individuals should have the right to do anything
and supports our economies. they want with land they own.
Envision the earth’s life-sustaining processes as a d. Other species exist to be used by humans.
e. All forms of life have an intrinsic value and there-
beautiful and diverse web of interrelationships—a
fore have a right to exist.
kaleidoscope of patterns, rhythms, and connections
Are your answers consistent with the beliefs making up
whose very complexity and multitude of possibilities your environmental worldview that you described in
remind us that cooperation, sharing, honesty, humility, Question 5?
compassion, and love should be the guidelines for our
behavior toward one another and toward the earth.
LEARNING ONLINE
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PROVERBS 29:18 the entire chapter, flash cards for key terms and concepts,
a multiple-choice practice quiz, interesting Internet sites,
references, and a guide for accessing thousands of
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meet your basic needs and those that satisfy your wants.
Identify any economic wants (a) you would be willing to
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S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 1
UNITS OF MEASURE
LENGTH Metric–English
Metric 1 liter (L) 0.265 gallon (gal)
1 kilometer (km) 1,000 meters (m) 1 liter (L) 1.06 quarts (qt)
1 meter (m) 100 centimeters (cm) 1 liter (L) 0.0353 cubic foot (ft3)
1 meter (m) 1,000 millimeters (mm) 1 cubic meter (m3) 35.3 cubic feet (ft3)
1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 meter (m) 1 cubic meter (m3) 1.30 cubic yards (yd3)
1 millimeter (mm) 0.001 meter (m) 1 cubic kilometer (km3) 0.24 cubic mile (mi3)
1 barrel (bbl) 159 liters (L)
English 1 barrel (bbl) 42 U.S. gallons (gal)
1 foot (ft) 12 inches (in)
1 yard (yd) 3 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) 5,280 feet (ft)
MASS
1 nautical mile 1.15 miles
Metric
Metric–English 1 kilogram (kg) 1,000 grams (g)
1 kilometer (km) 0.621 mile (mi) 1 gram (g) 1,000 milligrams (mg)
1 meter (m) 39.4 inches (in) 1 gram (g) 1,000,000 micrograms (g)
1 inch (in) 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 milligram (mg) 0.001 gram (g)
1 foot (ft) 0.305 meter (m) 1 microgram (g) 0.000001 gram (g)
1 yard (yd) 0.914 meter (m) 1 metric ton (mt) 1,000 kilograms (kg)
1 nautical mile 1.85 kilometers (km)
English
1 ton (t) 2,000 pounds (lb)
AREA 1 pound (lb) 16 ounces (oz)
Metric
Metric–English
1 square kilometer (km2) 1,000,000 square meters (m2)
1 metric ton (mt) 2,200 pounds (lb) 1.1 tons (t)
1 square meter (m2) 1,000,000 square millimeters (mm2)
1 kilogram (kg) 2.20 pounds (lb)
1 hectare (ha) 10,000 square meters (m2)
1 pound (lb) 454 grams (g)
1 hectare (ha) 0.01 square kilometer (km2)
1 gram (g) 0.035 ounce (oz)
English
1 square foot (ft2) 144 square inches (in2)
1 square yard (yd2) 9 square feet (ft2) ENERGY AND POWER
1 square mile (mi2) 27,880,000 square feet (ft2) Metric
1 acre (ac) 43,560 square feet (ft2) 1 kilojoule (kJ) 1,000 joules (J)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) 1,000 calories (cal)
Metric–English
1 calorie (cal) 4.184 joules (J)
1 hectare (ha) 2.471 acres (ac)
1 square kilometer (km2) 0.386 square mile (mi2)
Metric–English
1 square meter (m2) 1.196 square yards (yd2)
1 kilojoule (kJ) 0.949 British thermal unit (Btu)
1 square meter (m2) 10.76 square feet (ft2)
1 kilojoule (kJ) 0.000278 kilowatt-hour (kW-h)
1 square centimeter (cm2) 0.155 square inch (in2)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) 3.97 British thermal units (Btu)
1 kilocalorie (kcal) 0.00116 kilowatt-hour (kW-h)
1 kilowatt-hour (kW-h) 860 kilocalories (kcal)
VOLUME 1 kilowatt-hour (kW-h) 3,400 British thermal units (Btu)
Metric 1 quad (Q) 1,050,000,000,000,000 kilojoules (kJ)
1 cubic kilometer (km3) 1,000,000,000 cubic meters (m3) 1 quad (Q) 293,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours (kW-h)
1 cubic meter (m3) 1,000,000 cubic centimeters (cm3)
1 liter (L) 1,000 milliliters (mL) 1,000 cubic centimeters (cm3)
1 milliliter (mL) 0.001 liter (L) TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
1 milliliter (mL) 1 cubic centimeter (cm3)
Fahrenheit (°F) to Celsius (°C):
English °C (°F 32.0) 1.80
1 gallon (gal) 4 quarts (qt) Celsius(°C) to Fahrenheit(°F):
1 quart (qt) 2 pints (pt) °F (°C 1.80) 32.0
SCIENCE SUPPLEMENT 1 S1
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S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 2
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stöckli (land surface, shallow water, clouds). Enhancements by Robert Simmon (ocean color, compositing, 3D globes, animation)
Figure 1 Natural capital: composite satellite view of the earth showing its major terrestrial and aquatic features.
S2 SCIENCE SUPPLEMENT 2
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100 Higher
80
60
The Gradient of Human Influence
40
Human
Footprint 30
Value
20
10
0 Lower
Figure 2 Natural capital degradation: the human footprint on the earth’s land surface—in effect, the sum of
all ecological footprints (Figure 1-7, p. 11) of the human population. Colors represent the percentage of each
area influenced by human activities. Excluding Antarctica and Greenland, human activities have directly
affected to some degree 83% of the earth’s land surface and 98% of the area where it is possible to grow rice,
wheat, or maize. Critical thinking: how large is the human footprint where you live? What contribution does your
lifestyle make to the environmental impacts? (Data from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Center for Inter-
national Earth Science Information Network at Columbia University)
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100 Higher
80
60
The Gradient of Human Influence
40
Human
Footprint 30
Value
20
10
0 Lower
Figure 3 Natural capital degradation: the human ecological footprint in North America. Colors represent the
percentage of each area influenced by human activities. This is an expanded portion of Figure 2 showing the
human footprint on the earth’s entire land surface. Critical thinking: if you live in the United States, how large is
the human ecological footprint where you live? (Data from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Center for
International Earth Science Information Network at Columbia University)
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S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 3
MAJOR EVENTS IN U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY
1870–1930
Figure 1 Examples of the increased role of the federal government in resource conservation and public health
and establishment of key private environmental groups, 1870–1930.
SCIENCE SUPPLEMENT 3 S9
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1930–1960
Figure 2 Some important conservation and environmental events, 1930–1960.
1965–69
Severe pollution of Lake Erie
kills fish and closes beaches.
1960s
1960S
Figure 3 Some important environmental events during the 1960s.
1970s
1973
OPEC oil embargo.
Lead-Based
Paint Poisoning 1975
1971 Act regulates use
Biologist Barry Energy Policy and
of lead in toys and Conservation Act
Commoner cooking and
publishes promotes energy 1978
eating utensils. conservation.
The Closing Convention on Love Canal, New York,
Circle explaining International Trade housing development
ecological in Endangered evacuated because of
problems and Species (CITES) toxic wastes leaking from
calling becomes old dumpsite. Federal
for pollution international law. Land Policy and
prevention. Management Act
1974 strengthens regulation of
Chemists Sherwood Roland and Mario public lands by the Bureau
Molina suggest CFCs are depleting the of Land Management.
ozone in stratosphere. Lester Brown
founds the Worldwatch Institute. Safe 1977
Drinking Water Act sets standards for Clean Water Act strengthens
contaminants in public water supply. regulation of drinking water 1979
1972 quality, with additional Accident at
Oregon passes first beverage bottle recycling law. Publication amendments in 1981 and 1987. Three Mile Island
of Limits to Growth, which challenges idea of unlimited Surface Mining Control and nuclear power
economic growth. David Brower founds Earth Island Institute. Reclamation Act regulates plant in
Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act regulates surface mining and Pennsylvania.
registration of pesticides based on tests and degree of risk. encourages reclamation of Oil shortage
Ocean Dumping Act; Marine Protection, Research, and mined land. Amory B. Lovins because of
Sanctuaries Act; and Coastal Zone Management Act help publishes The Soft Energy Path revolution in Iran.
regulate and protect oceans and coastal areas. Marine calling for switching from fossil
Mammal Protection Act encourages protection and fuels and nuclear power to
conservation of marine mammals. Consumer Product Safety solar energy. U.S. Department
Act helps consumers from hazardous products. UN conference of Energy created.
on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden.
1970
First Earth Day. EPA established by
President Richard Nixon. Occupational 1976
Health and Safety Act promotes safe National Forest Management Act establishes guidelines for managing
working conditions. Resources Recovery national forests.Toxic Control Substances Act regulates many toxic
Act regulates waste disposal and substances not regulated under other laws. Resource Conservation
encourages recycling and waste reduction. and Recovery Act requires tracking of hazardous waste and encourages
National Environmental Policy Act passed. recycling, resource recovery, and waste reduction. Noise Control Act
Clean Air Act passed. Natural Resources regulates harmful noise levels. UN Conference on Human Settlements.
Defense Council created.
1970S
Figure 4 Some important environmental events during the 1970s, sometimes called the environmental decade.
1980–89
Rise of a strong anti-environmental movement.
1980s
1980s
Figure 5 Some important environmental events during the 1980s.
1990s 2000s
1990–2005
Figure 6 Some important environmental events, 1990–2005.
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 4
Keeping Track of Atoms We cannot change the subscripts of any through which we pass electricity, two hy-
In keeping with the law of conservation of of the formulas to balance this equation be- drogen molecules and one oxygen molecule
matter, chemical equations are used as an cause that would change the arrangements are produced.
accounting system to verify that no atoms of the atoms, leading to different sub- If scientists and engineers can find eco-
are created or destroyed in a chemical re- stances. Instead, we must use different nomical ways to decompose water by using
action. As a consequence, each side of a numbers of the molecules involved to bal- electricity or heat produced from solar en-
chemical equation must have the same ance the equation. For example, we could ergy, this reaction may be used as a way to
number of atoms of each element involved. use two water molecules: produce hydrogen gas (H2) for use as a fuel
Ensuring that this condition is met leads to help replace oil during this century. The
2 H2 O H2 O2 hydrogen would be used in fuel cells where
to what chemists call a balanced chemical
equation. The equation for the burning of 4 H atoms 2 H atoms 2 O atoms it would combine with oxygen gas to pro-
carbon (C O2 CO2) is balanced be- 2 O atoms duce water and energy for heating houses
cause one atom of carbon and two atoms of and water and propelling motor vehicles
This equation is still unbalanced. Although and planes.
oxygen are on both sides of the equation.
the numbers of oxygen atoms on both sides Bringing about such a hydrogen revolu-
Consider the following chemical reac-
of the equation are now equal, the numbers tion would reduce the world’s dependence
tion: When electricity passes through water
of hydrogen atoms are not. on dwindling supplies of oil, eliminate most
(H2O), the latter can be broken down into
We can correct this problem by having forms of air pollution because the major
hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), as repre-
the reaction produce two hydrogen emission from a fuel cell is water vapor, and
sented by the following equation:
molecules: help slow global warming by not emitting
H2O H2 O2 2 H2 O 2 H2 O2
the carbon dioxide gas that is released when
2 H atoms 2 H atoms 2 O atoms any carbon-containing fuel is burned.
4 H atoms 4 H atoms 2 O atoms
1 O atom 2 O atoms
Practice Exercise
This equation is unbalanced because one Now the equation is balanced, and the law Balance the chemical equation for the reac-
atom of oxygen is on the left side of the of conservation of matter has been ob- tion of nitrogen gas (N2) with hydrogen gas
equation but two atoms are on the right side. served. For every two molecules of water (H2) to form ammonia gas (NH3).
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 5
CLASSIFYING AND NAMING SPECIES
Classifying Species and bacteria such as Staphylococcus and plants (whose flowers produce seeds that
Biologists classify species into different Streptococcus. perpetuate the species). Some plants such as
kingdoms, on the basis of similarities and Archaebacteria are single-celled bacteria corn and marigolds are annuals, meaning
differences in characteristics such as their that are evolutionarily closer to eukaryotic that they complete their life cycles in one
modes of nutrition, cell structure, appear- cells than to eubacteria. Examples include growing season. Others are perennials,
ance, and developmental features. methanogens that live in anaerobic sedi- which can live for more than 2 years, such
In this book, the earth’s organisms are ments of lakes and swamps and in animal as roses, grapes, elms, and magnolias.
classified into six kingdoms: eubacteria, guts, halophiles that live in extremely salty Animals (Animalia) are also many-celled,
archaebacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and water, and thermophiles that live in hot eukaryotic organisms. Most have no back-
animals. Most bacteria, fungi, and protists springs, hydrothermal vents, and acidic soil. bones and hence are called invertebrates. In-
are microorganisms: organisms so small that Protists (Protista) are mostly single-celled vertebrates include sponges, jellyfish,
they cannot be seen with the naked eye. eukaryotic organisms such as diatoms, di- worms, arthropods (insects, shrimp, and
Eubacteria consist of all single-celled noflagellates, amoebas, golden brown and spiders), mollusks (snails, clams, and octo-
prokaryotic bacteria except archaebacteria. yellow-green algae, and protozoans. Some puses), and echinoderms (sea urchins and
Examples include various cyanobacteria protists cause human diseases such as sea stars). Insects play roles that are vital to
malaria and sleeping sickness. our existence. Vertebrates (animals with
Fungi are mostly many-celled, backbones and a brain protected by skull
sometimes microscopic, eukaryotic bones) include fishes (sharks and tuna), am-
Animalia Many-celled eukaryotic organisms such as mushrooms, phibians (frogs and salamanders), reptiles
organisms molds, mildews, and yeasts. (crocodiles and snakes), birds (eagles and
Many fungi are decomposers. robins), and mammals (bats, elephants,
Other fungi kill various plants whales, and humans).
Chordata Animals with notochord (a and cause huge losses of
long rod of stiffened tissue), nerve crops and valuable trees. Naming Species
cord, and a pharynx (a muscular tube Plants (Plantae) are Within each kingdom, biologists have cre-
used in feeding, respiration, or both) mostly many-celled ated subcategories based on anatomical,
eukaryotic organ- physiological, and behavioral characteris-
Vertebrata Spinal cord enclosed in a
backbone of cartilage or bone; isms such as red, tics. Kingdoms are divided into phyla, which
Kingdom brown, and green
and skull bones that protect the brain are divided into subgroups called classes.
algae and mosses, Classes are subdivided into orders, which are
ferns, and further divided into families. Families consist
Phylum Mammalia Animals whose young flowering
are nourished by milk produced by of genera (singular, genus), and each genus
mammary glands of females, and contains one or more species. Note that the
that have hair or fur and warm blood word species is both singular and plural. Fig-
Subphylum ure 1 shows this detailed taxonomic classifi-
Primates Animals that live in trees cation for the current human species.
or are descended from Most people call a species by its common
tree dwellers
Class name, such as robin or grizzly bear. Biolo-
gists use scientific names (derived from
Hominidae Upright animals with Latin) consisting of two parts (printed in ital-
two-legged locomotion and ics, or underlined) to describe a species. The
Order binocular vision first word is the capitalized name (or abbre-
viation) for the genus to which the organ-
Homo Upright animals with large brain, ism belongs. It is followed by a lowercase
Family language, and extended parental name that distinguishes the species from
care of young other members of the same genus. For
example, the scientific name of the robin
Genus is Turdus migratorius (Latin for “migra-
sapiens Animals with sparse body hair,
tory thrush”) and the grizzly bear goes
high forehead, and large brain
by the scientific name Ursus horribilis
(Latin for “horrible bear”).
Species
sapiens sapiens Animals capable of
sophisticated cultural evolution Figure 1 Taxonomic classifica-
tion of the latest human species,
Species
Homo sapiens sapiens.
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 6
WEATHER BASICS
What Is Weather? Near the top of the troposphere, hurri- Atmospheric pressure is greater near
Weather is the result of the atmospheric cane-force winds circle the earth. These the earth’s surface because the molecules in
conditions in a particular area. powerful winds, called jet streams, follow the atmosphere are squeezed together
rising and falling paths that have a strong under the weight of the air above them. An
Weather is an area’s short-term atmospheric
influence on weather patterns. air mass with high pressure, called a high,
conditions—typically those occurring over
contains cool, dense air that descends to-
hours or days. Examples of atmospheric
ward the earth’s surface and becomes
conditions include temperature, pressure, Highs and Lows
warmer. Fair weather follows as long as
moisture content, precipitation, sunshine, Weather is affected by up-and-down this high-pressure air mass remains over
cloud cover, and wind direction and speed. movements of air masses in conjunction the area.
Meteorologists use equipment on with high and low atmospheric In contrast, a low-pressure air mass,
weather balloons, aircraft, ships, and satel- pressure. called a low, produces cloudy and some-
lites, as well as radar and stationary sensors,
Weather is also affected by changes in times stormy weather. Because of its low
to obtain data on weather variables. They
atmospheric pressure. Air pressure results pressure and low density, the center of a
then feed these data into computer models
from zillions of tiny molecules of gases low rises, and its warm air expands and
to draw weather maps. Other computer
(mostly nitrogen and oxygen) in the atmo- cools. When the temperature drops below a
models project the weather for the next sev-
sphere zipping around at incredible speeds certain level where condensation takes
eral days by calculating the probabilities
and hitting and bouncing off anything they place, called the dew point, moisture in the
that air masses, winds, and other factors
encounter. air condenses and forms clouds. If the
will move and change in certain ways.
Much of the weather you experience re-
sults from interactions between the leading
edges of moving masses of warm and cold
air. Weather changes as one air mass re-
places or meets another. The most dramatic
changes in weather occur along a front, the Cool
air mass
boundary between two air masses with dif-
ferent temperatures and densities. Warm air mass
A warm front is the boundary between
ce
fa
an advancing warm air mass and the cooler s ur
one it is replacing (Figure 1, top). Because nt
fr o
warm air is less dense (weighs less per unit rm
of volume) than cool air, an advancing Wa
warm front rises up over a mass of cool air.
As the warm front rises, its moisture be-
gins condensing into droplets, forming lay-
ers of clouds at different altitudes. Gradu-
ally the clouds thicken, descend to a lower Figure 1 Natural
altitude, and often release their moisture as capital: a warm
rainfall. A moist warm front can bring days Anvil top front (top) arises
of cloudy skies and drizzle. when an advanc-
A cold front (Figure 1, bottom) is the ing mass of warm
leading edge of an advancing mass of cold Cold fro Warm air mass air meets and
nt s u
air. Because cold air is denser than warm rf a rises up over a
ce
air, an advancing cold front stays close to retreating mass of
the ground and wedges underneath less denser cool air. A
dense warmer air. An approaching cold Cold air mass cold front (bot-
front produces rapidly moving, towering tom) forms when
clouds called thunderheads. a mass of cold air
As a cold front passes through, we may wedges beneath
experience high surface winds and thunder- a retreating mass
storms. After it leaves the area, we usually of less dense
have cooler temperatures and a clear sky. warm air.
droplets in the clouds coalesce into large waters and sometimes pass over coastal it rises rapidly and forms strong vertical
and heavy drops, then precipitation occurs. land). convection currents that suck air upward,
Recall that the condensation of water vapor Tornadoes or twisters are swirling funnel- as shown in Figure 2. Scientists hypothe-
into water drops usually requires that the shaped clouds that form over land. They size that the rising vortex of air starts spin-
air contain suspended tiny particles of ma- can destroy houses and cause other serious ning because the air near the ground in
terial such as dust, smoke, sea salts, or vol- damage in areas where they touch down on the funnel is moving more slowly than
canic ash. These so-called condensation nuclei the earth’s surface. The United States is the the air above. This difference causes the
provide surfaces on which the droplets of world’s most tornado-prone country, fol- air ahead of the advancing front to roll
water can form and coalesce. lowed by Australia. or spin in a vertically rising air mass or
Tornadoes in the plains of the Midwest vortex.
usually occur when a large, dry, cold-air Tropical cyclones are spawned by the
Tornadoes and Tropical Cyclones
front moving southward from Canada formation of low-pressure cells of air over
Tornadoes and tropical storms are weather runs into a large mass of humid air mov- warm tropical seas. Figure 3 shows the
extremes that can cause tremendous ing northward from the Gulf of Mexico. formation and structure of a tropical cy-
damage but can sometimes have beneficial Most tornadoes occur in the spring clone. Hurricanes are tropical cyclones
ecological effects. when fronts of cold air from the north that form in the Atlantic Ocean; those form-
Sometimes we experience weather extremes. penetrate deeply into the midwestern ing in the Pacific Ocean usually are called
Two examples are violent storms called plains. typhoons.
tornadoes (which form over land) and tropi- As the large warm-air mass moves Tropical cyclones take a long time to
cal cyclones (which form over warm ocean rapidly over the more dense cold-air mass, form and gain strength. As a result, meteo-
Descending
cool air
Severe
thunderstorm Rising
warm air Severe thunderstorms
can trigger a number
of smaller tornadoes
Figure 2 Formation of a tornado or twister. Although twisters can form at any time of
the year, the most active tornado season in the United States is usually March
through August. Meteorologists cannot tell us with great accuracy when and where
most tornadoes will form.
Figure 3 Formation of a tropical cyclone. Those forming in the Atlantic Ocean usually are called hurricanes; those
forming in the Pacific Ocean usually are called typhoons.
rologists can track their paths and wind marshes normally are closed off from fresh- This flushing out of the bays and
speeds and warn people in areas likely to be water and saltwater inflows. In August marshes reduced brown tides consisting
hit by these violent storms. 1999, Hurricane Brett struck this coastal of explosive growths of algae feeding on
Hurricanes and typhoons can kill and area. According to marine biologists, it excess nutrients. It also increased growth
injure people and damage property and flushed out excess nutrients from land of sea grasses, which serve as nurseries for
agricultural production. Sometimes, how- runoff and swept dead sea grasses and shrimp, crabs, and fish and provide food
ever, the long-term ecological and economic rotting vegetation from the coastal bays for millions of ducks wintering in Texas
benefits of a tropical cyclone can exceed its and marshes. It also carved out 12 channels bays. Production of commercially impor-
short-term harmful effects. through the barrier islands along the coast, tant species of shellfish and fish also
For example, in parts of Texas along allowing huge quantities of fresh seawater increased.
the Gulf of Mexico, coastal bays and to flood the bays and marshes.
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 7
EARTHQUAKES, TSUNAMIS, AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Central vent
Magma conduit
Magma reservoir
Solid here
p
lithos
lling
Upwe a
olten ma g m
a r t i ally mhere
P nosp
asthe
Other volcanoes erupt more quietly. and other landforms. Perhaps the most im- living in them. We can also develop effec-
They involve primarily lava flows, which portant benefit of volcanism is the highly tive evacuation plans and measurements
can cover roads and villages and ignite fertile soils produced by the weathering of that warn us when volcanoes are likely to
brush, trees, and homes. lava. erupt.
We tend to think of volcanic activity as We can reduce the loss of human life Scientists continue to study the phenom-
an undesirable event, but it does provide and sometimes property damage caused by ena that precede an eruption. Examples in-
some benefits. For example, it creates out- volcanic eruptions in several ways. For clude tilting or swelling of the cone,
standing scenery in the form of majestic example, we can use historical records and changes in magnetic and thermal properties
mountains, some lakes (such as Crater geologic measurements to identify high- of the volcano, changes in gas composition,
Lake in Oregon; Figure 11-25, left, p. 257), risk areas so that people can try to avoid and increased seismic activity.
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 8
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE AGE OF OIL
Some milestones in the Age of Oil: ■ 1983: Facing an oil glut, OPEC cuts its oil prices.
■ 1859: First commercial oil well drilled near Titusville, ■ 1985: U.S. domestic oil production begins to decline and is not
Pennsylvania. expected to increase enough to affect the global price of oil or to
■
reduce U.S. dependence on oil imports.
1905: Oil supplies 10% of U.S. energy.
■ August 1990–June 1991: The United States and its allies fight
■ 1925: The United States produces 71% of the world’s oil.
the Persian Gulf War to oust Iraqi invaders of Kuwait and to
■ 1930: Because of an oil glut, oil sells for 10¢ per barrel. protect Western access to Saudi Arabian and Kuwaiti oil
■ 1953: U.S. oil companies account for about half of the world’s supplies.
oil production, and the United States is the world’s leading oil ■ 2004: The United States and a small number of allies fight a
exporter. second Persian Gulf war to oust Sadam Hussein from power
■ 1955: The United States has 20% of the world’s estimated and to protect Western access to oil from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
proven oil reserves. and Iraq.
■ 2004: OPEC has 67% of world oil reserves and produces 40%
■ 1960: OPEC is formed so that developing countries, with most
of the world’s known oil and projected oil reserves, can get a of the world’s oil. The United States has only 2.9% of oil
higher price for their oil. reserves, uses 26% of the world’s oil production, and imports
62% of its oil.
■ 1973: The United States uses 30% of the world’s oil, imports
■ 2020: The United States could be importing at least 70% of the
36% of this oil, and has only 5% of the world’s proven oil
reserves. oil it uses, as consumption continues to exceed production.
■ 1973–1974: OPEC reduces oil imports to the West and bans oil ■ 2010–2030: Production of oil from the world’s estimated oil
exports to the United States because of its support for Israel in reserves is expected to peak. Oil prices are expected to increase
the 18-day Yom Kippur War with Egypt and Syria. World oil gradually as the demand for oil increasingly exceeds the sup-
prices rise sharply and lead to double-digit inflation in the ply—unless the world decreases its demand by wasting less
United States and many other countries and a global economic energy and shifting to other sources of energy.
recession. ■ 2010–2048: Domestic U.S. oil reserves are projected to be 80%
S C I E N C E S U P P L E M E N T 9
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
studies interrelationships of
provide
Ecosystems
consist of
function through undergo
Matter Energy
Communities Change
Cycling Flow
Producers
Physical Factors Consumers
Organisms
Chemical Factors Decomposers
consist of
affect development of
Resources
include
Matter Energy
Resources Resources
may be may be
provide
Food
Resources Biodiversity can sustain
Ecosystem Services genes
nutrient cycling species
primarily include can decrease
pest control ecosystems
determined waste purification
by genetic material
Crops Livestock Fish
depend on
depletes
may be
Chemical
Biological
(pesticides)
S26 affects
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Negative Connections
develop
meet needs and wants through through Strongly Positive Connections
differing Moderately Positive Connections
Worldviews
guide
Economics/Politics
influence
Societies
may be may be
made of
Unsustainable Sustainable
Populations
(size, density)
may
may
affect
Exceed quality
carrying capacity of Stabilize Decline
affected by
strategies of
GLOSSARY
abiotic Nonliving. Compare biotic. in which nutrient organic molecules such as get the energy they need through the
glucose (C6H12O6) combine with oxygen breakdown of glucose (or other nutrients)
acid See acid solution.
(O2) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water in the absence of oxygen. Compare aerobic
acid deposition The falling of acids and (H2O), and energy. Compare photosynthesis. respiration.
acid-forming compounds from the atmo-
affluenza Unsustainable addiction to ancient forest See old-growth forest.
sphere to the earth’s surface. Acid deposi-
tion is commonly known as acid rain, a term overconsumption and materialism exhib- animal manure Dung and urine of ani-
that refers to the wet deposition of droplets ited in the lifestyles of affluent consumers mals used as a form of organic fertilizer.
of acids and acid-forming compounds. in the United States and other developed Compare green manure.
countries.
acid rain See acid deposition. annual Plant that grows, sets seed, and
age structure Percentage of the popula- dies in one growing season. Compare
acid solution Any water solution that has tion (or number of people of each sex) at perennial.
more hydrogen ions (H) than hydroxide each age level in a population.
ions (OH); any water solution with a pH anthropocentric Human-centered.
less than 7. Compare basic solution, neutral agricultural revolution Gradual shift
from small, mobile hunting and gathering aquaculture Growing and harvesting of
solution.
bands to settled agricultural communities fish and shellfish for human use in fresh-
active solar heating system System that water ponds, irrigation ditches, and lakes, or
in which people survived by breeding and
uses solar collectors to capture energy from in cages or fenced-in areas of coastal lagoons
raising wild animals and cultivating wild
the sun and store it as heat for space heating and estuaries. See fish farming, fish ranching.
plants near where they lived. It began
and water heating. Liquid or air pumped
10,000–12,000 years ago. Compare en- aquatic Pertaining to water. Compare
through the collectors transfers the cap-
vironmental revolution, hunter–gatherers, terrestrial.
tured heat to a storage system, such as an
industrial–medical revolution, information and
insulated water tank or rock bed. Pumps or aquatic life zone Marine and freshwater
globalization revolution.
fans then distribute the stored heat or hot portions of the biosphere. Examples include
water throughout a dwelling as needed. agroforestry Planting trees and crops freshwater life zones (such as lakes and
Compare passive solar heating system. together. streams) and ocean or marine life zones
(such as estuaries, coastlines, coral reefs,
adaptation Any genetically controlled air pollution One or more chemicals in
and the deep ocean).
structural, physiological, or behavioral high enough concentrations in the air to
characteristic that helps an organism sur- harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or aquifer Porous, water-saturated layers
vive and reproduce under a given set of materials. Excess heat and noise are also of sand, gravel, or bedrock that can yield an
environmental conditions. It usually results considered forms of air pollution. Such economically significant amount of water.
from a beneficial mutation. See biological chemicals or physical conditions are called arable land Land that can be cultivated to
evolution, differential reproduction, mutation, air pollutants. See primary pollutant, sec- grow crops.
natural selection. ondary pollutant.
area strip mining Type of surface mining
adaptive management Flexible manage- albedo Ability of a surface to reflect light. used where the terrain is flat. An earth-
ment that views attempts to solve problems mover strips away the overburden, and a
as experiments, analyzes failures to see alien species See nonnative species.
power shovel digs a cut to remove the min-
what went wrong, and tries to modify and allele Slightly different molecular form eral deposit. The trench is then filled with
improve an approach before abandoning it. found in a particular gene. overburden, and a new cut is made parallel
Because of the inherent unpredictability of to the previous one. The process is repeated
complex systems, it often uses the precau- alley cropping Planting of crops in strips
with rows of trees or shrubs on each side. over the entire site. Compare mountaintop
tionary principle as a management tool. See removal, open-pit mining, subsurface mining.
precautionary principle. alpha particle Positively charged matter,
arid Dry. A desert or other area with an
adaptive radiation Process in which nu- consisting of two neutrons and two protons,
arid climate has little precipitation.
merous new species evolve to fill vacant and that is emitted as radioactivity from the
new ecological niches in changed environ- nuclei of some radioisotopes. See also beta artificial selection Process by which
ments, usually after a mass extinction. Typi- particle, gamma ray. humans select one or more desirable genetic
cally, this process takes millions of years. traits in the population of a plant or animal
altitude Height above sea level. Compare
species and then use selective breeding to pro-
adaptive trait See adaptation. latitude.
duce populations containing many individ-
aerobic respiration Complex process that anaerobic respiration Form of cellular uals with the desired traits. Compare genetic
occurs in the cells of most living organisms, respiration in which some decomposers engineering, natural selection.
GLOSSARY G1
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asexual reproduction Reproduction in individuals within each species (genetic biotic Living organisms. Compare abiotic.
which a mother cell divides to produce two diversity), variety of ecosystems (ecological
biotic potential Maximum rate at which
identical daughter cells that are clones of diversity), and functions such as energy flow
the population of a given species can
the mother cell. This type of reproduction is and matter cycling needed for the survival
increase when there are no limits on its rate
common in single-celled organisms. Com- of species and biological communities (func-
of growth. See environmental resistance.
pare sexual reproduction. tional diversity).
birth rate See crude birth rate.
atmosphere The whole mass of air biofuel Gas or liquid fuel (such as ethyl
surrounding the earth. See stratosphere, alcohol) made from plant material (biomass). bitumen Gooey, black, high-sulfur, heavy
troposphere. oil extracted from oil sand and then
biogeochemical cycle Natural processes
upgraded to synthetic fuel oil. See oil sand.
atom Minute unit made of subatomic par- that recycle nutrients in various chemical
ticles that is the basic building block of all forms from the nonliving environment to breeder nuclear fission reactor Nuclear
chemical elements and thus all matter; the living organisms and then back to the non- fission reactor that produces more nuclear
smallest unit of an element that can exist living environment. Examples include the fuel than it consumes by converting non-
and still have the unique characteristics of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sul- fissionable uranium-238 into fissionable
that element. Compare ion, molecule. fur, and hydrologic cycles. plutonium-239.
atomic number Number of protons in the biological amplification See bio- broadleaf deciduous plants Plants
nucleus of an atom. Compare mass number. magnification. such as oak and maple trees that survive
drought and cold by shedding their leaves
autotroph See producer. biological community See community. and becoming dormant. Compare
background extinction Normal extinction biological diversity See biodiversity. broadleaf evergreen plants, coniferous evergreen
of various species as a result of changes in plants.
local environmental conditions. Compare biological evolution Change in the
genetic makeup of a population of a species broadleaf evergreen plants Plants that
mass depletion, mass extinction.
in successive generations. If continued long keep most of their broad leaves year-round.
bacteria Prokaryotic, one-celled organ- enough, it can lead to the formation of a Examples include the trees found in the
isms. Some transmit diseases. Most act as new species. Note that populations—not canopies of tropical rain forests. Compare
decomposers and get the nutrients they individuals—evolve. See also adaptation, dif- broadleaf deciduous plants, coniferous evergreen
need by breaking down complex organic ferential reproduction, natural selection, theory plants.
compounds in the tissues of living or dead of evolution. buffer Substance that can react with
organisms into simpler inorganic nutrient
biological pest control Control of pest hydrogen ions in a solution and thus hold
compounds.
populations by natural predators, parasites, the acidity or pH of a solution fairly con-
barrier islands Long, thin, low offshore or disease-causing bacteria and viruses stant. See pH.
islands of sediment that generally run par- (pathogens). calorie Unit of energy; amount of energy
allel to the shore along some coasts.
biomagnification Increase in concentra- needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram
basic solution Water solution with more tion of DDT, PCBs, and other slowly degrad- of water by 1°C (unit on Celsius tempera-
hydroxide ions (OH) than hydrogen ions able, fat-soluble chemicals in organisms at ture scale). See also kilocalorie.
(H); water solution with a pH greater than successively higher trophic levels of a food cancer Group of more than 120 different
7. Compare acid solution, neutral solution. chain or web. Compare bioaccumulation. diseases, one for each type of cell in the
benthos Bottom-dwelling organisms. biomass Organic matter produced by human body. Each type of cancer produces
Compare decomposer, nekton, plankton. plants and other photosynthetic producers; a tumor in which cells multiply uncontrol-
total dry weight of all living organisms that lably and invade surrounding tissue.
beta particle Swiftly moving electron
emitted by the nucleus of a radioactive iso- can be supported at each trophic level in a carbon cycle Cyclic movement of carbon
tope. See also alpha particle, gamma rays. food chain or web; dry weight of all organic in different chemical forms from the envi-
matter in plants and animals in an eco- ronment to organisms and then back to the
bioaccumulation An increase in the con- system; plant materials and animal wastes environment.
centration of a chemical in specific organs or used as fuel.
tissues at a level higher than would normally carcinogen Chemicals, ionizing radiation,
be expected. Compare biomagnification. biome Terrestrial regions inhabited by and viruses that cause or promote the devel-
certain types of life, especially vegetation. opment of cancer. See cancer. Compare muta-
biocentric Life-centered. Compare Examples include various types of deserts, gen, teratogen.
anthropocentric. grasslands, and forests.
carnivore Animal that feeds on other ani-
biodegradable Capable of being broken
biopharming Use of genetically engi- mals. Compare herbivore, omnivore.
down by decomposers.
neered animals to act as biofactories for
carrying capacity (K) Maximum popula-
biodegradable pollutant Material that producing drugs, vaccines, antibodies, hor-
tion of a particular species that a given habi-
can be broken down into simpler sub- mones, industrial chemicals such as plastics
tat can support over a given period.
stances (elements and compounds) by bac- and detergents, and human body organs.
teria or other decomposers. Paper and most cell Smallest living unit of an organism.
biosphere Zone of the earth where life is
organic wastes such as animal manure are Each cell is encased in an outer membrane
found. It consists of parts of the atmosphere
biodegradable but can take decades to or wall and contains genetic material
(the troposphere), hydrosphere (mostly
biodegrade in modern landfills. Compare (DNA) and other parts to perform its life
surface water and groundwater), and litho-
degradable pollutant, nondegradable pollutant, function. Organisms such as bacteria consist
sphere (mostly soil and surface rocks and
slowly degradable pollutant. of only one cell, but most other organisms
sediments on the bottoms of oceans and
contain many cells.
biodiversity Variety of different species other bodies of water) where life is found.
(species diversity), genetic variability among Sometimes called the ecosphere. CFCs See chlorofluorocarbons.
G2 GLOSSARY
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chain reaction Multiple nuclear fissions, seasonal variations, and the amount and dis- sphere, and the ozone content of the upper
taking place within a certain mass of a fis- tribution of precipitation. Compare weather. atmosphere (stratosphere). See tragedy of the
sionable isotope, that release an enormous commons.
climax community See mature community.
amount of energy in a short time.
community Populations of all species liv-
coal Solid, combustible mixture of organic
chemical One of the millions of different ing and interacting in an area at a particular
compounds with 30–98% carbon by weight,
elements and compounds found naturally time.
mixed with various amounts of water and
and synthesized by humans. See compound,
small amounts of sulfur and nitrogen com- competition Two or more individual
element.
pounds. It forms in several stages as the organisms of a single species (intraspecific
chemical change Interaction between remains of plants are subjected to heat and competition) or two or more individuals of
chemicals in which the chemical composi- pressure over millions of years. different species (interspecific competition)
tion of the elements or compounds involved attempting to use the same scarce resources
coal gasification Conversion of solid coal
changes. Compare nuclear change, physical in the same ecosystem.
to synthetic natural gas (SNG).
change.
coal liquefaction Conversion of solid coal compost Partially decomposed organic
chemical evolution Formation of the plant and animal matter used as a soil con-
to a liquid hydrocarbon fuel such as syn-
earth and its early crust and atmosphere, ditioner or fertilizer.
thetic gasoline or methanol.
evolution of the biological molecules neces-
sary for life, and evolution of systems of coastal wetland Land along a coastline, compound Combination of atoms, or
chemical reactions needed to produce the extending inland from an estuary that is oppositely charged ions, of two or more
first living cells. These processes are covered with salt water all or part of the elements held together by attractive forces
believed to have occurred about 1 billion year. Examples include marshes, bays, called chemical bonds. Compare element.
years before biological evolution. Compare lagoons, tidal flats, and mangrove swamps. concentration Amount of a chemical in a
biological evolution. Compare inland wetland. particular volume or weight of air, water,
chemical formula Shorthand way to show coastal zone Warm, nutrient-rich, shallow soil, or other medium.
the number of atoms (or ions) in the basic part of the ocean that extends from the condensation nuclei Tiny particles on
structural unit of a compound. Examples high-tide mark on land to the edge of a which droplets of water vapor can collect.
include H2O, NaCl, and C6H12O6. shelflike extension of continental land-
masses known as the continental shelf. coniferous evergreen plants Cone-
chemical reaction See chemical change. bearing plants (such as spruces, pines, and
Compare open sea.
chemosynthesis Process in which certain firs) that keep some of their narrow,
coevolution Evolution in which two or pointed leaves (needles) all year. Compare
organisms (mostly specialized bacteria)
more species interact and exert selective broadleaf deciduous plants, broadleaf evergreen
extract inorganic compounds from their
pressures on each other that can lead each plants.
environment and convert them into organic
species to undergo adaptations. See evolu-
nutrient compounds without the presence coniferous trees Cone-bearing trees,
tion, natural selection.
of sunlight. Compare photosynthesis. mostly evergreens, that have needle-shaped
cogeneration Production of two useful or scalelike leaves. They produce wood
chlorinated hydrocarbon Organic com-
forms of energy, such as high-temperature known commercially as softwood. Compare
pound made up of atoms of carbon, hydro-
heat or steam and electricity, from the same deciduous plants.
gen, and chlorine. Examples include DDT
fuel source.
and PCBs. consensus science See sound science.
cold front Leading edge of an advancing
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Organic conservation Sensible and careful use of
mass of cold air. Compare warm front.
compounds made up of atoms of carbon, natural resources by humans. People with
chlorine, and fluorine. An example is commensalism An interaction between this view are called conservationists.
Freon-12 (CCl2F2), which is used as a re- organisms of different species in which one
frigerant in refrigerators and air condition- type of organism benefits and the other type conservation biology Multidisciplinary
ers and in making plastics such as Styro- is neither helped nor harmed to any great science created to deal with the crisis of
foam. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone degree. Compare mutualism. maintaining the genes, species, communi-
layer when they slowly rise into the strato- ties, and ecosystems that make up earth’s
commercial extinction Depletion of the
sphere and their chlorine atoms react with biological diversity. Its goals are to investi-
population of a wild species used as a
ozone molecules. Their use is being phased gate human impacts on biodiversity and to
resource to a level at which it is no longer
out. develop practical approaches to preserving
profitable to harvest the species.
biodiversity.
chromosome A grouping of genes and
commercial inorganic fertilizer Com-
associated proteins in plant and animal cells conservationist Person concerned with
mercially prepared mixture of plant nutri-
that carry certain types of genetic informa- using natural areas and wildlife in ways
ents such as nitrates, phosphates, and
tion. See genes. that sustain them for current and future
potassium applied to the soil to restore fer-
generations of humans and other forms of
clear-cutting Method of timber harvesting tility and increase crop yields. Compare
life.
in which all trees in a forested area are organic fertilizer.
removed in a single cutting. Compare seed- conservation-tillage farming Crop
common-property resource Resource
tree cutting, selective cutting, shelterwood cut- cultivation in which the soil is disturbed
that people normally are free to use; each
ting, strip cutting. little (minimum-tillage farming) or not at all
user can deplete or degrade the available
(no-till farming) in an effort to reduce soil
climate Physical properties of the tropo- supply. Most such resources are renewable
erosion, lower labor costs, and save energy.
sphere of an area based on analysis of its and owned by no one. Examples include
Compare conventional-tillage farming.
weather records over a long period (at least clean air, fish in parts of the ocean not
30 years). The two main factors determining under the control of a coastal country, constancy Ability of a living system, such
an area’s climate are the temperature, with its migratory birds, gases of the lower atmo- as a population, to maintain a certain size.
GLOSSARY G3
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consumer Organism that cannot synthe- crown fire Extremely hot forest fire that pletely or reduced to acceptable levels by
size the organic nutrients it needs and gets burns ground vegetation and treetops. Com- natural physical, chemical, and biological
its organic nutrients by feeding on the tis- pare controlled burning, ground fire, surface fire. processes. Compare biodegradable pollutant,
sues of producers or of other consumers; nondegradable pollutant, slowly degradable
crude birth rate Annual number of live
generally divided into primary consumers pollutant.
births per 1,000 people in the population of
(herbivores), secondary consumers (carni-
a geographic area at the midpoint of a given degree of urbanization Percentage of the
vores), tertiary (higher-level) consumers, omni-
year. Compare crude death rate. population in the world, or a country, living
vores, and detritivores (decomposers and
in areas with a population of more than
detritus feeders). In economics, one who crude death rate Annual number of
2,500 people (higher in some countries).
uses economic goods. deaths per 1,000 people in the population of
Compare urban growth.
a geographic area at the midpoint of a given
contour farming Plowing and planting
year. Compare crude birth rate. democracy Government by the people
across the changing slope of land, rather
than in straight lines, to help retain water crude oil Gooey liquid consisting mostly through their elected officials and appointed
and reduce soil erosion. of hydrocarbon compounds and small representatives. In a constitutional democracy,
amounts of compounds containing oxygen, a constitution provides the basis of govern-
contour strip mining Form of surface ment authority and puts restraints on gov-
sulfur, and nitrogen. Extracted from under-
mining used on hilly or mountainous ter- ernment power through free elections and
ground accumulations, it is sent to oil
rain. A power shovel cuts a series of terraces freely expressed public opinion.
refineries, where it is converted to heating
into the side of a hill. An earthmover
oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, tar, and other demographic transition Hypothesis that
removes the overburden, and a power
materials. countries, as they become industrialized,
shovel extracts the coal. The overburden
from each new terrace is dumped onto the crust Solid outer zone of the earth. It con- have declines in death rates followed by
one below. Compare area strip mining, dredg- sists of oceanic crust and continental crust. declines in birth rates.
ing, mountaintop removal, open-pit mining, Compare core, mantle. depletion time The time it takes to use a
subsurface mining. certain fraction (usually 80%) of the known
cultural eutrophication Overnourishment
controlled burning Deliberately set, of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients or estimated supply of a nonrenewable
carefully controlled surface fires that reduce (mostly nitrates and phosphates) because of resource at an assumed rate of use. Finding
flammable litter and decrease the chances of human activities such as agriculture, urban- and extracting the remaining 20% usually
damaging crown fires. See ground fire, sur- ization, and discharges from industrial costs more than it is worth.
face fire. plants and sewage treatment plants. See desalination Purification of salt water or
conventional-tillage farming Crop eutrophication. brackish (slightly salty) water by removal of
cultivation method in which a planting DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a dissolved salts.
surface is made by plowing land, breaking chlorinated hydrocarbon that has been desert Biome in which evaporation
up the exposed soil, and then smoothing widely used as an insecticide but is now exceeds precipitation and the average
the surface. Compare conservation-tillage banned in some countries. amount of precipitation is less than 25 cen-
farming.
death rate See crude death rate. timeters (10 inches) per year. Such areas
convergent plate boundary Area have little vegetation or have widely
where the earth’s lithospheric plates are debt-for-nature swap Agreement in spaced, mostly low vegetation. Compare
pushed together. See subduction zone. which a certain amount of foreign debt is forest, grassland.
Compare divergent plate boundary, transform canceled in exchange for local currency
fault. investments that will improve natural desertification Conversion of rangeland,
resource management or protect certain rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to
coral reef Formation produced by mas- areas in the debtor country from harmful desertlike land, with a drop in agricultural
sive colonies containing billions of tiny development. productivity of 10% or more. It usually is
coral animals, called polyps, that secrete a caused by a combination of overgrazing,
stony substance (calcium carbonate) around deciduous plants Trees, such as oaks and
soil erosion, prolonged drought, and cli-
themselves for protection. When the corals maples, and other plants that survive dur-
mate change.
die, their empty outer skeletons form layers ing dry seasons or cold seasons by shedding
and cause the reef to grow. Coral reefs are their leaves. Compare coniferous trees, succu- detritivore Consumer organism that feeds
found in the coastal zones of warm tropical lent plants. on detritus, parts of dead organisms, and
and subtropical oceans. cast-off fragments and wastes of living
decomposer Organism that digests parts
organisms. The two principal types are
core Inner zone of the earth. It consists of of dead organisms and cast-off fragments
detritus feeders and decomposers.
a solid inner core and a liquid outer core. and wastes of living organisms by breaking
Compare crust, mantle. down the complex organic molecules in detritus Parts of dead organisms and
those materials into simpler inorganic com- cast-off fragments and wastes of living
critical mass Amount of fissionable nuclei pounds and then absorbing the soluble organisms.
needed to sustain a nuclear fission chain nutrients. Producers return most of these
reaction. chemicals to the soil and water for reuse. detritus feeder Organism that extracts
Decomposers consist of various bacteria nutrients from fragments of dead organisms
crop rotation Planting a field, or an area
and fungi. Compare consumer, detritivore, and their cast-off parts and organic wastes.
of a field, with different crops from year to
producer. Examples include earthworms, termites,
year to reduce soil nutrient depletion. A
and crabs. Compare decomposer.
plant such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, which deforestation Removal of trees from a
removes large amounts of nitrogen from the forested area without adequate replanting. deuterium (D; hydrogen-2) Isotope of the
soil, is planted one year. The next year a element hydrogen, with a nucleus contain-
legume such as soybeans, which adds nitro- degradable pollutant Potentially pollut- ing one proton and one neutron and a mass
gen to the soil, is planted. ing chemical that is broken down com- number of 2.
G4 GLOSSARY
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developed country Country that is highly drainage basin See watershed. than it is worth. May also apply to the
industrialized and has a high per capita depletion of a renewable resource, such as a
drift-net fishing Catching fish in huge
GNP. Compare developing country. fish or tree species.
nets that drift in the water.
developing country Country that has low economic development Improvement of
drought Condition in which an area does
to moderate industrialization and low to living standards by economic growth. Com-
not get enough water because of lower-than-
moderate per capita GNP. Most are located pare economic growth, environmentally sus-
normal precipitation or higher-than-normal
in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Com- tainable economic development.
temperatures that increase evaporation.
pare developed country.
economic growth Increase in the capacity
earthquake Shaking of the ground result-
dieback Sharp reduction in the popula- to provide people with goods and services
ing from the fracturing and displacement of
tion of a species when its numbers exceed produced by an economy; an increase in
rock, which produces a fault, or from subse-
the carrying capacity of its habitat. See car- gross domestic product (GDP). Compare
quent movement along the fault.
rying capacity. economic development, environmentally sus-
ecological diversity The variety of forests, tainable economic development. See gross
differential reproduction Phenomenon in deserts, grasslands, oceans, streams, lakes, domestic product.
which individuals with adaptive genetic and other biological communities interact-
traits produce more living offspring than do economic resources Natural resources,
ing with one another and with their nonliv-
individuals without such traits. See natural capital goods, and labor used in an econ-
ing environment. See biodiversity. Compare
selection. omy to produce material goods and ser-
functional diversity, genetic diversity, species
vices. See natural resources.
dioxins Family of 75 chlorinated hydro- diversity.
carbon compounds formed as unwanted economic system Method that a group of
ecological efficiency Percentage of energy
by-products in chemical reactions involving people uses to choose which goods and ser-
transferred from one trophic level to
chlorine and hydrocarbons, usually at high vices to produce, how to produce them,
another in a food chain or web.
temperatures. how much to produce, and how to distrib-
ecological footprint Amount of biologi- ute them to people.
dissolved oxygen (DO) content Amount cally productive land and water needed to
of oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in a given vol- economy System of production, distribu-
supply a population with the renewable
ume of water at a particular temperature tion, and consumption of economic goods.
resources it uses and to absorb or dispose of
and pressure, often expressed as a concen- the wastes from such resource use. It mea- ecosphere See biosphere.
tration in parts of oxygen per million parts sures the average environmental impact of
of water. ecosystem Community of different
populations in different countries and areas.
species interacting with one another and
disturbance A discrete event that disrupts See per capita ecological footprint
with the chemical and physical factors mak-
an ecosystem or community. Examples of ecological niche Total way of life or role ing up its nonliving environment.
natural disturbances include fires, hurricanes, of a species in an ecosystem. It includes all
tornadoes, droughts, and floods. Examples ecosystem services Natural services or
physical, chemical, and biological condi-
of human-caused disturbances include defor- natural capital that support life on the earth
tions that a species needs to live and repro-
estation, overgrazing, and plowing. and are essential to the quality of human
duce in an ecosystem. See fundamental niche,
life and the functioning of the world’s
divergent plate boundary Area where the realized niche.
economies. See natural resources.
earth’s lithospheric plates move apart in ecological restoration Deliberate alter-
opposite directions. Compare convergent electromagnetic radiation Forms of
ation of a degraded habitat or ecosystem to
plate boundary, transform fault. kinetic energy traveling as electromagnetic
restore as much of its ecological structure
waves. Examples include radio waves, TV
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Large and function as possible.
waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visi-
molecules in the cells of organisms that ecological succession Process in which ble light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and
carry genetic information in living communities of plant and animal species in gamma rays. Compare ionizing radiation,
organisms. a particular area are replaced over time by a nonionizing radiation.
domesticated species Wild species tamed series of different and often more complex
electron (e) Tiny particle moving around
or genetically altered by crossbreeding for communities. See primary succession, sec-
outside the nucleus of an atom. Each elec-
use by humans for food (cattle, sheep, and ondary succession.
tron has one unit of negative charge and
food crops), pets (dogs and cats), or enjoy- ecologist Biological scientist who studies almost no mass. Compare neutron, proton.
ment (animals in zoos and plants in gar- relationships between living organisms and
element Chemical, such as hydrogen (H),
dens). Compare wild species. their environment.
iron (Fe), sodium (Na), carbon (C), nitrogen
dose The amount of a potentially harmful ecology Study of the interactions of living (N), or oxygen (O), whose distinctly differ-
substance an individual ingests, inhales, or organisms with one another and with their ent atoms serve as the basic building
absorbs through the skin. Compare response. nonliving environment of matter and blocks of all matter. Two or more elements
See dose-response curve, median lethal dose. energy; study of the structure and functions combine to form the compounds that make
of nature. up most of the world’s matter. Compare
dose-response curve Plot of data showing
compound.
the effects of various doses of a toxic agent economic decision Deciding which goods
on a group of test organisms. See dose, and services to produce, how to produce endangered species A wild species with
median lethal dose, response. them, how much to produce, and how to so few individual survivors that the species
distribute them to people. could soon become extinct in all or most of
doubling time The time it takes (usually
its natural range. Compare threatened species.
in years) for the quantity of something economic depletion Exhaustion of 80% of
growing exponentially to double. It can be the estimated supply of a nonrenewable endemic species Species that is found in
calculated by dividing the annual percent- resource. Finding, extracting, and process- only one area. Such species are especially
age growth rate into 70. ing the remaining 20% usually costs more vulnerable to extinction.
GLOSSARY G5
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energy Capacity to do work by performing discourages environmentally harmful and radiation and pesticide hazards, environ-
mechanical, physical, chemical, or electrical unsustainable forms of economic growth. It mental research, hazardous waste, and solid
tasks or to cause a heat transfer between two is the economic component of an environ- waste disposal.
objects at different temperatures. mentally sustainable society. Compare eco-
epidemiology Study of the patterns of
nomic development, economic growth.
energy efficiency Percentage of the total disease or other harmful effects from toxic
energy input that does useful work and is environmentally sustainable society exposure within defined groups of people
not converted into low-quality, generally Society that satisfies the basic needs of its to find out why some people get sick and
useless heat in an energy conversion system people without depleting or degrading its some do not.
or process. See energy quality, net energy. natural resources and thereby preventing
epiphyte Plant that uses its roots to attach
Compare material efficiency. current and future generations of humans
itself to branches high in trees, especially in
and other species from meeting their basic
energy productivity See energy efficiency. tropical forests.
needs.
energy quality Ability of a form of energy erosion Process or group of processes by
to do useful work. High-temperature heat environmental resistance All of the limit-
which loose or consolidated earth materials
and the chemical energy in fossil fuels and ing factors that act together to limit the
are dissolved, loosened, or worn away and
nuclear fuels are concentrated high-quality growth of a population. See biotic potential,
removed from one place and deposited in
energy. Low-quality energy, such as low- limiting factor.
another. See weathering.
temperature heat, is dispersed or diluted environmental revolution Cultural
and cannot do much useful work. See high- estuary Partially enclosed coastal area at
change involving halting population
quality energy, low-quality energy. the mouth of a river where its fresh water,
growth and altering lifestyles, political and
carrying fertile silt and runoff from the
environment All external conditions and economic systems, and the way we treat the
land, mixes with salty seawater.
factors, living and nonliving (chemicals and environment so that we can help sustain the
energy), that affect an organism or other earth for ourselves and other species. It euphotic zone Upper layer of a body of
specified system during its lifetime. requires working with the rest of nature by water through which sunlight can penetrate
learning more about how nature sustains and support photosynthesis.
environmental degradation Depletion or itself. See environmental wisdom worldview.
destruction of a potentially renewable eutrophication Physical, chemical, and
resource such as soil, grassland, forest, or environmental science Interdisciplinary biological changes that take place after a
wildlife that is used faster than it is natu- study that uses information from the physi- lake, estuary, or slow-flowing stream re-
rally replenished. If such use continues, the cal sciences and social sciences to learn how ceives inputs of plant nutrients—mostly
resource becomes nonrenewable (on a the earth works, how we interact with the nitrates and phosphates—from natural ero-
human time scale) or nonexistent (extinct). earth, and how to deal with environmental sion and runoff from the surrounding land
See also sustainable yield. problems. basin. See cultural eutrophication.
environmental ethics Human beliefs environmental scientist Scientist who eutrophic lake Lake with a large or exces-
about what is right or wrong environmental uses information from the physical sciences sive supply of plant nutrients, mostly
behavior. and social sciences to understand how the nitrates and phosphates. Compare
earth works, learn how humans interact mesotrophic lake, oligotrophic lake.
environmentalism A social movement with the earth, and develop solutions to
dedicated to protecting the earth’s life sup- evaporation Conversion of a liquid into a
environmental problems.
port systems for us and other species. gas.
environmental wisdom worldview
environmentalist Person who is con- even-aged management Method of forest
Beliefs that (1) nature exists for all of the
cerned about the impact of people on envi- management in which trees, sometimes of a
earth’s species, not just for humans, and we
ronmental quality and believes that some single species in a given stand, are main-
are not in charge of the rest of nature;
human actions are degrading parts of the tained at roughly the same age and size and
(2) there is not always more, and it is not
earth’s life-support systems for humans and are harvested all at once. Compare uneven-
all for us; (3) some forms of economic
many other forms of life. aged management.
growth are beneficial and some are harm-
environmental justice Fair treatment ful, and our goals should be to design eco- evergreen plants Plants that keep some of
and meaningful involvement of all people nomic and political systems that encourage their leaves or needles throughout the year.
regardless of race, color, sex, national earth-sustaining forms of growth and dis- Examples include ferns and cone-bearing
origin, or income with respect to the devel- courage or prohibit earth-degrading forms; trees (conifers) such as firs, spruces, pines,
opment, implementation, and enforcement and (4) our success depends on learning to redwoods, and sequoias. Compare decidu-
of environmental laws, regulations, and cooperate with one another and with the ous plants, succulent plants.
policies. rest of nature instead of trying to dominate
evolution See biological evolution.
and manage earth’s life-support systems
environmental policy Laws, rules, and primarily for our own use. Compare plane- exhaustible resource See nonrenewable
regulations related to an environmental tary management worldview, stewardship resource.
problem that are developed, implemented, worldview.
and enforced by a particular government exotic species See nonnative species.
agency. environmental worldview How people
experiment Procedure a scientist uses to
think the world works, what they think
environmentally sustainable economic study some phenomenon under known
their role in the world should be, and what
development Development that encour- conditions. Scientists conduct some experi-
they believe is right and wrong environ-
ages forms of economic growth that meet ments in the laboratory and others in
mental behavior (environmental ethics).
the basic needs of the current generations of nature. The resulting scientific data or facts
humans and other species without prevent- EPA U.S. Environmental Protection must be verified or confirmed by repeated
ing future generations of humans and other Agency; responsible for managing federal observations and measurements, ideally by
species from meeting their basic needs and efforts to control air and water pollution, several different investigators.
G6 GLOSSARY
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exponential growth Growth in which fishery Concentrations of particular freshwater life zones Aquatic systems
some quantity, such as population size or aquatic species suitable for commercial har- where water with a dissolved salt concen-
economic output, increases at a constant vesting in a given ocean area or inland body tration of less than 1% by volume accumu-
rate per unit of time. An example is the of water. lates on or flows through the surfaces of ter-
growth sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and so restrial biomes. Examples include standing
fish farming Form of aquaculture in
on. When the increase in quantity over time (lentic) bodies of fresh water such as lakes,
which fish are cultivated in a controlled
is plotted, this type of growth yields a curve ponds, and inland wetlands and flowing
pond or other environment and harvested
shaped like the letter J. Compare linear (lotic) systems such as streams and rivers.
when they reach the desired size. See also
growth. Compare biome.
fish ranching.
external benefit Beneficial social effect of front The boundary between two air
fish ranching Form of aquaculture in
producing and using an economic good that masses with different temperatures and
which members of a fish species such as
is not included in the market price of the densities. See cold front, warm front.
salmon are held in captivity for the first few
good. Compare external cost, full cost.
years of their lives, released, and then har- frontier science Preliminary scientific
external cost Harmful social effect of pro- vested as adults when they return from the data, hypotheses, and models that have not
ducing and using an economic good that is ocean to their freshwater birthplace to been widely tested and accepted. Compare
not included in the market price of the spawn. See also fish farming. junk science, sound science.
good. Compare external benefit, full cost,
fissionable isotope Isotope that can frontier worldview View by European
internal cost.
split apart when hit by a neutron at the colonists settling North America in the
externalities Social benefits (“goods”) and right speed and thus undergo nuclear fis- 1600s that the continent had vast resources
social costs (“bads”) not included in the sion. Examples include uranium-235 and and was a wilderness to be conquered by
market price of an economic good. See plutonium-239. settlers clearing and planting land.
external benefit, external cost. Compare full
floodplain Flat valley floor next to a full cost Cost of a good when its internal
cost, internal cost.
stream channel. For legal purposes, the costs and its estimated short- and long-term
extinction Complete disappearance of a term often applies to any low area that has external costs are included in its market
species from the earth. It happens when a the potential for flooding, including certain price. Compare external cost, internal cost.
species cannot adapt and successfully coastal areas.
functional diversity Biological and chem-
reproduce under new environmental condi-
flows See throughput. ical processes or functions such as energy
tions or when a species evolves into one or
flow and matter cycling needed for the sur-
more new species. Compare speciation. See flyway Generally fixed route along which
vival of species and biological communities.
also endangered species, mass depletion, mass waterfowl migrate from one area to another
See biodiversity, ecological diversity, genetic
extinction, threatened species. at certain seasons of the year.
diversity, species diversity.
family planning Providing information, food chain Series of organisms in which
fundamental niche The full potential
clinical services, and contraceptives to help each eats or decomposes the preceding one.
range of the physical, chemical, and
people choose the number and spacing of Compare food web.
biological factors a species can use if it
children they want to have.
food web Complex network of many does not face any competition from other
famine Widespread malnutrition and interconnected food chains and feeding species. See ecological niche. Compare realized
starvation in a particular area because of a relationships. Compare food chain. niche.
shortage of food, usually caused by
forest Biome with enough average annual fungicide Chemical that kills fungi.
drought, war, flood, earthquake, or other
precipitation (at least 76 centimeters, or 30
catastrophic events that disrupt food pro- game species Type of wild animal that
inches) to support the growth of tree species
duction and distribution. people hunt or fish for, for sport and recre-
and smaller forms of vegetation. Compare
ation and sometimes for food.
feedlot Confined outdoor or indoor space desert, grassland.
used to raise hundreds to thousands of gamma ray A form of ionizing electro-
fossil fuel Products of partial or
domesticated livestock. Compare rangeland. magnetic radiation with a high energy con-
complete decomposition of plants and ani-
tent emitted by some radioisotopes. It read-
fermentation See anaerobic respiration. mals that occur as crude oil, coal, natural
ily penetrates body tissues. See also alpha
gas, or heavy oils as a result of exposure to
fertilizer Substance that adds inorganic or particle, beta particle.
heat and pressure in the earth’s crust over
organic plant nutrients to soil and improves
millions of years. See coal, crude oil, natural GDP See gross domestic product.
its ability to grow crops, trees, or other veg-
gas.
etation. See commercial inorganic fertilizer, gene mutation See mutation.
organic fertilizer. fossils Skeletons, bones, shells, body
gene pool The sum total of all genes
parts, leaves, seeds, or impressions of such
first law of thermodynamics In any found in the individuals of the population
items that provide recognizable evidence of
physical or chemical change, no detectable of a particular species.
organisms that lived long ago.
amount of energy is created or destroyed,
generalist species Species with a broad
but energy can be changed from one form foundation species A species that plays a
ecological niche. They can live in many
to another; you cannot get more energy out major role in shaping communities by creat-
different places, eat a variety of foods, and
of something than you put in; in terms of ing and enhancing a habitat that benefits
tolerate a wide range of environmental con-
energy quantity, you cannot get something other species. Compare indicator species, key-
ditions. Examples include flies, cock-
for nothing (there is no free lunch). This stone species, native species, nonnative species.
roaches, mice, rats, and humans. Compare
law does not apply to nuclear changes, in
free-access resource See common-property specialist species.
which energy can be produced from small
resource.
amounts of matter. See second law of thermo- genes Coded units of information about
dynamics. Freons See chlorofluorocarbons. specific traits that are passed from parents
GLOSSARY G7
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to offspring during reproduction. They con- atmospheric concentrations of these green- hazardous waste Any solid, liquid, or
sist of segments of DNA molecules found in house gases increase and other natural containerized gas that can catch fire easily,
chromosomes. processes do not remove them, the average is corrosive to skin tissue or metals, is
temperature of the lower atmosphere will unstable and can explode or release toxic
gene splicing See genetic engineering.
increase gradually. Compare global warming. fumes, or has harmful concentrations of one
genetic adaptation Changes in the genetic See also natural greenhouse effect. or more toxic materials that can leach out.
makeup of organisms of a species that allow See also toxic waste.
greenhouse gases Gases in the earth’s
the species to reproduce and gain a compet-
lower atmosphere (troposphere) that cause heat Total kinetic energy of all randomly
itive advantage under changed environ-
the greenhouse effect. Examples include moving atoms, ions, or molecules within a
mental conditions. See differential reproduc-
carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, given substance, excluding the overall
tion, evolution, mutation, natural selection.
methane, water vapor, and nitrous oxide. motion of the whole object. Heat always
genetically modified organism (GMO) flows spontaneously from a hot sample of
Organism whose genetic makeup has been green manure Freshly cut or still-growing matter to a colder sample of matter. This is
altered by genetic engineering. green vegetation that is plowed into the soil one way to state the second law of thermo-
to increase the organic matter and humus dynamics. Compare temperature.
genetic diversity Variability in the genetic available to support crop growth. Compare
makeup among individuals within a single animal manure. herbicide Chemical that kills a plant or
species. See biodiversity. Compare ecological inhibits its growth.
diversity, functional diversity, species diversity. green revolution Popular term for the
herbivore Plant-eating organism. Exam-
introduction of scientifically bred or selected
genetic engineering Insertion of an alien ples include deer, sheep, grasshoppers, and
varieties of grain (rice, wheat, maize) that,
gene into an organism to give it a beneficial zooplankton. Compare carnivore, omnivore.
with adequate inputs of fertilizer and water,
genetic trait. Compare artificial selection, nat- can greatly increase crop yields. heterotroph See consumer.
ural selection.
gross domestic product (GDP) Annual high An air mass with a high pressure.
genome Complete set of genetic informa- market value of all goods and services pro- Compare low.
tion for an organism. duced by all firms and organizations, foreign high-input agriculture See industrialized
geographic isolation Separation of popu- and domestic, operating within a country. agriculture.
lations of a species for long times into dif- gross primary productivity (GPP) The high-quality energy Energy that is con-
ferent areas. rate at which an ecosystem’s producers cap- centrated and has great ability to perform
geology Study of the earth’s dynamic his- ture and store a given amount of chemical useful work. Examples include high-tem-
tory. Geologists study and analyze rocks energy as biomass in a given length of time. perature heat and the energy in electricity,
and the features and processes of the earth’s Compare net primary productivity. coal, oil, gasoline, sunlight, and nuclei of
interior and surface. uranium-235. Compare low-quality energy.
ground fire Fire that burns decayed
geothermal energy Heat transferred from leaves or peat deep below the ground sur- high-quality matter Matter that is concen-
the earth’s underground concentrations of face. Compare crown fire, surface fire. trated and contains a high concentration of a
dry steam (steam with no water droplets), useful resource. Compare low-quality matter.
groundwater Water that sinks into the soil
wet steam (a mixture of steam and water and is stored in slowly flowing and slowly high-throughput economy The situation
droplets), or hot water trapped in fractured renewed underground reservoirs called in most advanced industrialized countries,
or porous rock. aquifers; underground water in the zone of in which ever-increasing economic growth
saturation, below the water table. Compare is sustained by maximizing the rate at which
globalization Broad process of global
runoff, surface water. matter and energy resources are used, with
social, economic, and environmental change
little emphasis on pollution prevention,
that leads to an increasingly integrated habitat Place or type of place where an recycling, reuse, reduction of unnecessary
world. organism or population of organisms lives. waste, and other forms of resource conser-
global warming Warming of the earth’s Compare ecological niche. vation. Compare low-throughput economy,
atmosphere because of increases in the con- matter-recycling-and-reuse economy.
habitat fragmentation Breakup of a habi-
centrations of one or more greenhouse
tat into smaller pieces, usually as a result of high-waste economy See high-throughput
gases primarily as a result of human activi-
human activities. economy.
ties. See greenhouse effect, greenhouse gases.
half-life Time needed for one-half of the host Plant or animal on which a parasite
grassland Biome found in regions where feeds.
nuclei in a radioisotope to emit their radia-
moderate annual average precipitation
tion. Each radioisotope has a characteristic human resources People’s physical and
(25–76 centimeters, or 10–30 inches) is
half-life, which may range from a few mil- mental talents that support an economy by
enough to support the growth of grass and
lionths of a second to several billion years. providing labor, innovation, culture, and
small plants but not enough to support
See radioisotope. organization. Compare manufactured
large stands of trees. Compare desert, forest.
hazard Something that can cause injury, resources, natural resources.
greenhouse effect A natural effect that
disease, economic loss, or environmental humus Slightly soluble residue of undi-
releases heat in the atmosphere (tropo-
damage. See also risk. gested or partially decomposed organic
sphere) near the earth’s surface. Water
vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and other hazardous chemical Chemical that can material in topsoil. This material helps
gases in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) cause harm because it is flammable or retain water and water-soluble nutrients,
absorb some of the infrared radiation (heat) explosive, can irritate or damage the skin or which can be taken up by plant roots.
radiated by the earth’s surface. Their mole- lungs (such as strong acidic or alkaline sub- hunter–gatherers People who get their
cules vibrate and transform the absorbed stances), or can cause allergic reactions of food by gathering edible wild plants and
energy into longer-wavelength infrared the immune system (allergens). See also other materials and by hunting wild ani-
radiation (heat) in the troposphere. If the toxic chemical. mals and fish.
G8 GLOSSARY
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hydrocarbon Organic compound of industrial smog Type of air pollution con- forestry, intercropping, polyculture, polyvarietal
hydrogen and carbon atoms. The simplest sisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur diox- cultivation.
hydrocarbon is methane (CH4), the major ide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid
interspecific competition Attempts by
component of natural gas. formed from some of the sulfur dioxide,
members of two or more species to use the
and suspended solid particles. Compare
hydroelectric power plant Structure in same limited resources in an ecosystem. See
photochemical smog.
which the energy of falling or flowing wa- competition, intraspecific competition.
ter spins a turbine generator to produce infant mortality rate Number of babies
intertidal zone The area of shoreline
electricity. out of every 1,000 born each year who die
between low and high tides.
before their first birthday.
hydrologic cycle Biogeochemical cycle
intraspecific competition Attempts by
that collects, purifies, and distributes the infectious disease See transmissible disease.
two or more organisms of a single species to
earth’s fixed supply of water from the envi-
infiltration Downward movement of use the same limited resources in an ecosys-
ronment to living organisms and then back
water through soil. tem. See competition, interspecific competition.
to the environment.
information and globalization revolution intrinsic rate of increase (r) Rate at which
hydropower Electrical energy produced
Use of new technologies such as the tele- a population could grow if it had unlimited
by falling or flowing water. See hydroelectric
phone, radio, television, computers, the resources. Compare environmental resistance.
power plant.
Internet, automated databases, and remote
hydrosphere The earth’s liquid water intrinsic value Value of an organism,
sensing satellites to enable people to have
(oceans, lakes, other bodies of surface water, species, ecosystem, or the earth’s biodiver-
increasingly rapid access to much more
and underground water), frozen water (polar sity based on its existence, regardless of
information on a global scale. Compare—
ice caps, floating ice caps, and ice in soil, whether it has any usefulness to humans.
agricultural revolution, environmental revolu-
known as permafrost), and water vapor in Compare instrumental value.
tion, hunter–gatherers, industrial–medical
the atmosphere. See also hydrologic cycle. revolution. invasive species See nonnative species.
identified resources Deposits of a partic- inherent value See intrinsic value. inversion See temperature inversion.
ular mineral-bearing material of which the
inland wetland Land away from the invertebrates Animals that have no back-
location, quantity, and quality are known or
coast, such as a swamp, marsh, or bog, that bones. Compare vertebrates.
have been estimated from direct geological
is covered all or part of the time with fresh
evidence and measurements. Compare ion Atom or group of atoms with one or
water. Compare coastal wetland.
undiscovered resources. more positive () or negative () electrical
inorganic compounds All compounds not charges. Compare atom, molecule.
igneous rock Rock formed when molten
classified as organic compounds. See organic
rock material (magma) wells up from the ionizing radiation Fast-moving alpha or
compounds.
earth’s interior, cools, and solidifies into beta particles or high-energy radiation
rock masses. Compare metamorphic rock, sed- inorganic fertilizer See commercial inor- (gamma rays) emitted by radioisotopes.
imentary rock. See rock cycle. ganic fertilizer. They have enough energy to dislodge one
immature community Community at an input Matter, energy, or information enter- or more electrons from atoms they hit,
early stage of ecological succession. It usu- ing a system. Compare output, throughput. thereby forming charged ions in tissue that
ally has a low number of species and eco- can react with and damage living tissue.
input pollution control See pollution Compare nonionizing radiation.
logical niches and cannot capture and use
prevention.
energy and cycle critical nutrients as effi- isotopes Two or more forms of a chemical
ciently as more complex, mature communi- insecticide Chemical that kills insects. element that have the same number of pro-
ties. Compare mature community. instrumental value Value of an organism, tons but different mass numbers because
immigrant species See nonnative species. species, ecosystem, or the earth’s biodiver- they have different numbers of neutrons in
sity based on its usefulness to humans. their nuclei.
immigration Migration of people into
Compare intrinsic value. J-shaped curve Curve with a shape simi-
a country or area to take up permanent
residence. integrated pest management (IPM) Com- lar to that of the letter J; can represent pro-
bined use of biological, chemical, and culti- longed exponential growth. See exponential
indicator species Species that serve as
vation methods in proper sequence and growth.
early warnings that a community or eco-
timing to keep the size of a pest population junk science Scientific results or hypoth-
system is being degraded. Compare founda-
below the size that causes economically un- eses presented as sound science but not
tion species, keystone species, native species,
acceptable loss of a crop or livestock animal. having undergone the rigors of the peer
nonnative species.
intercropping Growing two or more dif- review process. Compare frontier science,
industrialized agriculture Using large
ferent crops at the same time on a plot. For sound science.
inputs of energy from fossil fuels (especially
example, a carbohydrate-rich grain that
oil and natural gas), water, fertilizer, and kerogen Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocar-
depletes soil nitrogen and a protein-rich
pesticides to produce large quantities of bons found in oil shale rock. Heating the
legume that adds nitrogen to the soil may
crops and livestock for domestic and for- rock to high temperatures causes the kero-
be intercropped. Compare monoculture, poly-
eign sale. Compare subsistence farming. gen to vaporize. The vapor is condensed,
culture, polyvarietal cultivation.
purified, and then sent to a refinery to pro-
industrial–medical revolution Use of
internal cost Direct cost paid by the pro- duce gasoline, heating oil, and other prod-
new sources of energy from fossil fuels and
ducer and the buyer of an economic good. ucts. See also oil shale, shale oil.
later from nuclear fuels, and use of new
Compare external benefit, external cost, full
technologies, to grow food and manufac- keystone species Species that play roles
cost.
ture products. Compare agricultural revolu- affecting many other organisms in an
tion, environmental revolution, hunter–gather- interplanting Simultaneously growing a ecosystem. Compare foundation species, indi-
ers, information and globalization revolution. variety of crops on the same plot. See agro- cator species, native species, nonnative species.
GLOSSARY G9
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kilocalorie (kcal) Unit of energy equal to population of a species in an ecosystem. See LPG See liquefied petroleum gas.
1,000 calories. See calorie. limiting factor principle.
macroevolution Long-term, large-scale
kilowatt (kW) Unit of electrical power limiting factor principle Too much or too evolutionary changes among groups of
equal to 1,000 watts. See watt. little of any abiotic factor can limit or pre- species. Compare microevolution.
vent growth of a population of a species in
kinetic energy Energy that matter has macronutrients Chemical elements that
an ecosystem, even if all other factors are at
because of its mass and speed or velocity. are needed in fairly large amounts. Exam-
or near the optimal range of tolerance for
Compare potential energy. ples are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
the species.
oxygen found in protein, carbohydrates,
K-selected species Species that produce a
linear growth Growth in which a quantity and fats. Compare micronutrients.
few, often fairly large offspring but invest a
increases by some fixed amount during
great deal of time and energy to ensure that magma Molten rock below the earth’s
each unit of time. An example is growth
most of those offspring reach reproductive surface.
that increases in the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
age. Compare r-selected species.
and so on. Compare exponential growth. malnutrition Faulty nutrition, caused by
K-strategists See K-selected species. a diet that does not supply an individual
liquefied natural gas (LNG) Natural gas
with enough protein, essential fats, vita-
lake Large natural body of standing fresh converted to liquid form by cooling it to a
mins, minerals, and other nutrients needed
water formed when water from precipita- very low temperature.
for good health. Compare overnutrition,
tion, land runoff, or groundwater flow fills liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Mixture undernutrition.
a depression in the earth created by glacia- of liquefied propane (C3H8) and butane
tion, earth movement, volcanic activity, or a mangrove swamps Swamps found on the
(C4H10) gas removed from natural gas and
giant meteorite. See eutrophic lake, coastlines in warm tropical climates. They
used as a fuel.
mesotrophic lake, oligotrophic lake. are dominated by mangrove trees, any of
lithosphere Outer shell of the earth, about 55 species of trees and shrubs that can
land degradation A decrease in the ability composed of the crust and the rigid, outer- live partly submerged in the salty environ-
of land to support crops, livestock, or wild most part of the mantle outside the astheno- ment of coastal swamps.
species in the future as a result of natural or sphere; material found in the earth’s plates.
human-induced processes. mantle Zone of the earth’s interior
See crust, mantle.
between its core and its crust. Compare core,
landfill See sanitary landfill. loams Soils containing a mixture of clay, crust. See lithosphere.
latitude Distance from the equator. Com- sand, silt, and humus. Good for growing
manufactured capital See manufactured
pare altitude. most crops.
resources.
law of conservation of energy See first logistic growth Pattern in which exponen-
manufactured resources Manufactured
law of thermodynamics. tial population growth occurs when the
items made from natural resources and
population is small, and population growth
law of conservation of matter In any used to produce and distribute economic
decreases steadily with time as the popula-
physical or chemical change, matter is nei- goods and services bought by consumers.
tion approaches the carrying capacity. See
ther created nor destroyed but merely They include tools, machinery, equipment,
S-shaped curve.
changed from one form to another; in phys- factory buildings, and transportation and
ical and chemical changes, existing atoms low An air mass with a low pressure. distribution facilities. Compare human
are rearranged into different spatial pat- Compare high. resources, natural resources.
terns (physical changes) or different combi- low-input agriculture See sustainable agri- manure See animal manure, green manure.
nations (chemical changes). culture.
mass The amount of material in an
law of tolerance The existence, abun- low-quality energy Energy that is dis- object.
dance, and distribution of a species in an persed and has little ability to do useful
ecosystem are determined by whether the mass depletion Widespread, often global
work. An example is low-temperature heat.
levels of one or more physical or chemical period during which extinction rates are
Compare high-quality energy.
factors fall within the range tolerated by the higher than normal but not high enough to
species. See threshold effect. low-quality matter Matter that is dilute or classify as a mass extinction. Compare back-
dispersed or contains a low concentration ground extinction, mass extinction.
LD50 See median lethal dose. of a useful resource. Compare high-quality
mass extinction A catastrophic, wide-
LDC See developing country. matter.
spread, often global event in which major
leaching Process in which various chemi- low-throughput economy Economy groups of species are wiped out over a short
cals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and based on working with nature by recycling time compared with normal (background)
carried to lower layers and, in some cases, and reusing discarded matter; preventing extinctions. Compare background extinction,
to groundwater. pollution; conserving matter and energy mass depletion.
resources by reducing unnecessary waste
less developed country (LDC) See devel- mass number Sum of the number of
and use; not degrading renewable
oping country. neutrons (n) and the number of protons (p)
resources; building things that are easy to
in the nucleus of an atom. It gives the
life-cycle cost Initial cost plus lifetime recycle, reuse, and repair; not allowing pop-
approximate mass of that atom. Compare
operating costs of an economic good. Com- ulation size to exceed the carrying capacity
atomic number.
pare full cost. of the environment; and preserving biodi-
versity and ecological integrity. Compare mass transit Buses, trains, trolleys, and
life expectancy Average number of years high-throughput economy, matter-recycling- other forms of transportation that carry
a newborn infant can be expected to live. and-reuse economy. large numbers of people.
limiting factor Single factor that limits the low-waste economy See low-throughput material efficiency Total amount of mate-
growth, abundance, or distribution of the economy. rial needed to produce each unit of goods or
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services. Also called resource productivity. micronutrients Chemical elements that municipal solid waste (MSW) Solid
Compare energy efficiency. organisms need in small or even trace materials discarded by homes and busi-
amounts to live, grow, or reproduce. nesses in or near urban areas. See solid
matter Anything that has mass (the
Examples include sodium, zinc, copper, waste.
amount of material in an object) and takes up
chlorine, and iodine. Compare macro-
space. On the earth, where gravity is present, mutagen Chemical or form of radiation
nutrients.
we weigh an object to determine its mass. that causes inheritable changes (mutations)
microorganisms Organisms such as bacte- in the DNA molecules in genes. See carcino-
matter quality Measure of how useful a
ria that are so small that it takes a micro- gen, mutation, teratogen.
matter resource is, based on its availability
scope to see them.
and concentration. See high-quality matter, mutation A random change in DNA mole-
low-quality matter. micropower systems Systems of small- cules making up genes that can alter
scale decentralized units that generate anatomy, physiology, or behavior in off-
matter-recycling-and-reuse economy
1–10,000 kilowatts of electricity. Examples spring. See mutagen.
Economy that emphasizes recycling the
include microturbines, fuel cells, and house-
maximum amount of all resources that can mutualism Type of species interaction in
hold solar panels and solar roofs.
be recycled. The goal is to allow economic which both participating species generally
growth to continue without depleting mineral Any naturally occurring inor- benefit. Compare commensalism.
matter resources and without producing ganic substance found in the earth’s
excessive pollution and environmental crust as a crystalline solid. See mineral native species Species that normally live
degradation. Compare high-throughput resource. and thrive in a particular ecosystem. Com-
economy, low-throughput economy. pare foundation species, indicator species, key-
mineral resource Concentration of natu- stone species, nonnative species.
mature community Fairly stable, self- rally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous
sustaining community in an advanced stage material in or on the earth’s crust in a form natural capital See natural resources.
of ecological succession; usually has a and amount such that extracting and con- natural gas Underground deposits of
diverse array of species and ecological verting it into useful materials or items is gases consisting of 50–90% by weight
niches; captures and uses energy and cycles currently or potentially profitable. Mineral methane gas (CH4) and small amounts
critical chemicals more efficiently than sim- resources are classified as metallic (such as of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon com-
pler, immature communities. Compare iron and tin ores) or nonmetallic (such as fos- pounds such as propane (C3H8) and butane
immature community. sil fuels, sand, and salt). (C4H10).
maximum sustainable yield See sustain- minimum-tillage farming See conserva- natural greenhouse effect Heat buildup
able yield. tion-tillage farming. in the troposphere because of the presence
MDC See developed country. minimum viable population (MVP) Esti- of certain gases, called greenhouse gases.
mate of the smallest number of individuals Without this effect, the earth would be
median lethal dose (LD50) Amount of a nearly as cold as Mars, and life as we
necessary to ensure the survival of a popu-
toxic material per unit of body weight of know it could not exist. Compare global
lation in a region for a specified time
test animals that kills half the test popula- warming.
period, typically ranging from decades to
tion in a certain time.
100 years. natural law See scientific law.
megacity City with 10 million or more
mixture Combination of one or more ele- natural radioactive decay Nuclear change
people.
ments and compounds. in which unstable nuclei of atoms sponta-
meltdown The melting of the core of a neously shoot out particles (usually alpha
model An approximate representation or
nuclear reactor. or beta particles) or energy (gamma rays) at
simulation of a system being studied.
mesotrophic lake Lake with a moderate a fixed rate.
molecule Combination of two or more
supply of plant nutrients. Compare natural rate of extinction See background
atoms of the same chemical element (such
eutrophic lake, oligotrophic lake. extinction.
as O2) or different chemical elements (such
metabolism Ability of a living cell or as H2O) held together by chemical bonds. natural recharge Natural replenishment
organism to capture and transform matter Compare atom, ion. of an aquifer by precipitation, which perco-
and energy from its environment to sup- lates downward through soil and rock. See
monoculture Cultivation of a single crop,
ply its needs for survival, growth, and recharge area.
usually on a large area of land. Compare
reproduction.
polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.
natural resources The earth’s natural
metamorphic rock Rock produced when
more developed country (MDC) See materials and processes that sustain life on
a preexisting rock is subjected to high
developed country. the earth and our economies.
temperatures (which may cause it to melt
partially), high pressures, chemically active mountaintop removal Type of surface natural selection Process by which a par-
fluids, or a combination of these agents. mining that uses explosives, massive shov- ticular beneficial gene (or set of genes) is
Compare igneous rock, sedimentary rock. See els, and even larger machinery called reproduced in succeeding generations more
rock cycle. draglines to remove the top of a mountain than other genes. The result of natural selec-
to expose seams of coal underneath a tion is a population that contains a greater
metastasis Spread of malignant (cancer-
mountain. Compare area strip mining, con- proportion of organisms better adapted to
ous) cells from a tumor to other parts of the
tour strip mining. certain environmental conditions. See adap-
body.
tation, biological evolution, differential repro-
multiple use Use of an ecosystem such as
metropolitan area See urban area. duction, mutation.
a forest for a variety of purposes such as
microevolution The small genetic timber harvesting, wildlife habitat, water- nekton Strongly swimming organisms
changes a population undergoes. Compare shed protection, and recreation. Compare found in aquatic systems. Compare benthos,
macroevolution. sustainable yield. plankton.
GLOSSARY G11
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net energy Total amount of useful energy nonpoint source Large or dispersed land oil sand Deposit of a mixture of clay,
available from an energy resource or energy areas such as crop fields, streets, and lawns sand, water, and varying amounts of a tar-
system over its lifetime, minus the amount that discharge pollutants into the environ- like heavy oil known as bitumen. Bitumen
of energy used (the first energy law), auto- ment over a large area. Compare point source. can be extracted from oil sand by heating. It
matically wasted (the second energy law), is then purified and upgraded to synthetic
nonrenewable resource Resource that
and unnecessarily wasted in finding, process- crude oil. See bitumen..
exists in a fixed amount (stock) in various
ing, concentrating, and transporting it to
places in the earth’s crust and has the oil shale Fine-grained rock containing
users.
potential for renewal by geological, physi- various amounts of kerogen, a solid, waxy
net primary productivity (NPP) Rate at cal, and chemical processes taking place mixture of hydrocarbon compounds. Heat-
which all the plants in an ecosystem pro- over hundreds of millions to billions of ing the rock to high temperatures converts
duce net useful chemical energy; equal to years. Examples include copper, aluminum, the kerogen into a vapor that can be con-
the difference between the rate at which the coal, and oil. We classify these resources as densed to form a slow-flowing heavy oil
plants in an ecosystem produce useful exhaustible because we are extracting and called shale oil. See kerogen, shale oil.
chemical energy (gross primary productiv- using them at a much faster rate than they
old-growth forest Virgin and old, second-
ity) and the rate at which they use some of were formed. Compare renewable resource.
growth forests containing trees that are often
that energy through cellular respiration.
nontransmissible disease A disease that hundreds—sometimes thousands—of years
Compare gross primary productivity.
is not caused by living organisms and does old. Examples include forests of Douglas fir,
neurotoxins Chemicals that can harm the not spread from one person to another. western hemlock, giant sequoia, and coastal
human nervous system (brain, spinal cord, Examples include most cancers, diabetes, redwoods in the western United States.
peripheral nerves). cardiovascular disease, and malnutrition. Compare second-growth forest, tree plantation.
Compare transmissible disease.
neutral solution Water solution contain- oligotrophic lake Lake with a low supply
ing an equal number of hydrogen ions (H) no-till farming See conservation-tillage of plant nutrients. Compare eutrophic lake,
and hydroxide ions (OH); water solution farming. mesotrophic lake.
with a pH of 7. Compare acid solution, basic nuclear change Process in which nuclei of omnivore Animal that can use both plants
solution. certain isotopes spontaneously change, or and other animals as food sources. Exam-
neutron (n) Elementary particle in the are forced to change, into one or more dif- ples include pigs, rats, cockroaches, and
nuclei of all atoms (except hydrogen-1). It ferent isotopes. The three principal types of humans. Compare carnivore, herbivore.
has a relative mass of 1 and no electric nuclear change are natural radioactivity,
nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion. Com- open dump Fields or holes in the ground
charge. Compare electron, proton.
pare chemical change, physical change. where garbage is deposited and sometimes
niche See ecological niche. covered with soil. They are rare in devel-
nuclear energy Energy released when oped countries, but are widely used in
nitrogen cycle Cyclic movement of nitro- atomic nuclei undergo a nuclear reaction many developing countries, especially to
gen in different chemical forms from the such as the spontaneous emission of handle wastes from megacities. Compare
environment to organisms and then back to radioactivity, nuclear fission, or nuclear sanitary landfill.
the environment. fusion.
open-pit mining Removing minerals such
nitrogen fixation Conversion of atmo- nuclear fission Nuclear change in which as gravel, sand, and metal ores by digging
spheric nitrogen gas into forms useful to the nuclei of certain isotopes with large them out of the earth’s surface and leaving
plants by lightning, bacteria, and cyano- mass numbers (such as uranium-235 and an open pit behind. Compare area strip min-
bacteria; it is part of the nitrogen cycle. plutonium-239) are split apart into lighter ing, contour strip mining, mountaintop
noise pollution Any unwanted, disturb- nuclei when struck by a neutron. This removal, subsurface mining.
ing, or harmful sound that impairs or inter- process releases more neutrons and a
large amount of energy. Compare nuclear open sea The part of an ocean that lies
feres with hearing, causes stress, hampers
fusion. beyond the continental shelf. Compare
concentration and work efficiency, or causes
coastal zone.
accidents. nuclear fusion Nuclear change in which
two nuclei of isotopes of elements with a ore Part of a metal-yielding material that
nondegradable pollutant Material that is
low mass number (such as hydrogen-2 and can be economically and legally extracted at
not broken down by natural processes.
hydrogen-3) are forced together at a given time. An ore typically contains two
Examples include the toxic elements lead
extremely high temperatures until they fuse parts: the ore mineral, which contains the
and mercury. Compare biodegradable pollu-
to form a heavier nucleus (such as helium- desired metal, and waste mineral material
tant, degradable pollutant, slowly degradable
4). This process releases a large amount of (gangue).
pollutant.
energy. Compare nuclear fission. organic agriculture Producing crops and
nonionizing radiation Forms of radiant
nucleus Extremely tiny center of an atom, livestock naturally by using organic fertil-
energy such as radio waves, microwaves,
making up most of the atom’s mass. It con- izer (manure, legumes, compost) and nat-
infrared light, and ordinary light that do not
tains one or more positively charged pro- ural pest control (bugs that eat harmful
have enough energy to cause ionization of
tons and one or more neutrons with no elec- bugs, plants that repel bugs, and environ-
atoms in living tissue. Compare ionizing
trical charge (except for a hydrogen-1 atom, mental controls such as crop rotation)
radiation.
which has one proton and no neutrons in its instead of using commercial inorganic fertil-
nonnative species Species that migrate nucleus). izers and synthetic pesticides and herbi-
into an ecosystem or are deliberately or cides. See sustainable agriculture.
nutrient Any food or element an organ-
accidentally introduced into an ecosystem
ism must take in to live, grow, or reproduce. organic compounds Compounds contain-
by humans. Compare native species.
ing carbon atoms combined with each other
nutrient cycle See biogeochemical cycle.
nonpersistent pollutant See degradable and with atoms of one or more other ele-
pollutant. oil See crude oil. ments such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
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sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, and fluorine. preys on another organism, called the host, persistence How long a pollutant stays in
All other compounds are called inorganic by living on or in the host. See host, parasite. the air, water, soil, or body.
compounds.
parts per billion (ppb) Number of parts persistent pollutant See slowly degradable
organic fertilizer Organic material such of a chemical found in 1 billion parts of a pollutant.
as animal manure, green manure, and com- particular gas, liquid, or solid.
pest Unwanted organism that directly
post, applied to cropland as a source of
parts per million (ppm) Number of parts or indirectly interferes with human
plant nutrients. Compare commercial inor-
of a chemical found in 1 million parts of a activities.
ganic fertilizer.
particular gas, liquid, or solid.
pesticide Any chemical designed to kill or
organism Any form of life.
parts per trillion (ppt) Number of parts of inhibit the growth of an organism that peo-
other resources Identified and undiscov- a chemical found in 1 trillion parts of a par- ple consider undesirable. See fungicide, her-
ered resources not classified as reserves. ticular gas, liquid, or solid. bicide, insecticide.
Compare identified resources, reserves, undis-
covered resources. passive solar heating system System petrochemicals Chemicals obtained by
that captures sunlight directly within a refining (distilling) crude oil. They are used
output Matter, energy, or information structure and converts it into low- as raw materials in manufacturing most
leaving a system. Compare input, through- temperature heat for space heating or for industrial chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides,
put. heating water for domestic use without the plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines,
output pollution control See pollution use of mechanical devices. Compare active and many other products.
cleanup. solar heating system.
petroleum See crude oil.
overburden Layer of soil and rock over- pasture Managed grassland or enclosed
pH Numeric value that indicates the rela-
lying a mineral deposit. Surface mining meadow that usually is planted with
tive acidity or alkalinity of a substance on a
removes this layer. domesticated grasses or other forage to
scale of 0 to 14, with the neutral point at 7.
be grazed by livestock. Compare feedlot,
overfishing Harvesting so many fish of a Acid solutions have pH values lower than
rangeland.
species, especially immature fish, that not 7; basic or alkaline solutions have pH val-
enough breeding stock is left to replenish pathogen Organism that produces dis- ues greater than 7.
the species and it becomes unprofitable to ease. Examples include bacteria, viruses,
phosphorus cycle Cyclic movement of
harvest them. and parasites.
phosphorus in different chemical forms
overgrazing Destruction of vegetation PCBs See polychlorinated biphenyls. from the environment to organisms and
when too many grazing animals feed too then back to the environment.
per capita ecological footprint Amount
long and exceed the carrying capacity of a of biologically productive land and water photochemical smog Complex mixture of
rangeland or pasture area. needed to supply each person or popula- air pollutants produced in the lower atmo-
overnutrition Diet so high in calories, tion with the renewable resources they use sphere by the reaction of hydrocarbons and
saturated (animal) fats, salt, sugar, and and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from nitrogen oxides under the influence of sun-
processed foods and so low in vegetables such resource use. It measures the average light. Especially harmful components in-
and fruits that the consumer runs a high environmental impact of individuals or clude ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs),
risk of developing diabetes, hypertension, populations in different countries and and various aldehydes. Compare industrial
heart disease, and other health hazards. areas. smog.
Compare malnutrition, undernutrition. per capita GDP Annual gross domestic photosynthesis Complex process that
oxygen-demanding wastes Organic product (GDP) of a country divided by its takes place in cells of green plants. Radiant
materials that are usually biodegraded by total population at midyear. It gives the energy from the sun is used to combine
aerobic (oxygen-consuming) bacteria if average slice of the economic pie per per- carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to
there is enough dissolved oxygen in the son. Used to be called per capita gross produce oxygen (O2), carbohydrates (such
water. national product (GNP). See gross domestic as glucose, C6H12O6), and other nutrient
product. molecules. Compare aerobic respiration,
ozone depletion Decrease in concentra- chemosynthesis.
tion of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. See percolation Passage of a liquid through
ozone layer. the spaces of a porous material such photovoltaic (PV) cell Device that con-
as soil. verts radiant (solar) energy directly into
ozone layer Layer of gaseous ozone (O3)
electrical energy. Also called a solar cell.
in the stratosphere that protects life on earth perennial Plant that can live for more
by filtering out most harmful ultraviolet than 2 years. Compare annual. physical change Process that alters one or
radiation from the sun. more physical properties of an element or a
permafrost Perennially frozen layer of the
compound without changing its chemical
PANs Peroxyacyl nitrates; group of chem- soil that forms when the water there freezes.
composition. Examples include changing
icals found in photochemical smog. It is found in arctic tundra.
the size and shape of a sample of matter
parasite Consumer organism that lives permeability The degree to which (crushing ice and cutting aluminum foil)
on or in, and feeds on, a living plant or underground rock and soil pores are in- and changing a sample of matter from one
animal, known as the host, over an terconnected and thus a measure of the physical state to another (boiling and freez-
extended period. The parasite draws nour- degree to which water can flow freely from ing water). Compare chemical change, nuclear
ishment from and gradually weakens its one pore to another. Compare porosity. change.
host; it may or may not kill the host. See
perpetual resource An essentially inex- phytoplankton Small, drifting plants,
parasitism.
haustible resource on a human time scale. mostly algae and bacteria, found in
parasitism Interaction between species Solar energy is an example. Compare non- aquatic ecosystems. Compare plankton,
in which one organism, called the parasite, renewable resource, renewable resource. zooplankton.
GLOSSARY G13
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pioneer community First integrated set of versely affect the health, survival, or activi- poverty Inability to meet basic needs for
plants, animals, and decomposers found in ties of humans or other living organisms. food, clothing, and shelter.
an area undergoing primary ecological suc-
pollution cleanup Device or process ppb See parts per billion.
cession. See immature community, mature
that removes or reduces the level of a pollu-
community. ppm See parts per million.
tant after it has been produced or has
pioneer species First hardy species— entered the environment. Examples include ppt See parts per trillion.
often microbes, mosses, and lichens—that automobile emission control devices and
precautionary principle When there is
begin colonizing a site as the first stage of sewage treatment plants. Compare pollution
scientific uncertainty about potentially seri-
ecological succession. See ecological succes- prevention.
ous harm from chemicals or technologies,
sion, pioneer community.
pollution prevention Device or process decision makers should act to prevent harm
planetary management worldview that prevents a potential pollutant from to humans and the environment. See pollu-
Beliefs that (1) humans are the planet’s forming or entering the environment or tion prevention.
most important species; (2) there is always sharply reduces the amount entering the
more, and it is all for us; (3) all economic precipitation Water in the form of rain,
environment. Compare pollution cleanup.
growth is good, more economic growth is sleet, hail, and snow that falls from the
better, and the potential for economic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Group atmosphere onto land and bodies of
growth is limitless; and (4) our success of 209 toxic, oily, synthetic chlorinated water.
depends on how well we can understand, hydrocarbon compounds that can be bio-
predation Situation in which an organism
control, and manage the earth’s life-support logically amplified in food chains and webs.
of one species (the predator) captures and
systems for our own benefit. Compare envi- polyculture Complex form of intercrop- feeds on parts or all of an organism of
ronmental wisdom worldview, stewardship ping in which a large number of different another species (the prey).
worldview. plants maturing at different times are
predator Organism that captures and
plankton Small plant organisms (phyto- planted together. See also intercropping.
feeds on parts or all of an organism of
plankton) and animal organisms (zooplank- Compare monoculture, polyvarietal cultiva-
another species (the prey).
ton) that float in aquatic ecosystems. tion.
predator–prey relationship Interaction
plantation agriculture Growing special- polyvarietal cultivation Planting a plot of
between two organisms of different species
ized crops such as bananas, coffee, and land with several varieties of the same crop.
in which one organism, called the predator,
cacao in tropical developing countries, pri- Compare intercropping, monoculture, polycul-
captures and feeds on parts or all of the
marily for sale to developed countries. ture.
other organism, called the prey.
plates Areas of the earth’s lithosphere that population Group of individual organ-
prey Organism that is captured and serves
move slowly around with the mantle’s isms of the same species living in a particu-
as a source of food for an organism of
flowing asthenosphere. Most earthquakes lar area.
another species (the predator).
and volcanoes occur around the boundaries population change An increase or
of these plates. See lithosphere, plate tectonics, primary consumer Organism that feeds
decrease in the size of a population. It is
tectonic plates. on all or part of plants (herbivore) or on
equal to (Births Immigration)
other producers. Compare detritivore, omni-
plate tectonics Theory of geophysical (Deaths Emigration).
vore, secondary consumer.
processes that explains the movements of population density Number of organisms
lithospheric plates and the processes that primary pollutant Chemical that has been
in a particular population found in a speci-
occur at their boundaries. See lithosphere, added directly to the air by natural events
fied area or volume.
tectonic plates. or human activities and occurs in a harmful
population dispersion General pattern in concentration. Compare secondary pollutant.
point source Single identifiable source which the members of a population are
that discharges pollutants into the environ- primary productivity See gross primary
arranged throughout its habitat.
ment. Examples include the smokestack of a productivity, net primary productivity.
power plant or an industrial plant, drain- population distribution Variation of pop-
primary sewage treatment Mechanical
pipe of a meatpacking plant, chimney of a ulation density over a particular geographic
sewage treatment in which large solids are
house, or exhaust pipe of an automobile. area. For example, a country has a high
filtered out by screens and suspended solids
Compare nonpoint source. population density in its urban areas and a
settle out as sludge in a sedimentation tank.
much lower population density in its rural
poison A chemical that adversely affects Compare secondary sewage treatment.
areas.
the health of a living human or animal by
primary succession Ecological succession
causing injury, illness, or death. population dynamics Major abiotic and
in a bare area that has never been occupied
biotic factors that tend to increase or
politics Process through which individu- by a community of organisms. See ecological
decrease the population size and affect the
als and groups try to influence or control succession. Compare secondary succession.
age and sex composition of a species.
government policies and actions that affect
probability A mathematical statement
the local, state, national, and international population size Number of individuals
about how likely it is that something will
communities. making up a population’s gene pool.
happen.
pollutant A particular chemical or form of porosity Percentage of space in rock or
producer Organism that uses solar
energy that can adversely affect the health, soil occupied by voids, whether the voids
energy (green plants) or chemical energy
survival, or activities of humans or other are isolated or connected. Compare perme-
(some bacteria) to manufacture the organic
living organisms. See pollution. ability.
compounds it needs as nutrients from
pollution An undesirable change in the potential energy Energy stored in an simple inorganic compounds obtained
physical, chemical, or biological characteris- object because of its position or the position from its environment. Compare consumer,
tics of air, water, soil, or food that can ad- of its parts. Compare kinetic energy. decomposer.
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proton (p) Positively charged particle in recharge area Any area of land allowing ferent times, in different ways, or in differ-
the nuclei of all atoms. Each proton has a water to pass through it and into an aquifer. ent places. See ecological niche, fundamental
relative mass of 1 and a single positive See aquifer, natural recharge. niche, realized niche.
charge. Compare electron, neutron.
reconciliation ecology The science of resource productivity See material effi-
pyramid of energy flow Diagram re- inventing, establishing, and maintaining ciency.
presenting the flow of energy through new habitats to conserve species diversity
respiration See aerobic respiration.
each trophic level in a food chain or food in places where people live, work, or play.
web. With each energy transfer, only a small response The amount of health damage
recycling Collecting and reprocessing a
part (typically 10%) of the usable energy caused by exposure to a certain dose of a
resource so that it can be made into new
entering one trophic level is transferred to harmful substance or form of radiation. See
products. An example is collecting alu-
the organisms at the next trophic level. dose, dose-response curve, median lethal dose.
minum cans, melting them down, and
Compare pyramid of biomass, pyramid of
using the aluminum to make new cans or restoration ecology Research and scien-
numbers.
other aluminum products. Compare reuse. tific study devoted to restoring, repairing,
radiation Fast-moving particles (particu- and reconstructing damaged ecosystems.
reforestation Renewal of trees and other
late radiation) or waves of energy (electro-
types of vegetation on land where trees reuse Using a product over and over
magnetic radiation). See alpha particle, beta
have been removed; can be done naturally again in the same form. An example is col-
particle, gamma ray.
by seeds from nearby trees or artificially by lecting, washing, and refilling glass bever-
radioactive decay Change of a radio- planting seeds or seedlings. age bottles. Compare recycling.
isotope to a different isotope by the emis-
reliable runoff Surface runoff of water riparian zones Thin strips and patches of
sion of radioactivity.
that generally can be counted on as a stable vegetation that surround streams. They are
radioactive isotope See radioisotope. source of water from year to year. See runoff. very important habitats and resources for
wildlife.
radioactive waste Waste products of renewable resource Resource that can be
nuclear power plants, research, medicine, replenished rapidly (hours to several risk The probability that something unde-
weapon production, or other processes decades) through natural processes. Exam- sirable will result from deliberate or acci-
involving nuclear reactions. See radioactivity. ples include trees in forests, grasses in dental exposure to a hazard. See risk analy-
grasslands, wild animals, fresh surface sis, risk assessment, risk management.
radioactivity Nuclear change in which
water in lakes and streams, most ground-
unstable nuclei of atoms spontaneously risk analysis Identifying hazards, evaluat-
water, fresh air, and fertile soil. If such a
shoot out “chunks” of mass, energy, or both ing the nature and severity of risks (risk
resource is used faster than it is replenished,
at a fixed rate. The three principal types of assessment), using this and other informa-
it can be depleted and converted into a non-
radioactivity are gamma rays and fast- tion to determine options and make deci-
renewable resource. Compare nonrenewable
moving alpha particles and beta particles. sions about reducing or eliminating risks
resource and perpetual resource. See also envi-
(risk management), and communicating
radioisotope Isotope of an atom that ronmental degradation.
information about risks to decision makers
spontaneously emits one or more types of
replacement-level fertility Number of and the public (risk communication).
radioactivity (alpha particles, beta particles,
children a couple must have to replace
gamma rays). risk assessment Process of gathering data
them. The average for a country or the
and making assumptions to estimate short-
rain shadow effect Low precipitation on world usually is slightly higher than 2 chil-
and long-term harmful effects on human
the far side (leeward side) of a mountain dren per couple (2.1 in the United States
health or the environment from exposure to
when prevailing winds flow up and over a and 2.5 in some developing countries)
hazards associated with the use of a particu-
high mountain or range of high mountains. because some children die before reaching
lar product or technology.
This creates semiarid and arid conditions their reproductive years. See also total fertil-
on the leeward side of a high mountain ity rate. risk communication Communicating
range. information about risks to decision makers
reproduction Production of offspring by
and the public. See risk, risk analysis.
rangeland Land that supplies forage or one or more parents.
vegetation (grasses, grasslike plants, and risk management Using risk assessment
reproductive isolation Long-term geo-
shrubs) for grazing and browsing animals and other information to determine options
graphic separation of members of a particu-
and is not intensively managed. Compare and make decisions about reducing or
lar sexually reproducing species.
feedlot, pasture. eliminating risks. See risk, risk analysis, risk
reproductive potential See biotic potential. communication.
range of tolerance Range of chemical and
physical conditions that must be main- reserves Resources that have been identi- rock Any material that makes up a large,
tained for populations of a particular fied and from which a usable mineral can natural, continuous part of the earth’s crust.
species to stay alive and grow, develop, and be extracted profitably at present prices See mineral.
function normally. See law of tolerance. with current mining technology. See identi-
rock cycle Largest and slowest of the
fied resources, undiscovered resources.
rare species A species that has naturally earth’s cycles, consisting of geologic, physi-
small numbers of individuals (often resource Anything obtained from the liv- cal, and chemical processes that form and
because of limited geographic ranges or low ing and nonliving environment to meet modify rocks and soil in the earth’s crust
population densities) or that has been human needs and wants. It can also be over millions of years.
locally depleted by human activities. applied to other species.
r-selected species Species that reproduce
realized niche Parts of the fundamental resource partitioning Process of dividing early in their life span and produce large
niche of a species that are actually used by up resources in an ecosystem so that species numbers of usually small and short-lived
that species. See ecological niche, fundamental with similar needs (overlapping ecological offspring in a short period. Compare K-
niche. niches) use the same scarce resources at dif- selected species.
GLOSSARY G15
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r-strategists See r-selected species. scientific theory A well-tested and widely bottom of the tank. The effluent flows out of
accepted scientific hypothesis. Compare sci- the tank into the ground through a field of
rule of 70 Doubling time (in years)
entific data, scientific hypothesis, scientific law, drainpipes.
70/(percentage growth rate). See doubling
scientific methods, scientific model.
time, exponential growth. sexual reproduction Reproduction in
secondary consumer Organism that feeds organisms that produce offspring by com-
runoff Fresh water from precipitation and
only on primary consumers. Compare detri- bining sex cells or gametes (such as ovum
melting ice that flows on the earth’s surface
tivore, omnivore, primary consumer. and sperm) from both parents. It produces
into nearby streams, lakes, wetlands, and
offspring that have combinations of traits
reservoirs. See reliable runoff, surface runoff, secondary pollutant Harmful chemical
from their parents. Compare asexual
surface water. Compare groundwater. formed in the atmosphere when a primary
reproduction.
air pollutant reacts with normal air compo-
salinity Amount of various salts dis-
nents or other air pollutants. Compare pri- shale oil Slow-flowing, dark brown,
solved in a given volume of water.
mary pollutant. heavy oil obtained when kerogen in oil
salinization Accumulation of salts in soil shale is vaporized at high temperatures and
secondary sewage treatment Second step
that can eventually make the soil unable to then condensed. Shale oil can be refined to
in most waste treatment systems in which
support plant growth. yield gasoline, heating oil, and other petro-
aerobic bacteria decompose as much as
leum products. See kerogen, oil shale.
saltwater intrusion Movement of salt 90% of degradable, oxygen-demanding
water into freshwater aquifers in coastal organic wastes in wastewater. It usually shelterbelt See windbreak.
and inland areas as groundwater is with- involves bringing sewage and bacteria
shelterwood cutting Removal of mature,
drawn faster than it is recharged by together in trickling filters or in the acti-
marketable trees through a series of partial
precipitation. vated sludge process. Compare primary
cuttings to allow regeneration of a new
sewage treatment.
sanitary landfill Waste disposal site on stand under the partial shade of older trees,
land in which waste is spread in thin layers, secondary succession Ecological succes- which are later removed. Typically, this is
compacted, and covered with a fresh layer sion in an area in which natural vegetation done by making two or three cuts over a
of clay or plastic foam each day. has been removed or destroyed but the soil decade. Compare clear-cutting, seed-tree cut-
is not destroyed. See ecological succession. ting, selective cutting, strip cutting.
scavenger Organism that feeds on dead
Compare primary succession.
organisms that were killed by other organ- shifting cultivation Clearing a plot of
isms or died naturally. Examples include second-growth forest Stands of trees ground in a forest, especially in tropical
vultures, flies, and crows. Compare detriti- resulting from secondary ecological succes- areas, and planting crops on it for a few
vore. sion. Compare old-growth forest, tree farm. years (typically 2–5 years) until the soil is
depleted of nutrients or the plot has been
science Attempts to discover order in second law of energy See second law of
invaded by a dense growth of vegetation
nature and use that knowledge to make pre- thermodynamics.
from the surrounding forest. Then a new
dictions about what should happen in
second law of thermodynamics In any plot is cleared and the process is repeated.
nature. See frontier science, scientific data, sci-
conversion of heat energy to useful work, The abandoned plot cannot successfully
entific hypothesis, scientific law, scientific meth-
some of the initial energy input is always grow crops for 10–30 years. See also slash-
ods, scientific model, scientific theory, sound sci-
degraded to lower-quality, more dispersed, and-burn cultivation.
ence.
less useful energy—usually low-tempera-
slash-and-burn cultivation Cutting down
scientific data Facts obtained by making ture heat that flows into the environment;
trees and other vegetation in a patch of for-
observations and measurements. Compare you cannot break even in terms of energy
est, leaving the cut vegetation on the
scientific hypothesis, scientific law, scientific quality. See first law of thermodynamics.
ground to dry, and then burning it. The
methods, scientific model, scientific theory.
sedimentary rock Rock that forms from ashes that are left add nutrients to the nutri-
scientific hypothesis An educated guess the accumulated products of erosion and in ent-poor soils found in most tropical forest
that attempts to explain a scientific law or some cases from the compacted shells, areas. Crops are planted between tree
certain scientific observations. Compare sci- skeletons, and other remains of dead organ- stumps. Plots must be abandoned after a
entific data, scientific law, scientific methods, isms. Compare igneous rock, metamorphic few years (typically 2–5 years) because of
scientific model, scientific theory. rock. See rock cycle. loss of soil fertility or invasion of vegetation
from the surrounding forest. See also shift-
scientific law Description of what scien- seed-tree cutting Removal of nearly all
ing cultivation.
tists find happening in nature repeatedly in trees on a site in one cutting, with a few
the same way, without known exception. seed-producing trees left uniformly distrib- slowly degradable pollutant Material
See first law of thermodynamics, law of conser- uted to regenerate the forest. Compare clear- that is slowly broken down into simpler
vation of matter, second law of thermodynamics. cutting, selective cutting, shelterwood cutting, chemicals or reduced to acceptable levels
Compare scientific data, scientific hypothesis, strip cutting. by natural physical, chemical, and bio-
scientific methods, scientific model, scientific logical processes. Compare biodegradable
selective cutting Cutting of intermediate-
theory. pollutant, degradable pollutant, nondegradable
aged, mature, or diseased trees in an uneven-
pollutant.
scientific methods The ways scientists aged forest stand, either singly or in small
gather data and formulate and test scientific groups. This practice encourages the growth sludge Gooey mixture of toxic chemicals,
hypotheses, models, theories, and laws. See of younger trees and maintains an uneven- infectious agents, and settled solids
scientific data, scientific hypothesis, scientific aged stand. Compare clear-cutting, seed-tree removed from wastewater at a sewage
law, scientific model, scientific theory. cutting, shelterwood cutting, strip cutting. treatment plant.
scientific model A simulation of complex septic tank Underground tank for treating smart growth Form of urban planning
processes and systems. Many are mathe- wastewater from a home in rural and sub- which recognizes that urban growth will
matical models that are run and tested urban areas. Bacteria in the tank decompose occur but uses zoning laws and other tools
using computers. organic wastes, and the sludge settles to the to prevent sprawl, direct growth to certain
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areas, protect ecologically sensitive and sound science Scientific data, models, strip cropping Planting regular crops
important lands and waterways, and theories, and laws that are widely accepted and close-growing plants, such as hay or
develop urban areas that are more environ- by experts in a particular field of the natural nitrogen-fixing legumes, in alternating rows
mentally sustainable and more enjoyable or social sciences. These results of science or bands to help reduce depletion of soil
places to live. are very reliable. Compare frontier science, nutrients.
junk science.
smelting Process in which a desired metal strip cutting A variation of clear-cutting in
is separated from the other elements in an spaceship-earth worldview View of the which a strip of trees is clear-cut along the
ore mineral. earth as a spaceship: a machine that we can contour of the land, with the corridor being
smog Originally a combination of smoke understand, control, and change at will by narrow enough to allow natural regenera-
and fog but now used to describe other using advanced technology. See planetary tion within a few years. After regeneration,
mixtures of pollutants in the atmosphere. management worldview. Compare environ- another strip is cut above the first, and so
See industrial smog, photochemical smog. mental wisdom worldview. on. Compare clear-cutting, seed-tree cutting,
selective cutting, shelterwood cutting.
soil Complex mixture of inorganic miner- specialist species Species with a narrow
als (clay, silt, pebbles, and sand), decaying ecological niche. They may be able to live in strip mining Form of surface mining in
organic matter, water, air, and living only one type of habitat, tolerate only a nar- which bulldozers, power shovels, or strip-
organisms. row range of climatic and other environ- ping wheels remove large chunks of the
mental conditions, or use only one type or a earth’s surface in strips. See area strip min-
soil conservation Methods used to reduce few types of food. Compare generalist species. ing, contour strip mining, surface mining.
soil erosion, prevent depletion of soil nutri- Compare subsurface mining.
ents, and restore nutrients previously lost speciation Formation of two species from
by erosion, leaching, and excessive crop one species because of divergent natural subatomic particles Extremely small par-
harvesting. selection in response to changes in environ- ticles—electrons, protons, and neutrons—
mental conditions; usually takes thousands that make up the internal structure of atoms.
soil erosion Movement of soil compo-
of years. Compare extinction. subduction zone Area in which oceanic
nents, especially topsoil, from one place to
another, usually by wind, flowing water, or species Group of organisms that resemble lithosphere is carried downward (sub-
both. This natural process can be greatly one another in appearance, behavior, chem- ducted) under an island arc or continent at a
accelerated by human activities that remove ical makeup and processes, and genetic convergent plate boundary. A trench ordi-
vegetation from soil. structure. Organisms that reproduce sexu- narily forms at the boundary between the
ally are classified as members of the same two converging plates. See convergent plate
soil horizons Horizontal zones that make
species only if they can actually or poten- boundary.
up a particular mature soil. Each horizon
has a distinct texture and composition that tially interbreed with one another and pro- subsidence Slow or rapid sinking of part
vary with different types of soils. See soil duce fertile offspring. of the earth’s crust that is not slope-related.
profile. species diversity Number of different subsistence farming Supplementing solar
soil permeability Rate at which water and species and their relative abundances in a energy with energy from human labor and
air move from upper to lower soil layers. given area. See biodiversity. Compare ecologi- draft animals to produce enough food to
Compare porosity. cal diversity, genetic diversity. feed oneself and family members; in good
spoils Unwanted rock and other waste years enough food may be left over to sell
soil porosity See porosity.
materials produced when a material is or put aside for hard times. Compare indus-
soil profile Cross-sectional view of the trialized agriculture.
removed from the earth’s surface or subsur-
horizons in a soil. See soil horizons.
face by mining, dredging, quarrying, and subsurface mining Extraction of a metal
soil structure How the particles that excavation. ore or fuel resource such as coal from a deep
make up a soil are organized and clumped underground deposit. Compare surface min-
S-shaped curve Leveling off of an expo-
together. See also soil permeability. ing.
nential, J-shaped curve when a rapidly
solar capital Solar energy from the sun growing population exceeds the carrying succession See ecological succession, pri-
reaching the earth. Compare natural capacity of its environment and ceases to mary succession, secondary succession.
resources. grow.
succulent plants Plants, such as desert
solar cell See photovoltaic cell. stewardship worldview View that cacti, that survive in dry climates by having
solar collector Device for collecting radi- because of our superior intellect and power no leaves, thus reducing the loss of scarce
ant energy from the sun and converting it or because of our religious beliefs, humans water. They store water and use sunlight to
into heat. See active solar heating system, pas- have an ethical responsibility to manage produce the food they need in the thick,
sive solar heating system. and care for domesticated plants and ani- fleshy tissue of their green stems and
mals and the rest of nature. Compare envi- branches. Compare deciduous plants, ever-
solar energy Direct radiant energy from ronmental wisdom worldview, planetary man- green plants.
the sun and a number of indirect forms of agement worldview.
energy produced by the direct input of such sulfur cycle Cyclic movement of sulfur in
radiant energy. Principal indirect forms of stratosphere Second layer of the atmo- various chemical forms from the environ-
solar energy include wind, falling and flow- sphere, extending about 17–48 kilometers ment to organisms and then back to the
ing water (hydropower), and biomass (solar (11–30 miles) above the earth’s surface. It environment.
energy converted into chemical energy contains small amounts of gaseous ozone
superinsulated house House that is heav-
stored in the chemical bonds of organic (O3), which filters out about 95% of the
ily insulated and extremely airtight. Typi-
compounds in trees and other plants). incoming harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
cally, active or passive solar collectors are
emitted by the sun. Compare troposphere.
solid waste Any unwanted or discarded used to heat water, and an air-to-air heat
material that is not a liquid or a gas. See stream Flowing body of surface water. exchanger prevents buildup of excessive
municipal solid waste. Examples are creeks and rivers. moisture and indoor air pollutants.
GLOSSARY G17
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surface fire Forest fire that burns only synthetic natural gas (SNG) Gaseous fuel threshold effect The harmful or fatal
undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest containing mostly methane produced from effect of a small change in environmental
floor. Compare crown fire, ground fire. See solid coal. conditions that exceeds the limit of toler-
controlled burning. ance of an organism or population of a
system A set of components that function
species. See law of tolerance.
surface mining Removing soil, subsoil, and interact in some regular and theoreti-
and other strata and then extracting a min- cally predictable manner. throughput Rate of flow of matter, energy,
eral deposit found fairly close to the earth’s or information through a system. Compare
tailings Rock and other waste materials
surface. See area strip mining, contour strip input, output.
removed as impurities when waste mineral
mining, mountaintop removal, open-pit mining.
material is separated from the metal in an throwaway society See high-throughput
Compare subsurface mining.
ore. economy.
surface runoff Water flowing off the land
tar sand See oil sand. tolerance limits Minimum and maximum
into bodies of surface water. See reliable
limits for physical conditions (such as
runoff. tectonic plates Various-sized areas of the temperature) and concentrations of chemi-
surface water Precipitation that does not earth’s lithosphere that move slowly cal substances beyond which no members
infiltrate the ground or return to the atmo- around with the mantle’s flowing astheno- of a particular species can survive. See law
sphere by evaporation or transpiration. See sphere. Most earthquakes and volcanoes of tolerance.
runoff. Compare groundwater. occur around the boundaries of these plates.
See lithosphere, plate tectonics. total fertility rate (TFR) Estimate of the
survivorship curve Graph showing the average number of children who will be
number of survivors in different age groups temperature Measure of the average born alive to a woman during her lifetime if
for a particular species. speed of motion of the atoms, ions, or mole- she passes through all her childbearing
cules in a substance or combination of sub- years (ages 15–44) conforming to age-spe-
sustainability Ability of a system to sur- stances at a given moment. Compare heat.
vive for some specified (finite) time. cific fertility rates of a given year. More sim-
temperature inversion Layer of dense, ply, it is an estimate of the average number
sustainable agriculture Method of grow- of children a woman will have during her
cool air trapped under a layer of less dense,
ing crops and raising livestock based on childbearing years.
warm air. It prevents upward-flowing air
organic fertilizers, soil conservation, water
currents from developing. In a prolonged toxic chemical See poison, carcinogen, haz-
conservation, biological pest control, and
inversion, air pollution in the trapped layer ardous chemical, mutagen, teratogen.
minimal use of nonrenewable fossil fuel
may build up to harmful levels.
energy. toxicity Measure of how harmful a sub-
teratogen Chemical, ionizing agent, or stance is.
sustainable development See environmen-
virus that causes birth defects. Compare car-
tally sustainable economic development. toxicology Study of the adverse effects of
cinogen, mutagen.
sustainable living Taking no more poten- chemicals on health.
tially renewable resources from the natural terracing Planting crops on a long, steep
slope that has been converted into a series toxic waste Form of hazardous waste that
world than can be replenished naturally causes death or serious injury (such as
and not overloading the capacity of the of broad, nearly level terraces with short
vertical drops from one to another that run burns, respiratory diseases, cancers, or
environment to cleanse and renew itself by genetic mutations). See hazardous waste.
natural processes. along the contour of the land to retain water
and reduce soil erosion. toxin See poison.
sustainable society A society that man-
ages its economy and population size with- terrestrial Pertaining to land. Compare traditional intensive agriculture Produc-
out doing irreparable environmental harm aquatic. ing enough food for a farm family’s sur-
by overloading the planet’s ability to absorb vival and perhaps a surplus that can be
tertiary (higher-level) consumers Ani-
environmental insults, replenish its re- sold. This type of agriculture uses higher
mals that feed on animal-eating animals.
sources, and sustain human and other inputs of labor, fertilizer, and water than
They feed at high trophic levels in food
forms of life over a specified period, usually traditional subsistence agriculture. See tra-
chains and webs. Examples include hawks,
hundreds to thousands of years. During this ditional subsistence agriculture. Compare
lions, bass, and sharks. Compare detritivore,
period, the society satisfies the needs of its industrialized agriculture.
primary consumer, secondary consumer.
people without depleting natural resources traditional subsistence agriculture Pro-
and thereby jeopardizing the prospects of tertiary sewage treatment See advanced
duction of enough crops or livestock for a
current and future generations of humans sewage treatment.
farm family’s survival and, in good years, a
and other species. theory of evolution Widely accepted surplus to sell or put aside for hard times.
sustainable yield (sustained yield) High- scientific idea that all life forms developed Compare industrialized agriculture, traditional
est rate at which a potentially renewable from earlier life forms. Although this theory intensive agriculture.
resource can be used without reducing its conflicts with the creation stories of many
tragedy of the commons Depletion or
available supply throughout the world or in religions, it is the way biologists explain
degradation of a potentially renewable
a particular area. See also environmental how life has changed over the past 3.6–3.8
resource to which people have free and
degradation. billion years and why it is so diverse today.
unmanaged access. An example is the
synergistic interaction Interaction of two thermal inversion See temperature depletion of commercially desirable fish
or more factors or processes so that the inversion. species in the open ocean beyond areas con-
combined effect is greater than the sum of trolled by coastal countries. See common-
threatened species A wild species that is
their separate effects. property resource.
still abundant in its natural range but is
synfuels Synthetic gaseous and liquid likely to become endangered because of a transform fault Area where the earth’s
fuels produced from solid coal or sources decline in numbers. Compare endangered lithospheric plates move in opposite but
other than natural gas or crude oil. species. parallel directions along a fracture (fault) in
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the lithosphere. Compare convergent plate many ages and sizes to permit continuous direction and speed, and other conditions in
boundary, divergent plate boundary. natural regeneration. Compare even-aged the troposphere at a given place and time.
management. Compare climate.
transmissible disease A disease that is
caused by living organisms (such as bacte- upwelling Movement of nutrient-rich bot- weathering Physical and chemical
ria, viruses, and parasitic worms) and can tom water to the ocean’s surface. It can processes in which solid rock exposed at
spread from one person to another by air, occur far from shore but usually takes place earth’s surface is changed to separate solid
water, food, or body fluids (or in some cases along certain steep coastal areas where the particles and dissolved material, which can
by insects or other organisms). Compare surface layer of ocean water is pushed away then be moved to another place as sedi-
nontransmissible disease. from shore and replaced by cold, nutrient- ment. See erosion.
rich bottom water.
transpiration Process in which water is wetland Land that is covered all or
absorbed by the root systems of plants, urban area Geographic area with a popu- part of the time with salt water or fresh
moves up through the plants, passes lation of 2,500 or more. The number of peo- water, excluding streams, lakes, and the
through pores (stomata) in their leaves or ple used in this definition may vary, with open ocean. See coastal wetland, inland
other parts, and evaporates into the atmo- some countries setting the minimum num- wetland.
sphere as water vapor. ber of people at 10,000–50,000.
wilderness Area where the earth and its
tree farm See tree plantation. urban growth Rate of growth of an urban community of life have not been seriously
population. Compare degree of urbanization. disturbed by humans and where humans
tree plantation Site planted with one or are only temporary visitors.
only a few tree species in an even-aged urbanization See degree of urbanization.
stand. When the stand matures, it is usually wildlife All free, undomesticated species.
urban sprawl Growth of low-density
harvested by clear-cutting and then Sometimes the term is used to describe ani-
development on the edges of cities and
replanted. These farms normally raise mals only.
towns. See smart growth.
rapidly growing tree species for fuelwood, wildlife resources Wildlife species that
timber, or pulpwood. See even-aged manage- utilitarian value See instrumental value.
have actual or potential economic value to
ment. Compare old-growth forest, second- volcano Vent or fissure in the earth’s sur- people.
growth forest, uneven-aged management. face through which magma, liquid lava, and
wild species Species found in the natural
trophic level All organisms that are the gases are released into the environment.
environment. Compare domesticated
same number of energy transfers away from warm front The boundary between an species.
the original source of energy (for example, advancing warm air mass and the cooler
sunlight) that enters an ecosystem. For windbreak Row of trees or hedges
one it is replacing. Because warm air is less
example, all producers belong to the first planted to partially block wind flow and
dense than cool air, an advancing warm
trophic level, and all herbivores belong to reduce soil erosion on cultivated land.
front rises over a mass of cool air. Compare
the second trophic level in a food chain or a cold front. wind farm Cluster of small to medium-
food web. sized wind turbines in a windy area to cap-
water cycle See hydrologic cycle.
troposphere Innermost layer of the atmo- ture wind energy and convert it into electri-
sphere. It contains about 75% of the mass waterlogging Saturation of soil with irri- cal energy.
of earth’s air and extends about 17 kilome- gation water or excessive precipitation so
worldview How people think the world
ters (11 miles) above sea level. Compare that the water table rises close to the surface.
works and what they think their role in the
stratosphere. water pollution Any physical or chemical world should be. See environmental wisdom
true cost See full cost. change in surface water or groundwater worldview, planetary management worldview,
that can harm living organisms or make stewardship worldview.
undernutrition Consuming insufficient water unfit for certain uses.
food to meet one’s minimum daily energy zone of aeration Zone in soil that is not
needs for a long enough time to cause watershed Land area that delivers water, saturated with water and that lies above the
harmful effects. Compare malnutrition, sediment, and dissolved substances via water table. See water table, zone of saturation.
overnutrition. small streams to a major stream (river).
zone of saturation Area where all avail-
water table Upper surface of the zone of able pores in soil and rock in the earth’s
undiscovered resources Potential sup-
saturation, in which all available pores in crust are filled by water. See water table, zone
plies of a particular mineral resource,
the soil and rock in the earth’s crust are of aeration.
believed to exist because of geologic knowl-
filled with water.
edge and theory, although their specific loca- zoning Regulating how various parcels of
tions, quality, and amounts are unknown. watt Unit of power, or rate at which elec- land can be used.
Compare identified resources, reserves. trical work is done. See kilowatt.
zooplankton Animal plankton; small
uneven-aged management Method of for- weather Short-term changes in the tem- floating herbivores that feed on plant
est management in which trees of different perature, barometric pressure, humidity, plankton (phytoplankton). Compare
species in a given stand are maintained at precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover, wind phytoplankton.
GLOSSARY G19
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INDEX
Note: Page numbers in boldface type indi- Agricultural revolution, 16 Altitude, climate, biomes, and effects of,
cate definitions of key terms. Page numbers green revolution and, 209, 210f, 221–22 84, 85f
followed by italicized f, t, or b indicate fig- Agriculture. See also Food production Ammonification, nitrogen fixation
ures, tables, and boxed material. effects of climate change on, 376f and, 55
environmental effects of, 219–20 Amphibians as indicator species, 111–12
Abiotic components in ecosystems, 41, 42f, government policies on, 226–27 Anderson, Ray, development of sustainable
43f industrialized (high-input), 208, 209–11 green corporation by, 394b
Aboveground buildings, hazardous waste irrigation and, 214–16, 222 Animal(s)
storage in, 406 monoculture, 159, 160, 222 endangered (see Endangered species)
Abyssal zone, ocean, 98, 103f plantation, 208 gray wolf, 154
Acid deposition (acid rain), 352 polyculture, 211 keystone species, 108, 112
formation of, 353f soil conservation and methods of, 216, manure from, as biofuel, 319
global regions affected by, 355f 217f sharks, 113
harmful effects of, 353–55 sustainable, 234–35 zoos and aquariums for protection of
human interference in sulfur cycle result- traditional intensive, 208 endangered, 202–3
ing in, 59–60 traditional subsistence, 208–9 Animal manure, 216
strategies for reducing, 355, 357f in United States, 209–11 as fuel, 319
in United States, 352, 354f, 356f Agroforestry, 211, 216 Antarctic, food web in, 48f
Acid mine drainage, 278 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syn- Antibiotics, pathogen resistance to, 329
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome drome), 330–31 Aquaculture, 224, 226
(AIDS), 330–31 Air circulation, climate and global, 80, 81f advantages and disadvantages of, 226f
Active solar heating system, 313, 314f Air plants, 118 sustainable, 227f
Acute effects of toxic substances, 336 Air pollutants Aquariums, protecting endangered species
Adaptation, 67 effects of, on human health, 360–61 in, 202–3
evolution and, 65–67 effects of, on trees and water, 356f Aquatic life zones, 40, 95–106
limits on, 69–70 primary, and secondary, 347 biodiversity in, 156, 179–80
Adaptive ecosystem management, 175 radon gas, 358, 359f effects of acid deposition on, 354
Adaptive radiations, 73f types of, and effects, 349t food web in, 48f
Adaptive trait, 67 Air pollution, 345–66 freshwater, 41, 42f, 104–6
Advanced light-water reactors (ALWRs), acid deposition and regional outdoor, human impacts on, 179–80
305 352–56 limiting factors at different depths
Aerobic respiration, 44 atmospheric structure and, 346–47 in, 95
carbon cycle and, 55 coal burning as source of, 297 net primary productivity of, 50f
Aesthetic value of biodiversity, 156, 157f defined, 347 organisms living in, 95
Affluence disasters involving, 350b protecting and sustaining, 180
potential positive effects of, 15 harmful effects of, 359–61 range of tolerance for temperature
resource consumption and negative indoor, 357–59 in, 43f
effects of, 14–15 lichen as indicator of, 345 saltwater, 41, 96–103
Affluenza, 14–15 major types and sources of outdoor, types of, 95
Africa 347–48, 349t Aquifers, 54, 238. See also Groundwater
AIDS epidemic in, and population age photochemical and industrial smog as, confined and unconfined, 239f
structure of, 331 348–52 depletion of, 246–47
consumption of bushmeat in, 196 premature deaths from, in U.S., 361f Aral Sea water diversion project, and eco-
Age structure, human population, 134–37 preventing and reducing, 361–65 logical disaster, 244, 245f
effect of, on population growth, 120, 135, Alaska, oil reserves in, 293 Arboretum, 202
136f Algae, production of hydrogen from green, Arctic tundra, 87, 89f
effect of AIDS on, 331f 323b Area strip mining, 277
making population and economic projec- Algal blooms, 78, 257f Argentine fire ant, 194, 195f
tions based on, 135 Alien (nonnative) species, 111. See also Non- Arsenic as water pollutant, 259
of select countries, 135f native species Artificial selection, 74
Agribusiness, 209 Alley cropping, 211, 216, 217f El-Ashry, Mohamed, 248
Agricultural residue, paper produced from Alligators as keystone species, 108 Asian brown cloud, 351
168 Alpine tundra, 87 Asthma, 359
INDEX I1
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Atmosphere, 38, 346–47 species approach to preserving (see Biosphere 2, failure of nutrient cycling in,
changes in average temperature of, Species approach to preserving biodi- 412
projected and measured average, 369f, versity) Bioterrorism, infectious agents used for, 333,
373f sustaining terrestrial, 177f 334t
climate and (see Climate; Climate Biodiversity hot spots, 175, 176f Biotic components in ecosystems, 41, 42f,
change) in United States, 199f 43f
layers and temperature of, 347f Biofuels, 319 Biotic potential of populations, 120
ozone in, 383, 386–87 (see also Ozone Biogeochemical (nutrient cycles, 53 Birds
depletion) Biological community, 35, 38. See also aesthetic value of, 157f
stratosphere of, 38, 346–47 Ecosystem(s) effect of pesticides on embryos of, 21b
troposphere of, 38, 346 ecological succession in, 118, 119f, 120f evolutionary divergence of honeycreep-
Atom(s), 24 human impacts on, 123–27 ers, 70f
structure of, 24–25 keystone species in, 108 extinction of passenger pigeon, 183
Atomic number, 24 population dynamics and carry capacity reconciliation ecology for protection of
Australia, 96f of, 120–23 bluebirds, 204b
Autotrophs, 43 species diversity and ecological stability resource partitioning among warblers,
of, 110–11 115f
Background extinction, 71 species diversity and niche structure in, songbirds, 192f
Bacon, Francis, 127 109–10 threatened species of, 192f
Bacteria species interactions in, 114–18 threat of habitat loss to, 190–91, 192f
antibiotic resistant, 329 species types in, 111–14 Birth rate (crude birth rate), 129
ecological role of, 36–37 structure of, 109 average, for select countries, 130f
as pathogen (see Pathogens) Biological diversity. See Biodiversity factors affecting fertility rates and, 132,
Balance of nature, 119 Biological evolution, 65. See also Evolution 133f
Bangladesh Biological extinction of species, 184. See also population size and, 120
flooding in, 252–53 Extinction of species reducing, by empowering women,
microlending to end poverty in, 423b Biological hazards, 328–34. See also Disease; 138–39
Barrier beaches, 100, 102f Pathogens Bitumen, 294
Barrier islands, 100 bioterrorism and, 333–34 Black carbon aerosols, 375
Basal cell carcinoma, 384, 385f HIV and AIDS, 330–31 Blair, Tony, 242
Baseline data, ecological, 62 malaria as case study, 331–32 Bolivia, private ownership of freshwater
Bathyal zone, ocean, 98f, 103 nontransmissible and transmissible dis- resources in, 242
Bats, 67 ease as, 328–29 Boreal forests, 91, 93f, 94f
Bees, African “killer,” 111 reducing incidence of infectious disease, Botanical gardens, 202
Behavioral adaptations, 67 332–33 Brain, human, 63
Behavioral strategies against predation, risk analysis of, 340–43 Brazil
116 tuberculosis as case study, 329–30 Curitiba, as sustainable city in, 152–53,
Benthic zones, lake, 104, 105f viral disease, 330 429
Benthos, 95 Biological income, 6 demographic factors in Nigeria, U.S.,
Bequest value of biodiversity, 156 Biological magnification, 197f, 336 and, 136f
Berry, Wendell, 177 Biological pest control, 232 Breeder nuclear fission reactors, 305
Bhopal, India, toxic chemical release at, 402, Biological weathering, 274 Broadleaf deciduous trees, 91, 92f
403 Biomagnification of toxins, 197f, 336 Broadleaf evergreen plants, 90
Bicycles as transportation, 149f Biomass, 47 Bronchitis, chronic, 359
Bioaccumulation of toxics, 197f, 336 principal types of fuel made from, Brown, Lester R., 235
Biocultural restoration, 178 319f Brown-air smog, 349
Biodegradable pollutants, 27 producing energy from, 286, 319, 320f Brownfields, 392, 401
Biodegradable waste, composting of, 396 producing gaseous and liquid fuels from, Buckyballs, 282
Biodiversity, 45–46 320f, 321f Buffer (acid neutralization), 353
in aquatic (marine) life zones, 179–80 productivity rates in conversion of, 49, Buffer zone concept, 174
ecosystems and preservation of (see 50f Buildings
Ecosystem approach to preserving bio- Biomass plantations, 319 hazardous waste storage in above-
diversity) Biome(s), 40, 83–95 ground, 406
effects of climate change on, 376f along 39th parallel in U.S., 41f naturally cooled, 313–14
effects of speciation on, 70–72 altitude, latitude, and, 84, 85f saving energy in, 285, 309–12
extinction of (see Extinction of species) climate and, 81f, 83–84 sick-building syndrome, 357
over geological time, 74f desert, 85, 86f, 87b solar heated, 313f, 314f
goals, strategies, and tactics for protect- earth’s major, 83f Bureau of Land Management, U.S., 157
ing, 156f forests and mountains, 89–95 Burning
human impacts on, 72–73, 155–56, 157f global air circulation and, 81f biomass as fuel, 319
mountains as islands of, 94 grasslands, 85–87, 88f, 89f solid and hazardous wastes, 398, 399f,
protecting with laws and treaties, precipitation, temperature, and, 84f 404–6
198–201 Biomimicry, 392, 393f Buses as transportation, 150f
reasons for caring about, and protecting, Biomining, 282 in Curitiba, Brazil, 152f
156, 179 Biopharming, 74 Bush, George W., climate change policies of,
of species (see Species; Species Bioremediation, 404 381
diversity) Biosphere, 38 Bushmeat, 196
I2 INDEX
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Business, reducing water use by, 250 Chemical change in matter, 26 gases in atmosphere affecting, 81 (see also
Butterflies Chemical components of ecosystems, 53 Greenhouse gases)
population of monarch, 35f, 37f Chemical energy, 29 global air circulation and, 80f
protection against predation in, 116 Chemical equations, balancing, S13 global zones of, 80f
Chemical evolution, 64 land topography and local, 81–83
Cahn, Robert, 413 Chemical formula, 24 ocean currents and winds affecting, 80–81
California, geothermal energy in, 321 Chemical hazards, 328, 334–40. See also Haz- solar energy and, 79
California Water Transfer Project, 243, 244f ardous wastes; Toxic chemicals weather and, 78, 79
Camouflage as defense against predation, effects on human immune, nervous, and wind and, 79, 80f
115, 116f endocrine systems, 335 Climate change, 367–83. See also Global
Canada in homes, 402f warming
oil reserves in, 291, 292f persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 127, as cause of species extinction, 197
oil sand in, 294 340 effects of, projected, 375–77
Cancer risk analysis of, 340–43 factors affecting earth’s average tempera-
lung, 359 terrorism and, 402 ture and, 374–75
skin, 384, 385f toxic and hazardous, 334–35 human activities leading to, 370–74
Cap-and-trade emissions program, 362–63 toxicology and assessment of, 335–40 natural greenhouse effect and past,
Capital, 6. See also Natural capital Chemical nature of pollutants, 26 368–70
Captive breeding, 202 Chemical reaction, 26 strategies for dealing with threat of,
Carbohydrates, 24 Chemical warfare as protection against pre- 378–83
Carbon cycle, 55, 56–57f dation, 116 volcanoes and study of, 367
effects of human activities on, 55 Chemical weathering, 274 Climax community, 119
Carbon dioxide (CO2) as greenhouse gas, Chemosynthesis, 44 Clone, 74
348, 369, 370t Chernobyl nuclear power accident, radioac- Cloud cover, climate and changes in, 374–75
carbon cycle and, 55 tive pollutants from, 300–301, 345 Clownfish, mutualism and, 117f
coal burning and emissions of, 26, 294f, Chesapeake Bay, pollution in, 261–62 Coal, 296–97
297f Children advantages and disadvantages of, 297f
emissions of, per units of energy by fertility rates and factors related to, 132 carbon dioxide produced by burning of,
various fuels, 294f malnourished, 218 26, 294f, 297f
global temperature and levels of, 370f protecting from lead poisoning, 407f converting, into gaseous and liquid fuel,
increase in average concentrations of, protecting from toxic chemicals, 339 297, 298f
371f saving from malnutrition and disease, 14f formation of, 296f
individual role in reducing, 382f China environmental impact of burning, 297f
photosynthesis and levels of, 375 acid deposition in, 353 nuclear energy versus, 302f
slowing global warming by removing basic demographic data for, 139f Coal-burning facilities, reducing air pollu-
and storing, 379, 380f biogas production in, 320 tion from, 363f
storage of, in oceans, 374 carbon dioxide emissions by, 371, Coal gasification, 297
Carbon monoxide as air pollutant, 349t 381–82 Coal liquefaction, 297
Carbon taxes, 380 coal reserves of, 296, 297 Coastal coniferous forests, 94
Carcinogens, 335 oil imports by, 293 Coastal wetlands, 97, 99f
Carnivores, 115 paper production in, 168 Coastal zones, 97
Carrying capacity (K), 121, 122f population, and population regulation in, coniferous forests in, 94
effects of exceeding, 121, 122f 140 effects of global warming on, 376f
logistic growth of population and, 121f water resources and pollution in, 237, integrated coastal management, 180
Cars, hybrid and fuel-cell, 308, 309f, 310f. 248, 256, 257 as marine life zone, 98f
See also Motor vehicles Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 24 pollution in, 260–61, 262, 263f
Carson, Rachel, work of, 229b Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) protecting, 262, 263f
Cash crops, 208 ozone depletion and role of, 383 saltwater intrusions into freshwater
Cell(s), 25f, 36 substitutes for, 386b sources of, 247f
Center-pivot low-pressure sprinkler, 248, Chromosomes, 24, 25f urbanization in, 145
249f Circle of poison, 231b Cockroaches
Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 327, 407 Cities. See Urban (metropolitan) areas as generalist species, 69b
Central Arizona Project, 244f Civil disobedience, nonviolent, protection as opportunist species, 123f
Ceramics, 283 of forests through, 166b Coevolution, 67
Chain reaction, nuclear, 27, 28f Clarke, Arthur C., 389 Co-generation, 307
Channelization of streams, 253 Clean Air Acts, U.S., 361, 362 Cohen, Michael J., 346
Chateaubriand, Francois-Auguste-René de, Clean Water Act, U.S., 264, 266 Cold desert, 85
155 Clear-cutting of trees and forests, 161, 162f Cold front, S15
Chemical(s) advantages and disadvantages of, 163f Coloration, 67
analysis of, for finding minerals, 276 Climate, 78–107 Combined heat and power (CHP) systems,
hazardous (see Chemical hazards) aquatic life zones and, 95–106 307
inorganic, as water pollutant, 254t Aral Sea and, 245 Commensalism, 118
interactions of, 336 biomes and, 83–95 (see also Biome(s)) Commercial energy, 286
ozone depleting, 383 change in (see Climate change; Global flow of, through U.S. economy, 306f
sensitivity to multiple, 336 warming) industrialized agriculture and use of, 211f
toxic (see Toxic chemicals) defined, 79 types of global, 286–87
Chemical bonds, 22 factors affecting, 79, 80f U.S. use of, 287f, 288f
INDEX I3
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Commercial inorganic fertilizer, 216, 217 Croplands, 207 Deuterium-tritium and deuterium-deu-
Common-property (free-access) resources, ecological and economic services pro- terium nuclear fusion reactions, 28f
10–11 vided by, 209f Developed countries, 9. See also names of
Community. See Biological community; Crop rotation, 216 individual countries, e.g. Canada; United
Ecosystem(s) Crossbreeding to increase food production, States
Comparative risk analysis, 340f 220 age structure of select, 135f
Competition among species Crown fire in forests, 166f, 167 connections between environmental
interspecific, 114 Crude birth rate. See Birth rate (crude birth problems and causes in, 15–16
reducing and avoiding, 114, 115f rate) freshwater supplies in, 242
Competitor (K-selected) species, 122, 123f Crude oil, 290. See also Oil global outlook, 9f
Compost and composting, 216 as pollutant, 262, 293f, 294f projected population size in, 9f8
of biodegradable organic waste, 396 refining, 290f water pollution in, 255–56
Composting toilet systems, 264 Crust, earth’s, 270, 271f, 272f Developing countries, 9f See also names of
Compounds, 22, 24 Cultural eutrophication of lakes, 257f individual countries, e.g. Brazil
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Cultural hazards, 328 age structure of select, 135f
Compensation, and Liability Act Culture, environment and human, 16–17 connections between environmental
(Superfund program), U.S., 401 Curitiba, Brazil, as sustainable ecocity, problems and causes in, 15–16
Concentration of pollutants, 26 152–53, 429 freshwater supplies in, 242
Coniferous evergreen trees, 91 Cuyahoga River, 255–56 global outlook for, 9f
Coniferous forests, 91, 93f, 94f Cyanide heap leaching, 280 population growth projected for, 9f
soils of, 52f reducing poverty in, 422
Consensus science, 22 Dams and reservoirs. See also Lakes urban poverty in, 146–47
Conservation of energy, law of, 30 for flood control, 254 water pollution in, 256
Conservation of matter, law of, 26 freshwater supplies and, 242, 243f Diet, alternative human, 206
Conservation-tillage farming, 216 hydropower at, 317f Differential reproduction, 67
Constitutional democracy, 424 Darwin, Charles, 64 “Dirty bomb,” 304
Contraception, methods of, 133f DDT, bioaccumulation and biomagnifica- Discharge trading policy, 263
Consumers, 44 tion of, 197f Disease
Consumption Death bioterrorism and, 333, 334t
excessive, 14–15 causes of human, 341f deaths per year due to select, 329f
reducing, 391 infectious disease as cause of, 329f, 332 emphysema and lung, 360f
Containers, refillable, 394–95 premature, 14 HIV and AIDS, 330–31
Continental drift, 72f tobacco use as cause of, in U.S., 327f infectious, 332–33, 334t
Continental shelf, 97, 98f Death rate (crude death rate), 120, 129, 130 malaria, 331–32
Contour farming, 216, 217f average, for select countries, 130f pathogen resistance to antibiotics and,
Contour strip mining, 277 factors affecting, 132–33 329
Controlled experiments, 21 population decline from rising, 137 relationship of, to poverty and malnutri-
Controlled nuclear fusion, 28 Debt-for-nature swaps, 172 tion, 14f
Convention on International Trade in Decomposers, 44f tobacco, smoking, and, 327
Endangered Species (CITES), 198 in aquatic life zones, 95 transmissible and nontransmissible,
Convergent plate boundaries, 272, 274f Deep-well disposal of hazardous wastes, 328–29
Cooling, natural, 313–14 405f tuberculosis, 329–30
Cooling services, leasing of, 393 Deforestation, 19, 161, 163 viral, 330
Copenhagen Protocol, 386 flooding caused by, 252, 253f Dissolved oxygen (DO) content, 43
Coral reefs, 96f, 100–101 global extent of, 163–64 Divergent plate boundaries, 272, 274f
components and interactions in, 102f individual action to prevent, 166b DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 25f
major threats to, 103f tropical, 169–72 Document services, 393
Core, earth’s, 270, 271f Degradable (nonpersistent) pollutants, 27 Dorr, Ann, 283
Costa Rica in water, 258 Dose, toxic chemical, 335
ecological restoration in, 178–79 Democracy, 424 lethal, 337t
nature reserves in, 174 making environmental policies in, 424–27 Dose-response curve, 337f
Cowie, Dean, 1 Demographic transition, 137f–8 nonthreshold dose-response model,
Cradle-to-grave management of hazardous Demographic trap, 137 338f
wastes, 401 Denitrification, 56 threshold dose-response model, 338f
Crime, improving urban environments by Denmark, detoxification hazardous wastes Doubling time of population growth, 130
reducing, 147b in, 403–4 Drainage basin, 104, 106f, 238
Critical mass, 27 Department of Energy (DOE), U.S., 288 Drinking water. See also Fresh water
Critical thinking, 3–4 Depletion time, mineral resources, 280–81 arsenic in, 259
Crop(s) Desalination, water, 247–48 bottled, 267
cash, 208 Desert(s), 85 lack of access to clean, 14
genetically modified, 220, 221f ecology of temperate, 86f quality of, 255, 266–68
grain crops, 207, 217–18 human impacts and degradation of, 87b purification of, 264
increasing world yields of, 209, 210f soil of, 52f reducing disease by disinfecting, 264
monoculture, 159, 160, 222 Desertification, 213, 214f, 215f, 223 Drip irrigation systems, 249f
multiple, 209 Detoxification of hazardous wastes, 403–4 Dubos, René, 6
pesticide use, and reduced loss of, 230b Detritus, 44 Dunes, primary and secondary, 102f
residues from, as biofuel, 319 Detrivores, 44f Durant, Will, 270
I4 INDEX
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Early conservation era of U.S. environmen- Ecology, 6, 35, 36–38 human modification of natural, 123–25
tal history, 17 populations, communities, ecosystems, importance of soils in, 50–53
Earth and, 37–38 (see also Biological commu- matter cycling in, 39f, 53–60
atmosphere (see Atmosphere) nity; Ecosystem(s); Population(s) methods of learning about, 60–62
chemical and biological evolution of, research in, 60–62 populations, communities, and ecosys-
64–65 species and, 36–37 (see also Species) tems, 37–38
climate, local, and topography of, 81–83 Economically depleted resource, 12, 280 role of insects in, 35
climate and rotating axis of, 79, 80f Economic development, 9 roles species play in, 36–37
climate change (see Climate change; demographic transition and, 137–38 Ecosystem approach to preserving biodiver-
Global warming) environmentally sustainable, 17, 416f sity, 154–82
crust and upper mantle of, 271f, 272f good and bad news about (trade-offs) of, aquatic systems, 179–80, 181f
evolution and adaptation of life on, 65–70 10f ecological restoration and, 177–79
factors affecting temperature of, 374–75 reduced birth rates linked to, 137–38 establishing priorities for, 181–82
geologic processes of, 270, 271–74 urbanization and, 144 forest management and sustenance as,
life-support systems, 38–40 Economic growth, 9 159–65
as ocean planet, 97f Economic incentives, improving environ- forest resources and management in
origins of life on, 64–65 mental quality using, 416–21 United States as, 165–69
poles of, ozone depletion and, 383–86 Economic indicators, 416–17 human impacts on biodiversity and,
structure of, 270, 271f Economic resources, 413, 414f 155–56, 157f
tectonic plates of, 272f, 273f, 274f Economics, 413–23 national parks, 172–73
water budget of, 238f economic resources and, 413 nature reserves, 173–77
Earthquakes, S18 economic views of natural capital and public lands in United States as, 157–59
Earth tubes, 314 sustainability, 413–15 reintroduced species, 154
Easter Island, environmental degradation energy resources and, 325, 326f tropical deforestation and adverse effects
on, 19, 122 environmentally sustainable, 17–18 on, 169–72
Ebola virus, 330 environmental problems and, 9, 13–15 Egg pulling, 202
Ecocities, 151 forests in American and factors of global, Einstein, Albert, 3, 22, 410
Curitiba, Brazil, as, 152–53, 429 168–69 Electrical energy, 29
Ecoindustrial revolution, 392, 393f globalization, 14, 168–69 Electricity, generation of
Eco-labeling programs, 420f, 421 growth and development, 8–9 from burning solid biomass, 319, 320f
Ecological economists, 413, 414f improving environmental quality using, decentralized system for producing of,
Ecological efficiency, 47 416–21 324f
Ecological extinction of species, 184 of mineral resource supplies, 281 fuels from biomass, 320–21
Ecological footprint of nuclear energy, 304–5 geothermal energy and, 321, 322f
human, on earth’s surface, S2–S5 poverty and, 13–14, 421–23 solar cells and, 315–16
human, in North America, S6–S7f recycling, reuse, and factor of, 398 solar generation of high-temperature,
natural capital use and degradation and, reducing air pollution through, 362–63 314–15
10 shift to services, 392–93 tides, waves and dams (flowing water),
per capita, 11 transition to environmentally sustain- 317
of U.S., Netherlands, and India, 11f able, 17 wind and, 317–18
Ecological niche, 67–70 Economic services Electromagnetic radiation, 29
of alligators, 108 provided by croplands, 209f Electromagnetic spectrum, 29f
of bird species in wetlands, 68–69f provided by forests, 160f Electronic waste (e-waste), 390
fundamental, and realized, 67, 114 provided by freshwater systems, 104f Electrons (e), 24
generalist and specialist species and, provided by saltwater (marine) systems, Elements, 22
68–69 97f Elephants, reduction in ranges/habitat for,
of rocky and sandy shores, 100, 101f, 102f Economic systems, 413 191f
structure of, in biological communities, Economy(ies), high-throughput (high- Emissions trading policy, 362–63
109–10 waste), 32, 33f. See also Economics Endangered species, 184
in tropical rain forests, 91f Ecosystem(s), 35–62. See also Biological com- protecting with international treaties and
Ecological restoration, 177–79 munity laws, 198–201
in Costa Rica, 178–79 abiotic and biotic components of, 41, 42f, reintroduction of gray wolf, 154
of San Pedro River, Arizona, 178f 43f sanctuaries for, 202–3
Ecological services, 6, 7f adaptive management of, 175 white ukari, 46f
provided by croplands, 209f aquatic, 40–41 (see also Aquatic life zones) Endangered Species Act of 1973, U.S., 154,
provided by forests, 160f biodiversity and, 45–46 (see also Biodiver- 198–201
provided by freshwater systems, 104f sity) accomplishments of, 201b
provided by marine (saltwater) systems, biological components of, 43–45 arguments for strengthening, 201
97f biomes (terrestrial), 40–41 (see also arguments for weakening, 200–201
provided by rivers, 243f Biome(s); Terrestrial ecosystems) protection of marine animals with, 200
Ecological stability, species diversity and, defined, 38 scope of, 198–200
110–11. See also Sustainability as earth’s life-support systems, 38–40 Endemic species, 190
Ecological succession, 118–20 ecology and, 36 (see also Ecology) Endocrine system, chemical hazards to, 335
predictability of, 119 energy flow in, 46–49 Energy, 29–32. See also Energy resources
primary, 118, 119f factors limiting population growth in, 43 defined, 29
secondary, 118, 119f feeding (trophic) levels in, 46, 47f flow (see Energy flow)
Ecologists, methods of, 60–62 food chains and food webs in, 46, 47f, 48f kinetic, and potential, 29
INDEX I5
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I6 INDEX
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role of climate change and pollution in, Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 231 shortages of, 240–41
197 Food chains, 46, 47f transfers of, advantages/disadvantages,
role of market for exotic pets and plants bioaccumulation and bio-magnification 243–44
in, 196–97 of toxins in, 197f Freshwater life zones, 41, 42f, 95, 104–6
sanctuary approach to preventing, 202–3 Food production, 207. See also Food ecological and economic services of, 104f
species endangered by (see Endangered environmental effects of, 219, 220f human impact on, 106
species) global grain production, 217, 218f inland wetlands, 105–6
species threatened with, 108, 184 green revolution and, 209, 210f, 221–22 lakes, 104
three types of, 184 human nutrition and, 217–20 streams and rivers, 104–5, 106f
trade in exotic pets and plants as cause increasing, 209, 220–27 Frogs as indicator species, 111, 112f
of, 196–97 industrial, and traditional forms of, 208–9 Frontier environmental worldview, 17
Extinction spasm, 184 industrial, in United States, 209–11 Frontier era of U.S. environmental history,
Extrinsic value of biodiversity, 156 low-input traditional, 211 17
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 262 methods of, 207–11 Frontier science, 22
perennial polyculture and, 211, 222 Frost wedging, 273, 274
Family planning, 138 protecting with pest management, 227–34 Fuel cells, 285, 309
empowering women for better, 138–39 soil conservation and, 216–17 hydrogen, 322
Fast-growing crops, paper production from, soil erosion and degradation resulting Fuel cell vehicles, 309
168, 169f from, 211–16 Fuels
Feedlots, 208 sustainable, 234–35 biofuels, 319–21
Fertility, human, 131 world’s principal types of, 208f carbon dioxide emissions, by select, 294f
factors affecting birth rates and, 132, 133f Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of 1996, coal, 296–97
reduced, and population declines, 136 231 ethanol and methanol as, 320f, 321f
replacement level, 131 Food web, 47 natural gas, 295–96
total rate of (TFR), 131 in Antarctic, 48f oil as, 290–95
in United States, 131–32 industrial ecosystem modeled as, 393f real cost of gasoline, 308b
Fertilizers, organic and inorganic, 216, 217 Forest(s), 89–95 synthetic, 296, 297f
Field research, ecological, 60, 61f boreal (coniferous), 89, 91, 93f, 94 Fuelwood shortage, 286. See also Biomass
Financial income, 6 building roads into, 160, 161f, 171 Full cost pricing, 415, 417–18
Fire in forests, 165–67 deforestation (see Deforestation) Fundamental niche, 67
reducing damage of, 167 ecological and economic services pro- Fungi
First law of thermodynamics, 30 vided by, 160f lethal effects of, on coral reefs, 78
Fish effect of climate change on, 376f, 377f mycorrhizae, 117f, 118
aquaculture of, 224, 226, 227f fires in, 165–67
biodiversity of, and threats to, 156 harvest methods in, 160–61, 162f Gandhi, Mahatma, 435
as food source, 207–8 W. Maathai and Kenyan reforestation Gangue, 278
government-subsidized fleets for har- movement, 172b Garbage. See Solid waste
vesting, 226 management systems for, 160, 161f, 168 Gases, atmospheric, 81. See also Greenhouse
harvesting of, 224, 225f managing for sustainability, 164–65 gases
harvest yields, 225f sustainable management of, 164–65 Gasoline
Fisheries, 224 temperate deciduous, 89, 92f real environmental cost of, 308b
managing, 180, 181f tropical rain forest, 89, 90f, 91f (see also real price of, in U.S. years 1920-2005, 308f
oceanic, 180, 181f, 207 Tropical forests; Tropical rain forests) Gene(s), 24, 25f
overfishing and habitat degradation of, types of, 159–60 Gene banks, 202
224–25 in United States, 156, 157, 165–69 Gene pool, 65
Fish farming, 226 Forestry, sustainable, 164f Generalist species, 68–69
Fish ranching, 226 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 165 cockroaches as, 69b
Flesh flower (Rafflesia), 46 Fossil fuels, 55. See also Coal; Natural gas; General Mining Law of 1872, U.S., 269
Flooding, 251–54 Oil Gene splicing, 74
in Bangladesh, 252–53 air pollution and, 347 Genetically modified food, 75, 76f, 220, 221f
causes and effects of, 252, 253f carbon cycle and, 55 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
reducing risk of, 253–54 global warming and burning of, 56f 74, 75f
Flood irrigation, 248 Fossils, 64, 65f Genetic diversity, 37, 38f. See also Genetic
Floodplains, 105, 106f, 251 Foundation species, 113–14 variability
Bangladesh, 252–53 Free-access (common-property) resources, Genetic engineering, 74, 75f, 76f
Food. See also Food production 10–11 ethics and, 75–76
alternative protein sources, 206 French, Hilary F., 365 increasing crop yields with, 220–21
bushmeat as, 196 Fresh water protecting food plants against pests with,
genetically engineered and modified, 75f, availability of, 237, 238f 232f
76, 220, 221f desalination and production of, 247–48 Genetic information, preserving species, 188
grain, 217–18 ecological disasters involving sources of, Genetic makeup and effects of toxic chemi-
human nutrition, malnutrition, undernu- 244–45 cals, 335–36
trition, and, 218, 219 global uses of, 239 Genetic variability, 65, 67. See also Genetic
human overnutrition and, 219 groundwater, 238, 239f, 246–47 diversity
important plant and animal sources of, increasing supplies of, 242–43 Genuine progress indicator (GPI), 416–17
207–8 ownership and management of, 241–42 Geographic information systems (GIS), 60,
micronutrients in human 218–19 resources of, in U.S., 239, 240f 61f
INDEX I7
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Geographic isolation, speciation and, 70, 71f components and interactions in Hazardous chemicals, 334. See also Chemical
Geology, 269–84 temperate, 88f hazards; Hazardous wastes
continental drift, 72f grazing and browsing animals in, 87 Hazardous wastes, 401–6
earth structure, 270, 271f human impact and degradation of, 88f, Bhopal, India, disaster involving, 403
geologic processes, 271–74 89f burning and burying, 404–6
mineral resources, 269, 276–83 soil of, 52f detoxifying, 403–4
minerals, rocks, and rock cycle, 274–76 Grassroots environmental groups, 409–10 grassroots action on managing, 409–10
soil conservation, 216–17 Gravimeter, 276 harmful chemicals used in homes and
soil erosion, 211–16 Gravity, 39 production of, 402f
soil resources, 50–53 Gray-air smog, 351 individual’s role in reducing and manag-
Geothermal energy, 321 Green Belt Movement, Kenya, 172b ing, 406f
advantages/disadvantages of, 322f Greenhouse effect, 81, 368–69 international treaty on transfer of, 410
Geothermal exchange (geoexchange), 321 global warming and, 81 land disposal of, 406f
Giant pandas, 68 natural, 82f, 368–69 at Love Canal, New York, 388
Glaciers and sea ice, global warming and, Greenhouse gases, 39, 369 phytoremediation of, 404f, 405f
371, 372f Kyoto Protocol and, 380–81 priorities for dealing with, 403f
Global cooling, 368 major, from human activities, 370t science and politics of, 401
Globalization, 14 reducing, 381, 382f surface impoundments of, 405f, 406
effects on American forests and, 168–69 Green manure, 216 terrorism and release of, 402
Global outlook, development, population Green revolution, 209, 210f toxic metals as, 406–9
size, and, 8f expanding, 221–22 Health. See Human health
Global security, environmental policy and, Green Seal eco-labeling, 420f Healthy Forests Initiative of 2003, U.S.,
430 Green taxes and fees, 415, 418–19 167
Global sustainability movement, 428 advantages and disadvantages of, 418f Heat, 29
Global warming, 368. See also Climate Gripping mechanisms, 67 high temperature industrial, 289f
change Gross domestic product (GDP), 9 as water pollutant, 254t
approaches to dealing with problem of, as measure of economic and environ- Heating
378 mental health, 416, 417f energy ratios for space, 289f
current levels of, 369f net primary productivity versus, 49f geothermal, 321
current responses to, 381–82 Gross primary productivity (GPP), 49 solar, 313–14
difficulties in responding to threat of, 378 Ground fires in forests, 167 water, 312
government role in reducing threat of, Groundwater, 238, 239f Heliostats, 314
380 arsenic concentrations in U.S., 259 Hepatitis B virus, 330
greenhouse gases and, 81, 370t, 371f pollution of, 258–59 Herbivores, 115
Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emis- preventing and cleaning up, 259f Heterotrophs, 44
sions and, 380–81 sources of contamination in, 258f, 260f High (weather), S15
nuclear energy as means of reducing, 304 withdrawal of, 246f, 247f High-level radioactive wastes, 302–3
ocean currents and, 374f Gulf of Mexico in U.S., 303
preparing for, 382–83 oil drilling in, 292f High-quality energy, 30, 31f
projected effects of, 375, 376f, 377f oxygen-depleted areas of, 261f one-way flow of, and life on earth, 39f
reasons for concern about, 373–74 Gulf Stream, 80f, 81 High-quality matter, 25f, 26
removing and storing CO2 as solution for, Gully erosion, 212 High-throughput (high-waste) economy, 32,
379, 380f Gut inhabitant mutualism, 118 33f
scientific consensus on, 371–73 High-waste society, 390
solutions for reducing threat of, 378–79 Habitat, 38, 67 shift from things to services in, 392–93
tropospheric warming, 370–71 effects of climate change on wildlife, 197 waste management strategy for,
volcanoes and study of, 367 Endangered Species Act and protection 390–92
Gorilla, hunting and poaching threat to, of critical, 198–99 Hill, Julia Butterfly, 166
196f of fish, 224–25 HIPPO (Habitat destruction and fragmenta-
Government(s) loss, degradation, and fragmentation of, tion, Invasive (alien) species, Popula-
agricultural policies of, 226–27 as threat to species, 109, 189–92 tion growth, Pollution, and Overhar-
democratic, 424 Habitat conservation plans (HCPs), 199 vesting), 190
environmental laws (see United States Habitat islands, 190 Hirschorn, John, 343
environmental laws) Hansen, James, 367 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 330,
environmental policy and, 424–30 Hardin, Garrett, 10 331
fishing fleets subsidized by, 226 Hardrock minerals, 269 Homes
role of, in reducing threat of climate Hawken, Paul G., 6, 394, 429 designing for energy efficiency, 285, 309
change, 380 Hazard(s) hazardous chemicals in, 402f
subsidies from, for improving environ- biological, 328–34 naturally cooled, 313–14
mental quality, 418 chemical, 334–35 reducing energy waste in, 310–12
Grain crops, 207–8 disease as (see Disease) reducing water use and waste in, 250
global production of, 217, 218f major types of, 328 solar-heated, 313f, 314f
increasing yields of, 220–21 natural (earthquakes, volcanoes), S18 Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Company,
Grameen Bank, Bangladesh, 423b risk analysis of, 340–43 Love Canal disaster and, 388
Grasshopper effect, smog formation as, 352 toxicology and assessment of chemical, Hormonally-active agents (HAAs), 335
Grasslands, 85–88 335–40 Hormone(s), controlling insect pests by dis-
arctic (polar), 87, 89f Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 361 rupting, 232, 233f
I8 INDEX
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INDEX I9
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Insects Lakes, 96f, 104. See also Dams and reservoirs second law of thermodynamics in, 32f
African “killer” bees, 111 Aral Sea water ecological disaster, sustainability of, 126–27
chemical pesticides for control of, 228–31 244–45f Loams, 52
cockroaches, 69b, 123f eutrophication and cultural eutrophica- Local extinction of species, 184
disrupting reproductive hormones of, tion in, 257–58 Logging in forests, 160–61, 162f, 163f
232, 233f water pollution in, 256–57 in U.S., 168f
ecological role of, 35 zones of, 104, 105f Logistic growth, population, 121f
as pests, 227 Land London, air pollution disasters in, 350b
sex attractants (pheromones) for, 232 availability of, transportation, and urban- Los Angeles, California, air pollution prob-
threats from introduced nonnative, 193f, ization, 148 lems, 352
195f burying solid wastes in, 399–401, 406f Love Canal, New York, hazardous waste
Instrumental value of biodiversity, impact of mining on, 278, 279f, 280 dump in, 388
156, 188 increasing amount of cultivated, 222 Lovins, Amory, 285
Integrated pest management (IPM), increasing amount of irrigated, 222 Low (weather), S15
233–34 Land degradation, soil erosion and, 211–12 Low-energy precision application (LEPA)
Intercropping, 211 Las Vegas, Nevada, urban sprawl of, 141f sprinklers, 248, 249f
Interface Corporation, 394b Latitude, climate, biomes, and effects of, 84, Low-quality energy, 30, 31f
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 85f Low-quality matter, 25f, 26
Change (IPCC), 370, 371, 373, 377 Law, environmental, 419 Low-throughput (low-waste) economy, 33f,
Internal combustion engine, energy waste protecting endangered species using, 34
in, 306 198–201 Lungs, emphysema in human, 360f
Internal costs, 417 in U.S. (see United States environmental
Internet, accuracy of information on, 3 laws) Maathai, Wangari, reforestation work of,
Interplanting, 211 Law of conservation of energy, 30 172b
Interspecific competition, 114 Law of conservation of matter, 26 MacArthur, Robert H., 79
Intertidal zones, 100, 101f Law of progressive simplification, 14 Macroevolution, 65
Intrinsic rate of increase (r), population Laws of thermodynamics, 30–32 Madagascar, 98f
growth, 120 Law of tolerance, 41 Magma, 321
Intrinsic value of biodiversity, 156 Leachate, landfills and, 400 Magnetometer, 276
Introduced species, 192–94. See also Leaching, soil, 51 Malaria, 331–32
Nonnative species Lead global distribution, 331f
reducing threats from, 195 as air pollutant, 349t life cycle of, 332f
role of accidentally introduced, 194–95 health threat of, 406–7 spraying pesticides to control insects car-
role of deliberately introduced, 111, 194 preventing poisoning of children by, 407f rying, 125b, 228
Invasive species, 111. See also Nonnative Learning skills, 1–4 Maldives islands, threat of rising sea levels
species improving, 1–3 to, 377f
Ions, 24 Leewenhock, Antoine van, 77 Malnutrition, 218
Ireland, 122 Lemur, threatened species of, 192f relationship of, to poverty and disease,
Irrigation Leopold, Aldo, 17, 182, 184, 188, 207 14, 15f, 218
increasing amount of land under, 222 Levees to control flooding, 253 Mangroves, 96f
major systems of, 249f Lichens, as indicators of air pollution, 345 Mantle, earth’s, 270, 271f, 272f
reducing water waste in, 248–49, 250f Life Manufactured resources/manufactured
soil salinization and waterlogging caused levels of organization in, 23f capital, 413, 414f
by, 215f origins of, 64–65 Marine life zones, 41, 95, 96–103. See also
Island(s), barrier, 100 Life-centered environmental worldviews, Ocean(s); Saltwater (marine) life zones
Islands of biodiversity, mountains as, 94 432–33 ecological and economic services pro-
Isotopes, 25 Life expectancy, 133 vided by, 97f
Life-support systems, Earth’s, 38–40 human impact on, 179–80
Janzen, Daniel, 178 as favorable for life, 40 sustaining biodiversity in, 180, 181f
Jet streams, S15 interconnected factors in, 39 Marine protected areas (MPAs), 180
J-shaped curve of human population major components of, 38–39 Marine species, protection of, 200
growth, 5f solar energy and, 39–40 Market-based economic system, 413
Junk science, 22 Lighting, energy efficient, 307f Market forces. See also Economics
Light pollution, 146 Marsh, saltwater, 99f
Kenaf, 168, 169f Light-water reactors (LWR), nuclear, 298, Marsh, George Perkins, 109
Kennedy, Donald, 368 299f Mass depletion, 72
Kenya, Green Belt Movement in, 172b Limiting factor, 43 Mass extinctions, 71, 72, 73f
Keystone species, 112 Limiting factor principle, 43 Mass number, 24
alligators as, 108 Limnetic zones, lakes, 104, 105f Mass transit rail as transportation, 149f
Key terms, 2 Liquified natural gas (LNG), 295 Material(s)
Kinetic energy, 29 Liquified petroleum gas (LPG), 296 effects of air pollution on, 353
K-selected species, 122, 123f Lithosphere, 38, 271 substitute, for mineral resources, 283
Kudzu vine, 194f Littoral zones, lakes, 104, 105f Material efficiency, 26
Kyoto Protocol, 380–81 Living sustainably. See Sustainable living Materials-recovery facilities (MRFs), 396
Living systems. See also Systems Matter, 22–28
Laboratory research in ecology, 61 precautionary principle for protecting, atoms, ions, and compounds, 24–25
Lacey Act of 1900, U.S., 198 126 energy and, 32–34
I10 INDEX
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law of conservation of, 26 supplies of, 280–83 National Wilderness Preservation System,
levels of organization in, 23f U.S. laws on, 269 U.S., 157, 176–77
nuclear changes in, 27–28 Minimum-tillage farming, 216 National Wildlife Refuges, U.S., 157, 202
physical and chemical changes in, 26 Mining Native species, 111
pollutants and characteristics of, 26–27 environmental impact of, 279f Natural capital, 1, 6, 7f, 413
quality of, 25–26 possible limits to, 279–80 endangered and threatened, 186–87f,
types of, 22–23 surface, and subsurface, 276–77 188f, 192f, 193f, 195f, 199f, 200f
Matter cycling in ecosystems, 39f, 45f, on U.S. public lands, 276 levels of organization of matter in nature
53–60 Mining Law of 1872, U.S., 159 as, 23f
biogeochemical (nutrient) cycles and, 53 Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing lost, 185f
carbon cycle, 55, 56–57f Company (3M), 392 natural resources and ecological services
nitrogen cycle, 55–57, 58f Model(s), 20 as, 6, 7f
phosphorus cycle, 57–58, 59f Molecular economy, 282 restoration of, 154
sulfur cycle, 59, 60f Molina, Mario, 383 restoration of (see Natural capital restora-
water (hydrologic) cycle, 53–55, 237 Monoculture, 222 tion)
Matter quality, 25f–26 tree plantations as, 159, 160f use and degradation of, 10f (see also
Matter-recycling-and-reuse economy, 32, 33f Monomers, 24 Natural capital degradation)
Mead, Margaret, 18, 387 Montague, Peter, 264 Natural capital degradation, 7f
Measure, units of, S1 Montreal Protocol, 386 acid deposition, 354, 355f, 356f, 357f
Meat production, 222–23 Mopani food, 206 air pollution, 348f, 356f
conversion of grain into, 224f Moths, 67 biodiversity, 155f, 156, 157f, 179f
environmental consequences of, 223 Motor vehicles carbon dioxide emissions as, 294f
sustainable, 223–24 advantages and disadvantages of, 148–49 coral reefs, 103f
Mechanical energy, 29 alternatives to, 149–50 deforestation and forest degradation,
Mechanical weathering, 273 fuel cell, 309 164f, 170f, 253f
Megacities, 141f hybrid gas-electric, 308, 309f, 310f depletion and extinction of wild
Megalopolis, 141f reducing air pollution from, 364f species as, 190f, 191f, 194f, 195f, 196f,
Megareserves, 174 reducing use of, 149 197f, 199f
Melanoma, 385f in United States, 148 deserts, 87f
Mercury Mountains, 94–95 on Easter Island, 19
cycling of, in aquatic environments, ecological importance of, 94 food production as cause of, 220f
408f human impact on, 95f forests, 94f, 161f
health threat of, to humans, 113, 408 rain shadow effect and, 82f freshwater sources, 241f, 245f, 246f, 247f,
preventing and controlling inputs of, 409f Mountaintop removal (mining), 277, 253f
Metallic mineral resources, 12, 276 278f human impact on natural ecosystems,
Metamorphic rock, 275 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 78, 367 125f
Metastasis, 335 Mouse (mice), genetically engineered, 76f human interference in biogeochemical
Methane, increase in average atmospheric Muir, John, 106 cycles as, 56f, 58f
concentrations of, 371f, 375 Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), 336 major environmental problems and, 12f,
Methanol as fuel, 320, 321f Multiple cropping, 209 13f, 14f
Metropolitan areas. See Urban (metropoli- Municipal solid waste (MSW), 389 marine (saltwater) ecosystems,
tan) areas burning, 398, 399f 103f, 179f
Mexico City, environmental problems of, land disposal of, 399, 400f, 401f mineral resources, 269f, 277f, 278f, 279f,
147, 351f recycling, 396–97 280f
Microbes, 36 Mutagens, 65, 335 in mountains, 95
Microevolution, 65 Mutations, 65 overgrazed rangelands, 223f
natural selection of, 65–67 Mutualism, 117f–18 point-source air pollution as, 11f
Microirrigation, 249f Mycorrhizae fungi, 117f, 118 poverty and, 14f
Microlending (microfinance), 423b Myers, Norman, 430 soil erosion and degradation, 212, 213f,
Microlivestock, 206 214f, 215f
Micronutrients, human nutrition and, Nanotechnology, producing new materials urban areas as unsustainable, 145f
218–19 using, 282 urban sprawl as, 144f
Micropower systems, 324f National ambient air quality standards of water resources, 241f, 245f, 246f, 247f,
Middle East, water conflicts in, 236 (NAAAQS), 361 253f, 257f, 258f, 260f, 261f
Mimicry, 67 National Forest System, U.S., 157 Natural capital restoration, gray wolf rein-
Mineral(s), 274–76 logging in, 168f troduction as, 154
Mineral resources, 274 management of, 168 Natural gas, 295
classification of nonrenewable, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), advantages and disadvantages of, 295,
275, 276f 198 296f
finding, removing, and processing National Park Service, U.S., 157 liquefied petroleum gas and liquefied
nonrenewable, 276–77 National Park System, U.S., 157–58, natural, 295
life cycle of, 279f 172–73 synthetic, 297
limits on extraction and use of, 279–80 solutions for sustaining and expanding, Natural greenhouse effect, 40
ocean, 282, 283f 173f Natural radioactive decay, 27
rocks and minerals, 274 National Resource Lands, U.S., 157 Natural recharge, 238, 239f
rock types and rock cycle, 274, 275f National security and global environmental Natural resources, 6, 7f, 413. See also Natural
substitutes for, 283 policy, 430 capital; Resource(s)
INDEX I11
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Natural Resources Conservation Service, finding, removing, and processing, sea ice, 371, 372f
U.S., 213 276–77 sea levels, 371, 376, 377f
Natural selection, 65 life cycle of, 278, 279f Oceanic fisheries, 180, 181f, 207
conditions required for, 67 Nonrenewable resources, 10, 12. See also Ocean pollution, 259–62
microevolution by, 65–67 Nonrenewable energy sources; Nonre- Chesapeake Bay as case study, 261–62
Natural services, 7. See also Ecological ser- newable mineral resources coastal areas and, 260–61, 262, 263f
vices; Economic services Nonthreshold dose-response model, 338f oil as pollutant in, 262
Nature Conservancy, work of, 173 Nontransmissible disease, 328–29 tolerance levels for, 259–60
Nature reserves, 173–77 Nonuse values of biodiversity, 156 Ogallala Aquifer, depletion of, 246f
adaptive ecosystem management of, 175 North America Oil, 290–95
as biodiversity hotspots, 175, 176f fossil fuel deposits in, 292f advantages and disadvantages of con-
biosphere reserves, 174f human ecological footprint in, S6–S7f ventional, 293f, 294f
in Costa Rica, 174 North Pole, disappearing Arctic sea ice at, crude (petroleum), 290–91
protecting, from human exploitation, 173 372f environmental impact of, 293, 294f
wilderness as, 175–77 No-till farming, 216 history of Age of Oil, S20
Nekton, 95 Nuclear change, 27–27 nuclear energy as means of reducing
Neoclassical economists, 413 Nuclear energy, 29, 298–306 dependency on, 304
Nervous system, chemical hazards to advantages/disadvantages of conven- oil shale and tar sands as sources of,
human, 335 tional, 301f, 302 294–95
Net energy, 289 brief history of, 298–300 as pollutant, 262, 293f, 294f
Net energy ratios for select types of energy Chernobyl nuclear disaster, 300–301 price of, in U.S., 292f
systems, 289f coal energy versus, 302f projected global reserves of, 291–93
Netherlands, ecological footprint of, 11f economics of, 304–5 refining crude, 290f
Net primary productivity (NPP), 49 fuel cycle, 290, 300f, 301f U.S. supplies of, 291, 292f
estimated, of select ecosystems, 50f future of, in U.S., 305–6 Oil and fat soluble toxins, 336
gross primary productivity versus, 49f net energy ratio, 290 Oil sand, 294, 295f
in oceans, 95–96 nuclear fusion, 305 Oil shale, 294
species diversity and, 110 reactors and production of (see Nuclear Oil spills, 262
Neurotoxins, 335 fission reactors) Old-growth forests, 159
Neutrons (n), 24 reducing oil dependency, and global Oligotrophic lake, 257
New urbanism tools, 151f warming with, 304 Omnivores, 44
Niche, 67. See also Ecological niche threat of “dirty” bombs and, 304 Open dumps, 399
Nicotine as addictive drug, 327 waste produced by, 302–3 Open-pit mining, 277
Nigeria, demographic factors in Brazil, U.S., Nuclear fission, 27, 28f Open sea, 103
and, 136f Nuclear fission reactors, 298, 299f life zones of, 98f, 103
Nile River, 236 breeder, 305 Opportunist (r-selected) species,
Nitrate fertilizers, 58f decommissioning old plants, 303–4 122, 123f
Nitrates (NO3-) as water pollutant, 57 energy waste in, 306 Orangutans, 157f
Nitrogen cycle, 55–56, 58f functioning of, 299f Ore, 276
effects of human activities on, 56–57 safety risk of, 341 life-cycle, 278, 279f
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) as air pollutant, Nuclear fuel cycle, 290, 300f mining lower-grade, 281–82
349t advantages and disadvantages of, 301f Organic agriculture, 234
Nitrogen fixation, 55 Nuclear fusion, 27, 28f, 305 Organic compounds, 24
Nitrogen oxide (N2O) as air pollutant, 56–57 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), as water pollutant, 254t
Nitrous oxide, increase in average concen- 301 Organic fertilizers, 216
trations atmospheric, 371f Nuclear weapons, 304 Organisms, 36. See also names of specific
Noise pollution, 146f Nucleic acids, 24 organisms, eg. Animal(s)
Nondegradable pollutants, 27 Nucleus (atom), 24, 25f in aquatic life zones, 95
Nonnative species, 111, 192–95 Nutrient cycles (biogeochemical cycles), 53 genetically modified, 75f, 76, 220–21
characteristics of invader, 195f Nutrient overload causing cultural eutroph- Organization of Petroleum Exporting
examples of, 193f ication, 257–58 Countries (OPEC), 291
reducing threat of, 195 Nutrition. See Human nutrition Orr, David W., 151
Nonpoint sources of pollution, 12 Other nonrenewable mineral resources,
reducing, in surface water, 263 Ocean(s), 41, 96f. See also Saltwater (marine) 276
water pollution, 255 life zones Outdoor air pollution
Nonprofit nongovernmental organizations as carbon-storage and heat reservoir, acid deposition and regional, 352–56
(NGOs), 424 374 effects of, 349t
making of environmental policy and role coastal zones, 97, 98f global warming and, 375
of, 427 currents of, CO2 and heat storage, 374f photochemical and industrial smog as,
Nonrenewable energy sources, 286–87 currents of, wind, and climate, 80f, 81 348–52
coal, 296–97 earth’s, 97f public health disasters involving, 350b
crude oil, 290–95 human impact on biodiversity in, 179f, reducing, 363–64, 365f
natural gas, 295–96 180 types and sources of, 347–48, 349t
nuclear energy, 298–306 mineral deposits in, 282, 283f Output pollution control, 12
Nonrenewable mineral resources, 275–76 net primary productivity of, 95–96 Overburden, 277
commercial energy production depen- open sea, 98f, 103 Overfishing, 224, 226
dent on, 286, 287f reasons for caring for, 96–97 Overgrazing, 223
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I14 INDEX
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SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), Soil erosion, 211–16 indicator, 111
330 causes of, 211–12 interactions of, 114
Saudi Arabia, oil reserves in, 291, 292, 293 defined, 212 keystone, 108, 112
Savanna, 87 desertification and, 213–14 mutualism among, 117–18
Science, 20–22 extent of global, 212, 213f native, and nonnative, 111
consensus science versus frontier, 22 extent of U.S., 213 parasitism among, 117
junk, 22 reducing (see Soil conservation) predator and prey interactions, 114–15
methods and process of, 20–21f salinization, and waterlogging as, 214–16 protecting wild, using sanctuary
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS), 165 Soil fertility, 212 approach, 202–3
Scientific data, 20 Soil horizons, 50, 51f reasons for preserving wild, 188–89
Scientific hypotheses, 20, 21 Soil profile, 50, 51f reproductive patterns, 122–23
Scientific (natural) law, 21 of principal soil types, 52f sharks as case study of, 113
Scientific methods, 21–22 Soil sequestration, 379 types of, in biological communities, 111
Scientific theory, 20 Solar capital, 6, 7f, 39f, 40f, 286. See also Solar Species approach to preserving biodiversity,
Seal(s), protection of marine, 200f energy 183–205
Sea levels, climate change and rising, 371, Solar cells, 285, 315f, 316 causes of premature extinction of,
376, 377f advantages and disadvantages of, 316f 189–97
Secondary air pollutants, 347 Solar energy, 6, 286, 312 extinction of species and, 183, 184–88
Secondary recycling (downcycling), 396 climate and, 79 importance of wild species, 188–89
Secondary sewage treatment, 264, 265f flow of energy to and from earth, 39f, 40f legal approach to protecting wild species,
Secondary succession, ecological, 118, generating high-temperature heat and 198–201
120f electricity with, 314–15 reconciliation ecology and, 203–4
Second-growth forests, 159 heating houses with active and passive, sanctuary approach to protecting wild
Second law of thermodynamics, 30–32 313, 314f species, 202–3
Secure hazardous waste landfills, 406f natural greenhouse effect and, 39–40 Species-area relationship, 185
Sedimentary rock, 275 solar cells for production of electricity, Species diversity, 109. See also Biodiversity
Sediment as water pollutant, 254t 315–16 goals, strategies, and tactics for preserv-
Seed banks, 202 sustenance of life on earth and, 39 ing, 156f
Seed-tree cutting of trees, 161, 162f Solar thermal plant, 314, 315f niche structure in biological communities
Seismic surveys, 276 Solar thermal systems, 314 and, 109–10
Sele, Peter, 153 Solid waste, 389 Spoils, mining, 277
Selective cutting of trees, 161, 162f burning and burying, 398–401, 404–6 Squamous cell carcinoma, 384, 385f
Sense of place, 434 grassroots action on managing, 409–10 S-shaped population growth curve, 121f
Septic tank, 264f hazardous (see Hazardous waste) Stegner, Wallace, 176
Sewage, treatment of, 264, 265f, 266 as indicator of high-waste society, 390 Stewardship worldview, 432
Sewage treatment plants, 264, 265f municipal, 389 Stewart, Richard B., 381
Shale oil, 294 priorities for managing and reducing, 391 Stratosphere, 38, 346–47
Sharks, 113 producing less, 390–92 ozone in, 383, 386–87 (see also Ozone
Shellfish, harvesting, 224 production of, in U.S., 389, 390f depletion)
Shelterbelts, 216 recycling, 396–98 Strawbale house, 309, 311f
Shelterwood cutting of trees, 161, 162f reuse of, 394–95 Streams. See Rivers and streams
Shiva, Vandana, 222 shift from things to services and reduc- Strip cropping, 216, 217f
Shop-’til-you drop virus, 14 tion of, 392–93 Strip cutting of trees, 161, 162f
Short-grass prairies, 87 Songbirds, 192f Strong, Maurice, 286
Sick-building syndrome, 357 Sound science, 22 Structural adaptations, 67
Silent Spring (Carson), 229b Source zone, streams, 105, 106f Study skills, improving, 1–3
Simple living, 434–35 Space heating, net energy ratios for, 289f Subduction zone, 272, 274f
Skin cancer, 384, 385f Specialist species, 68 Subsidence, 278, S18
Slowly degradable (persistent) pollutants, resource partitioning and, 114f Subsurface mining, 276, 277f
27 Speciation, 70–71 Sulfur cycle, 59, 60f
Smart growth concept, 150, 151f crisis of, 187 effects of human activities on, 59–60
Smelting, 278, 279f Species, 36–37, 111–18 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) as air pollutant, 59,
Smog, 348–52 amphibians as case study of, 111–12 349t
Smoking, health hazards of, 327 categories of, 37f Superfund Act, U.S., 401
Socolow, Robert, 57 characteristics of vulnerable, 188f Superinsulated houses, 309, 310f
Soil(s), 50–53 classifying and naming, S14 Surface fire in forests, 166f, 167
absorption of CO2 by, 379–80f commensalisms among, 118 Surface impoundments of hazardous
erosion of (see Soil erosion) competition and avoiding competition, wastes, 405f, 406
impact of food production on, 211–16 114, 115f Surface litter layer (O horizon), soil, 50, 51f
layers in mature, 50–53 defense against predation, 115–16 Surface mining, 276, 277f
pH, 53f diversity (see Species diversity) Surface runoff, 54, 104, 238, 239f
Soil conservation, 216–17 ecological niches of, 67–69 Surface water, 104, 105f, 238
inorganic commercial fertilizers and, evolutionary divergence of, 68, 70f preventing and reducing pollution in,
217 evolution of, 70–71 (see also Speciation) 263–66
methods of, 216, 217f extinction of (see Extinction of species) tapping reliable supply of, 238–39
organic fertilizers and, 216–17 foundation, 113–14 Suspended particulate matter (SPM) as air
tillage methods for, 216, 217f generalist and specialist, 68–69 pollutant, 349t
INDEX I15
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Sustainability, 6–8 of earth, and life systems, 40 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), 361
ecocity concept and, 151–53 range of tolerance for, 43f Toxin(s), 337
energy resources and, 324–26 Temperature inversions, 352 Toxin-laced mining wastes, 278
human cultural changes and, 16–17 Teratogens, 335 Trace levels of toxic chemicals, 336–37
low-waste society and, 409–10 Terracing, 216, 217f Tradable pollution permits, 419–20f
natural capital and, 6–8, 7f Terrestrial ecosystems. See also Biome(s) Trade-offs (compromises), 7f, 8
path to, 7f components of, 41, 42f of aquaculture, 226f
of present course, 16–17 net primary productivity of, 50f of bicycles and mass transit rail, 149f
principles of, 126–27 Terrorism of buses and rapid rail, 150f
of urban areas, 151–52 nuclear energy and potential, 300, 301 of clear-cutting forests, 163f
in water resources, 250f, 251f release of toxic chemicals as act of, 402, of coal, 297f
Sustainable (low-input) agriculture, 403 of coal versus nuclear, 302f
234 use of pathogens for purposes of, 333, of conventional natural gas, 296f
making transition to, 234–35 334t of conventional nuclear fuel cycle, 301f
Sustainable living, 6–8, 433–36 Thatcher, Margaret, 242 of conventional oil use, 293f
becoming environmental citizens and, Theory, 20, 21 of economic development, 10f
435 Theory of evolution, 65 of environmental taxes and fees, 418f
components of environmental revolution Thermal pollution, 254t of ethanol fuel, 320f
and, 435–36 Thinking skills, 3–4 of genetically-modified foods and crops,
environmental literacy and, 433–34 Thoreau, Henry David, 18 221f
environmental science, environmental- Threatened species, 108, 184 of geothermal energy, 322f
ism, and, 6 Threshold dose-response model, 338f of global efforts on environmental prob-
environmental wisdom and, 432f, 433 Thumb, opposable, 63, 67 lems, 431f
learning from earth and developing sense Thunderheads, S15 of heavy oils from oil shale and oil sand,
of place, 434 Tiger, reduced range of Indian, 191f 295f
path to, 6–8 Tiger salamanders, 68 of hydrogen fuel, 322f
simple living and, 434–35 Timber of large-scale hydropower, 317f
solutions for developing, 434f certifying sustainably-grown, 165 of logging in U.S. national forests, 168f
Sustainable yield, 10 harvesting, from forests, 160–61, 162f, of methanol fuel, 321f
Synfuels, 297, 298f 168f of phytoremediation, 405f
Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 297, 298f Tobacco, health hazards of, 327 of recycling, 397–98
Systems Todd, John, 237, 265 of sanitary landfills, 401f
analysis of, and ecological research, 61f, Tool libraries, 395 of solar cells, 316f
62 Topsoil, A horizon, 50, 51f of solar energy for high-temperature heat
characteristics of nature, and human- Tornadoes, S16f and electricity, 315f
dominated, 124f Total fertility rate (TFR), 131 of solid biomass fuels, 320f
earth’s life support, 38–40 decline in, for select countries, 136 of synthetic fuels, 298f
living, 32f, 126–27 for U.S., years 1917-2005, 131f of tradable environmental permits, 420f
Toxic chemicals, 334 of waste disposal in deep underground
Taigas, 91, 93f, 94f acute and chronic effects of, 336 wells or surface impoundments, 405f
Tall-grass prairie, 87, 88f estimating toxicity of, 337–39 of wind power, 318f
Tar sand, 294, 295f dose of, 335, 337t of withdrawing groundwater, 246f
Taxes as human health hazard, 334–35 Traditional agriculture
green, 415, 418–19 metals as, 406–9 global outlook for, 211
improving environmental quality using, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 127, intensive, 208–9
418 340 subsistence, 208
reducing threat of global warming using, as poisons, 337t (see also Poison) Tragedy of the commons, 11, 19
380 precautionary principle applied to, Transform faults, 272, 274f
Taxpayer-pays programs, 401 339–40 Transgenic organisms, 74
Technological optimists, 17 protecting children from, 339 Transition zone, streams, 105, 106f
Technological systems, estimating risks release of, by industrial plants, 402, 403 Transmissible diseases, 328–29. See also
from, 341–42 trace levels of, 336–37 Infectious disease
Technology transfer, 380 water- and oil-soluble, 336 Transportation, 148–50
Tectonic plates, 271f, 272f, 273f Toxicity, 335–36 alternative, 149–50
boundaries between, 272–73 case reports and epidemiological studies motor vehicles, 148-49
divergent and convergent boundaries of, to estimate, 337–38 net energy ratios for, 289f
272, 274f estimating chemical, 337–38 saving energy in, 307–10
Temperate deciduous forests, 91 laboratory experiments for estimating Treaties
ecosystem of, 92f toxicity, 338–39 climate and global-warming related,
soil of, 52f lethal, 337t 380–81
Temperate desert, 85, 86f trace levels of chemicals and, 336–37 protecting endangered species with inter-
ecosystem components and interactions Toxicology, 335–40 national, 198
in, 86f effects of trace levels, 336–37 Tree plantations (tree farms), 159, 160f
Temperate grasslands, 87, 88f estimating toxicity of chemicals, 337–39 management of, 161f
Temperate rain forest, 94 factors affecting toxicity of chemicals, Trees
Temperature 336 alternatives to, for paper production,
climate and average, 84f precautionary principle and, 339–40 168, 169f
I16 INDEX
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effects of acid deposition on, 354–55, eras and events in environmental history Urban heat island, 146
356f of, 16, S8–S11 Urbanization, 140–43
effects of climate change on, 376, 377f fertility rates in, 131–32 advantages of, 144
fire and, 165–67 forests in, 156, 165–69 environmental disadvantages of,
harvesting methods, 160–61, 162f, 163f, freshwater resources in, 239, 240f 144–46
168f government subsidized fishing fleets in, fertility rates and, 132f
Trenches, at converging tectonic plates, 272, 226 of poverty, 141, 146f–47
274f groundwater contamination in, sustainability and, 150–53
Tribal era of U.S. environmental history, 16 259, 260f transportation and, 148–50
Trophic levels in ecosystems, 46, 47f groundwater withdrawal in, 246f, 247 in U.S., 141f, 142–43
Tropical cyclones, S16, S17f hazardous waste in, 401–2 Urban sprawl, 143f, 144f
Tropical desert, 85 as high-waste society, 390 Use value of biodiversity, 156
Tropical forests, 89. See also Tropical rain immigration into, 134
forests Kyoto Protocol and nonparticipation of, Van Doren, Mark, 1
deforestation of, 169–72 380–81 Vegetation patches, flooding caused by
ecological restoration of, 178–79 motor vehicle use in, 148 removal of, 252, 253f
reducing deforestation and degradation nuclear energy in, 299, 303–6 Viruses, 36
of, 171f, 172 pesticide effectiveness, 230b HIV, and AIDS disease, 330–31
Tropical rain forests, 89, 90 pesticide use and regulation in, 230b, as pathogens, 330
components and interactions in, 90f 231 Vitousek, Peter, 49
plants of, 90 precipitation averages in, 240f Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 348
soil of, 52f public lands in (see Public lands, U.S.) Volcanoes, 78, 274f, S18–19
specialized plant and animal niches in, real cost of gasoline in, 308b climate change and study of, 367
91f social and demographic changes in, years Voluntary simplicity, 435
Troposphere, 38, 346 1900-2000, 132f
greenhouse effect and warming of, 82f, solid wastes production in, 389, 390f Ward, Barbara, 6
370–71, 372f, 373 urbanization in, 141f, 142–43 Warm front, S15
possible effects of warming in, 375, 376f urban problems of, 143f, 144–50 Warning coloration, 116f
Tsunamis, S18 water consumption and waste in, 248 Waste, 388–11
Tuberculosis, 329–30 United States environmental laws achieving low-waste society, 409–10
Tundra, 87, 89f on air quality, 350b, 361–62 burning and burying, 398–401
Turner, Ray, eco-businessman, 386b on forests, 167 electronic (e-waste), 390
Turtles, protection of marine, 200f on hazardous wastes, 401 of energy, 306–7
history of, S8–S12 hazardous, 401–6
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ozone depletion legislative process for passage of, 426f oxygen-demanding, as water pollutant,
and human health problems caused by, major, 427f 254t
384–86 on mining, 269 preconsumer, and postconsumer, 396
Uncontrolled nuclear fusion, 28 on pesticides, 231 producing less, 390–92
Undernutrition, 218, 219 on protecting endangered species, 154, radioactive, 302–3
Undiscovered nonrenewable mineral 198–201 recycling as means of reducing,
resources, 276 on water quality, 264, 266 396–98
Uneven-aged forest management, 160 on wilderness preservation, 175, 176–77 reducing water, 248–51
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), reuse as means of reducing, 394–95
219 U.S., 154, 157 selling services instead of things to
United States Urban (metropolitan) areas reduce, 392–93
agriculture and food production in, crime reduction and environment in, solid, 389–90
209–11 147b toxic industrial chemical, 388
air pollution disasters in, 350b ecocity Curitiba, Brazil, 152–53 toxic metals as, 406–9
baby boom generation in, 135, 136f environmental and resource problems of, Waste-to-energy incinerator, 398, 399f
baby bust generation in, 135 144–47 Water. See also Water pollution; Water
biodiversity hot spots in, 199f global, 141f resources
biomes along 39th parallel of, 41f increasing sustainability and livability of, drinking, 255
birth control methods used in, effective- 150–53 Earth’s hydrosphere, 38
ness of, 133f megacity and megalopolis, 141f efficient heating of, 312
Chesapeake Bay, pollution in, 261–62 Mexico City, 147 fresh (see Fresh water)
commercial energy flow through econ- microclimates produced by, 82–83 groundwater, 238, 239f (see also
omy of, 306 poverty in, 141, 146f–47 Groundwater)
consumption of resources in, 128 sprawl of, 143–44 importance and availability of fresh, 237,
deaths from air pollution in, 361f U.S., 141f, 142f, 143f 238f
deaths from tobacco use in, 327f water quality in, 266–67 producing electricity from moving,
demographic factors in Nigeria, Brazil, Urban growth 317–18
and, 136f patterns of, 143 reducing waste of, 248–51
ecological footprint of, 11f problems and challenges of, 140–41 soil erosion caused by, 212
energy consumption by fuel in, 288f smart growth concept applied to, 150, underpricing, 248
energy use and energy future of, 288 151f Water conservation, 248–51
energy waste in, 306–7 sustainability and, 151–52 benefits of reducing waste for, 248
environmental policy in, 425–27 transportation and, 148–50 individual contribution to, 251f
INDEX I17
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Water conservation (cont’d) shortages of, 240–41 effects of habitat loss, degradation, and
reducing waste in industry, homes, and sustainability in future use of, 251f fragmentation on, 189–90
businesses, 250 U.S. hot spots for, 240f poaching and smuggling of, 195–96
reducing waste in irrigation, 248–49, Watershed, 104, 106f, 238 reasons for protecting, 188–89
250f Water-soluble toxins, 336 Wilson, Edward O., 72, 112, 116, 155, 185
using water more sustainably, 250–51 Water table, 238 priorities for protecting biodiversity,
Water (hydrologic) cycle, 53, 54f, 55, 237 Water transfers, 243–44 181
Waterlogging, 215f, 216 Water vapor, 38 Wind
Water pollutants as greenhouse gas, 369 climate and global patterns of, 80f
arsenic as, 259 Wave(s), energy transmission as, 29 ecological effects of global, 78
in groundwater, 258–59, 260f Wavelength, 29 generating electricity with, 317, 318f
major categories of, 254t Wealth, global distribution of, 421f soil erosion caused by, 212
oil as, 262 Weather, 79, S15–S17 Windbreaks, 216, 217f
Water pollution, 254–55 climate and, 78, 79 Windows, energy loss from, 311f
in freshwater streams, lakes, and climate change and possible extremes of, Wind turbines, 318f
aquifers, 255–59 376f Wolf, reintroduced populations of gray, 154
individual role in reducing, 268f highs and lows, S15 Women, reducing birth rates by empower-
in oceans, 259–62 tornadoes and tropical cyclones, ing, 138–39
point and nonpoint sources of, 255 S16–S17 World Health Organization (WHO), 125,
preventing and reducing surface, Weathering, 273 219, 331, 332, 347, 407
263–66 Weaver, Warren, 20 World Trade Organization (WTO), 242
reducing, 267–68 West Nile virus, 330 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 4
quality of drinking water and, 255, Wetlands
266–68, 255 coastal, 97, 99f Xeriscaping, 250
types, effects, and sources of, 254–55 flooding caused by draining, 252, 254
Water resources inland, 105–6 Yellowstone National Park, reintroduction
conflicts over, in Middle East, 236 protection of, 254 of gray wolves into, 154
Earth’s water budget, 238f treating sewage using, 265–66 Yucca Mountain, Nevada, radioactive waste
effects of climate change on, 376f Wiener, Jonathan B., 381 disposal at, 303
excessive amounts of (flooding), 251–54 Wilderness, 175–77
importance of, 237–40 in United States, 175, 176–77 Zone of saturation, 238
increasing supply of, 242–47 Wilderness Act of 1964, U.S., 175, 176 Zoos, protecting endangered species in,
ownership of, 241–42 Wildlife, causes of premature extinction of, 202–3
polluted (see Water pollution) 189–97. See also Extinction of species Zooxanthellae, 100
reducing waste of, 248–51 effects of climate change on, 197
I18 INDEX
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