MODULE V

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classification of magnetic materials:

Depending on the behavior of materials under the vicinity of magnetic field and
also on the basis of effect of temperature on the magnetic properties, all materials
classified broadly under the following 3 categories.
1. Diamagnetic materials
2. paramagnetic materials
3. Ferromagnetic materials.
Two more classes of materials have structure very close to ferromagnetic material but
possess quite different magnetic effects, they are
4. Antiferromagnetic materials
5. Ferrimagnetic materials.

1. Diamagnetic materials:
Diamagnetic materials are those which experience a repelling force when
brought near the pole of a strong magnet. In a non uniform magnetic field they are
repelled away from stronger parts of the field.

Diamagnetic material

Diamagnetic materials develop magnetization in a direction opposite to that of

the magnetizing field because of which they have negative susceptibility.
Susceptibility in diamagnetic materials neither changes with the temperature nor
with the applied field strength. The flux lines are diverging by the application of
magnetic field. These materials have low relative permeability (µr < 1).
In the absence of an external field, the net magnetic dipole moment over each
atom / or molecule of a diamagnetic material is zero.
Ex: Copper, Bismuth, lead, Zinc and rare gases.

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2. Paramagnetic materials:
Paramagnetic materials are those which experience a feeble attractive force
when brought near the pole of a magnet. They are attracted towards the stronger parts
of an in homogeneous magnetic field.

Paramagnetic material

Paramagnetic materials develop magnetization proportional to and in the same

direction as that of the applied magnetic field, because of which they have positive
susceptibility but small in magnitude.
Due to spin a orbital motion of the electrons, the atoms (or molecules) of a
paramagnetic materials possess a net intrinsic permanent magnetic moment.

Curie’s law: In paramagnetic materials the susceptibility is independent of the applied

field, but is dependent on temperature.
Statement: The susceptibility ‘χ’ is inversely proportional to temperature in
paramagnetic materials.
c
i.e., χ =
T
Here flux lines are slightly converging as shown in fig. This indicates a weak attractive
force exerted by the material. They have relative permeability µr > 1, which is
independent of both temperature and applied field strength.
Ex: platinum, aluminium, manganese chloride and salts of iron and nickel.

3. Ferromagnetic materials:
These materials experience a very strong attractive force when brought near the
pole of a magnet. These materials, apart from getting magnetized parallel to the
direction of the applied field, will continue to retain the magnetic property even after
the removal of magnetizing field. If the intensity of magnetization I is plotted against
the applied field strength H, then closed curve called hysteresis is obtained.

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The atoms (or molecules) of ferromagnetic materials also have a net intrinsic magnetic
dipole moment which is due to the spin of electrons.

Ferromagnetic material

When ferromagnetic material is subjected to the influence of a magnetic field,

there will be a crowding of flux lines within its body as shown in fig. This indicates a
powerful attractive force exerted by the materials. Their relative permeability is very
high i.e. µr >>1 or µr ≈106.
Ferromagnetic materials susceptibility is very large and depends not only on the
magnetizing force but also on the previous magnetic history of the specimen.
All ferromagnetic materials lose their ferromagnetism at a critical temperature called
ferromagnetic Curie temperature (Tc).

Curie Weiss law:

Above Tc, the material behaves like an ordinary paramagnetic material and the
variation of ‘x’ with temperature is given by
C
χ = where C ⇒ constant
T  Tc

Above relation is called Curie Weiss law.

If T < Tc , χ is negative, which also means the presence of spontaneous
magnetization.

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4. Antiferromagnetic materials:
Antiferromagnetic materials exhibit very little external magnetism. Here dipole
moment is due to spin of the electrons. But adjacent atoms have their magnetic
moment locked up spontaneously in antiparallel positions as shown in fig.

The resultant magnetic effect for antiferromagnetic materials is therefore zero, but it
has a temperature dependent magnetism due to the disruption of the magnetic moment
alignment.

Magnetic susceptibility is very small, but positive. The variation of

susceptibility with temperature is shown in fig. The temperature at which susceptibility
becomes maximum is called Neel temperature (T N), which also corresponds to the
onset of spontaneous antiparallel alignment of the magnetic moments. Above the neel
temperature the susceptibility obeys the relation.
C
χ=
T  TN

Ex: Copper chloride, oxides of manganese, cobalt and nickel.

5. Ferrimagnetic materials (ferrites):

The magnetization of these materials lies between that of ferromagnetic
materials. Here dipole moment is due to the spin of electrons and also the adjacent
ones or aligned in the antiparallel directions.
But, the magnetic moment of those oriented in one direction will be greater than those
oriented in opposite direction as shown in fig.

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As a result the cancellation of magnetic moments becomes incomplete resulting in a net
magnetization in the material.

General formula for Ferrites is MO Fe2O3 where M is a divalent ion and they
have spinal structure. Ferrites are electrical insulators, but posses magnetic properties
similar to ferromagnetic materials. Temperature variation is also similar to
ferromagnetic materials.
Ex: CuOFe2O3, ZnOFe2O3, FeOFe2O3 etc.

Weiss Domain Theory:

Energy of the neighbouring dipoles due to interaction is minimum when their
magnetic moments align parallel to each other. Hence within a small region mutual
alignment extends, and this volume is called domain.

A bulk ferromagnetic material consists of very large number of domains

randomly oriented, so the vectorial sum of the magnetic moment becomes zero.
When external field is applied, the magnetization effect takes place either by
domain wall movement or by rotation of domain magnetic moment or both. This occurs
broadly in 3 stages.

a) Field is zero b) Domain enlargement

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 H H

c) Domain rotation due d) Saturation due

to strong field to very high field

When the field is weak, the domain which have their resultant magnetic
moment in a direction parallel to direction of the applied field expand their size to
which the domains with unfavourably oriented magnetic moments give way and thus
diminish. This change itself provides a large net magnetization for the bulk material.

When the field becomes strong, the domains magnetic moment rotate partially
and tend to align in the field direction ( fig c ) which results in further increase in the
magnetization of the bulk material. If the field is very strong, then every domain rotates
to as to align in the field direction, which indicates the ultimate stage of magnetization.
This stage of magnetization is called saturation magnetization, beyond which further
increase in magnetization is impossible, no matter how strong the field is.

Magnetic Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the phase lag of the magnetic induction B in ferromagnetic
materials with respect to cyclic variation of an applied field, when the specimen is at a
temperature below its curie temperature (T c).

When the magnetic field H is increased from zero value in the positive
direction, the value of B also increases due to the rotation of domains and the curve will
develop along OP. After point P the value of B is constant for further increase of H.
This value of B at P is called saturation value and the state of specimen is referred to
as Saturation Magnetization. In this point all the domains are oriented to the filed
direction. Now when the value of H decreased, B starts decreasing from point P, but it
will not follow the same path OP it has traced, and takes the path PQ. When H becomes
zero, the value of B retains a value equal to OQ, this residual value of B is called
remanent induction.
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 The value of B goes to zero and the specimen gets completely demagnetized
only when the direction of H is reversed and attains a value OP. This value of H = OR
is called coercive force, and the effect is called coercivity. Further increase in H causes
the specimen to get magnetized in the opposite direction and reaches a saturation value
at S. Now also, when the field is decreased the curve traces the path ST instead of SR.
Again, the specimen gets completely demagnetized at U, when the direction of H is
reversed. The curve traces the path UP as H increased.

Fig. B – H Curve ( Hysteresis Curve)

The loop PQRSTUP is called hysteresis loop or hysteresis curve. The area
enclosed by the curve is representative of the energy loss / unit volume of the material /
cycle.

The remanent filed or remanent induction is the magnetic fields induction which
is retained in the material when they are brought from the saturation value to no
external field state. Coercive field is the field whose strength is just enough to
completely demagnetize a specimen which has been magnetized to its saturation.

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Soft Magnetic Materials:
The ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, which have smaller area of the
hysteresis loop and hence a lower energy loss are called soft magnets. The domains
movement and the domain rotation are easy in these materials.

• Properties
– Low remanent magnetization
– Low coercive force
– High permeability
– High susceptibility
– Low eddy current loss
– Low hysteresis energy loss.
– Easy movement or rotation of domains

• These materials can be magnetized and demagnetized easily.

Applications:
• Used to increase the magnetic flux in the cores of electro magnetic coils, like in
the cores of transformer, electric motors, generators and electromagnets.
• Iron- silicon (4%) alloy are used in electrical application operating at high
power frequencies.
• Used in measuring devices, relays and switches.
• Iron-nickel alloy is used for audio frequency applications.
• Perm alloy ( 45% Ni – 55% Fe ) and certain soft Ferrites are sued as
reading/recording head in tape reader or players.

Hard Magnetic Materials:

The Permanent magnetic materials are also called hard magnets. When hard
materials are subjected to the magnetic field of increasing intensity wall movements are
impended to several factor. Hence it requires very high magnetic fields The domain
walls are highly immobile due to the presence of impurities such as precipices of
nonmagnetic materials and lattice imperfections. The imperfects attract the domain
walls and gives mechanical hardness to the material.

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Properties:
– They exhibit very large or wide hysteresis loop
– Require strong magnetic field to magnetize & demagnetize
– High remanent magnetization.
– High coercivity.
– High saturation flux density.
– Low initial permeability.
– Large hysteresis loss.
– Domains rotation is difficult

Applications:
• Hard magnets are
– Used in magnetic separator
– Used in audio system like speakers and microphones.
– Used in magnetic detectors.
– Used in small motors toys stickers
– Used as flexible magnets, embedded in plastics like in the gaskets of
refrigerator doors.

Ferrites:
• Ferrites have general formula MoFe2 O3 where M is a divalent ion such as Mg ,
Ni, Mn, etc. Ferrites are made by heating a mixture of the oxides to high
temperature (200 0C –1350 0C) over many hours. They crystallize in to a kind of
structure known as spinal structure. Magnetic dipole moment is due to spin of
electrons arrangement of dipoles as shown in the fig. The dipole is arranged in
anti parallel direction. The magnitude of dipoles which are aligned in one
direction is not same as that of the dipole aligned in opposite direction. Hence
we get certain net magnetic dipole moment. Ferrites exhibit magnetism known
as ferromagnetism.

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Applications:

• Hard magnetic ferrites are used in the manufacturer of permanent magnets

which posses high electrical resistance. Such magnets find application involving
super high frequency technology
• Soft magnetic ferrites are used in the production of cores of inductor coils.
• In high frequency application such as in TV and FM receiver soft ferrites are
used.
• They are used in magnetic films in which are magnetization process occurs at
the speed exceeding million times per second, this technology is important for
electronics automobiles and computer hardware engineering.
• They are used in magnetic discs or tapes.

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