Terrestrial vertebrates (Elephant)

• Elephants (example) have big, compact and strong bones.

• Big skeletal frame → compatible to support their body size.
• Body weight supported especially by → strong pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle.
• These girdles are joined with the legs.
• Backbone curves up or down → stronger support to the muscles attached to the backbone (Example:
camel and horse)
• Curvature of backbone → withstand gravitational force that acts on the animals.
Aquatic vertebrates (Whale)
• Aquatic vertebrates → smaller endoskeleton compared to their body.
• Pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle → small and weak.
• Whale can grow larger than the size of their skeleton → because the weight of the aquatic animals is
supported by the buoyancy force.
Birds
• Bone structure that is adapted for flying.
• The flat and wide sternum bone (breast bone) of the bird functions as a place for the attachment of
muscles for flight.
• Bird’s skull is small → easy for birds to fly.
• Birds have hollow bones; hollow bones have several advantages:
➢ light and strong
➢ allow the vertebrates to move more quickly
➢ need less calcium and phosphorus

Pectoral girdle
Pelvic girdle
Pectoral girdle

Pelvic girdle

Aquatic vertebrates
Terrestrial vertebrates Birds
 1.
Diagram below shows the skeleton of the largest mammal on land and in water.

(a) (i) Compare and contrast the skeleton of both of the mammals as shown in diagram above. [2M]
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(ii) Whale is the largest aquatic animal in the world. A very large and heavy body are the advantages
for it to live in water. Justify this statement. [2M]
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(b) Exoskeleton is hard and strong. Explain how animals with this type of support system are able to grow
continuously? [2M]
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Photograph below shows a whale stranded on the beach.

(c) Based on your knowledge about the support system of whales, can the whale return to the sea on its
own? [1M]
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(d) Explain your answer in (c). [3M]
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 2.

A group of students carried out and experiment to study the strength of bones. Diagram 1.1 shows two
models, P and Q. Model P is made up of hollow cylinders that represent hollow bones whereas model Q is
made up of compact cylinders that represent compact bones.

Exercise books are placed one by one on each model, P and Q until the cylinders bend. The following is the
result obtained from this experiment.

(a) (i) State one observation for this experiment. [1M]

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(ii) State one inference for your answer in (a) (i). [1M]
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(b) State the constant variable in this experiment. [1M]
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(c) Based on the experiment, state the operational definition of strength of bones. [1M]
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(d) Diagram below shows a bird.

In your opinion, why are the bones of birds made up of hollow bones? [2M]
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1.
(i) Similarity: Both have endoskeleton.
Difference: Elephant relies completely on the support system of endoskeleton while whale
depends on the water buoyancy for supportive.
a. Difference: Elephant have stronger pectoral and pelvic girdle while whale has weaker pectoral and
pelvic girdle.
(ii) Whale has endoskeleton which is small and weak compare to its body size. Its body weight is
mostly supported by water buoyancy force which enables it to move easily in water.
b. The hard exoskeleton will be removed through ecdysis and replaced with new exoskeleton which
enables growth.
c. Cannot
d. Whales are supported by the buoyancy of water.
Small endoskeleton of whale is unable to support the weight of whale on stranded beach.
Shallow seawater near the coast is not enough to provide necessary buoyancy for allow whales to
return to the sea.
2.
a. (i) Hollow cylinders can support more books compared to compact cylinders.
(ii) Hollow cylinders are stronger than compact cylinders.
b. Length and diameter of the cylinder
c. The strength of bones can be shown by a greater number of exercise books that can be supported
by cylinders.
d. Hollow bones are lighter and stronger for the bird to fly easily