UNIT 1

HISTORICAL/SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES
Four lessons make up this unit on the historical and sociocultural characteristics
of the Ifugao people. Lesson One discusses settlements and territories, followed by
Lessons Two and Three on populations and ethnolinguistic groups, education, and social
institutions, and Lesson Four on games, oral literature, music, sports, and dances.

The goal of the unit is for the students to be able to comprehend both the historical
and sociocultural characteristics of the Ifugao province.

Lesson 1.
SETTLEMENTS AND TERRITORIES

Ifugao is a landlocked province of the Philippines located in Luzon's Cordillera

Administrative Region. This lesson describes the settlements and territories of the
province.
Lesson Outcome:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Describe the physical characteristic of the province.
2. Discuss briefly the history of Ifugao province.

Mode of Delivery:
AV presentation

Lesson Content:
Ifugao Geography

Map of Ifugao

Source: wikemedia.org

Ifugao | 1
 • Region: Cordillera Administrative Region
• Founded: June 18, 1966
• Capital: Lagawe
• Land Area: 1,865,659 has.
• Municipalities: 11
• Barangays: 176 and 9 economic zones
• Terrain: rugges & Mountainous
• Climate: Wet & Dry
• Predominant Language: Tuwali and Ayangan
• Religion: Roman Catholicism and Evangelical
• Boundaries:
• East – Isabela Province
• West – Benguet Province
• North - Mountain Province
• South - Nueva Vizcaya
• On the eastern side between the provinces of Ifugao and Isabela is the Magat
River. On the western side between Ifugao and Benguet is Mount Pulag (Luzon’s
Highest Peak & the 2nd most prominent highest mountain in the Philippines). On
the northern part between Ifugao and Mountain Province is Mount Polis (3rd
Highest Mountain in Ifugao Province) and on the southern side between Ifugao
and Nueva Vizcaya is the Lamut River (Province of Ifugao, 2023).
• Inscribed by UNESCO (1995) in the World Heritage List as the Living Natural
Landscape.
• Bangaan & Batad Rice Terraces clusters in Banaue
• Mayoyao Rice Terraces cluster in Central Mayoyao
• Hapao Rice Terraces cluster in Hungduan
• Nagacadan Rice Terraces cluster in Kiangan
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has recognized the Ifugao Rice
Terraces as one of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)
sites.
• The Ifugao Hudhud was inscribed by UNESCO (2008) as one of the
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
• The Punnuk (of Hungduan municipality) was inscribed by UNESCO (2015) as a
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Brief Overview of the History of Ifugao

(Source: Ifugao Province, 2023)

Ifugao was a Politico-Military Unit of Nueva Vizcaya during the Spanish Regime.
Ifugao became a politico-military unit of the Spanish colonial government in 1889
as ordered by Governor General Valeriano Weyler with Quiangan (now Kiangan) as the
seat of government. This strengthened the number of armed forces aiming to put the
people under Spanish authority. When Governor Weyler left Ifugao and returned to Spain,
he left Kiangan with at least 135 civil guards to command. This helped the Ifugaos and
resulted in the withdrawal of the Spanish forces in Ifugao.

Ifugao as a Sub-province during the American Period.

Lt. Levi Case was assigned as a governor in 1902 and put up his headquarters in
Banaue with Lt. Jefferson Gallman as his assistant. Gallman became lieutenant Governor
in 1905 after Lt. Case was promoted and transferred to another assignment. This was
also the year when Ifugao was separated from Nueva Vizcaya and became the sub-

Ifugao | 2
province. In 1910, Gallman transferred his headquarters from Banaue to Kiangan (where
the Kiangan Memorial Shrine now stands).
Lt. Owen Tomlinson became the governor from 1913-1915 and established a
capitol building in Linda, Kiangan (where the Ifugao museum is now built). Lt. William
Dosser became the Lt. Governor from 1915-1927. Capt. Mariano Meimban of Pampanga
became the governor of Ifugao from 1927 -1930. He was replaced by Capt. Pedro Bulan
from Cagayan in 1933, marked the end of military rule in Ifugao.

Commonwealth Era
Kiangan, as a Municipal district during the start of the Philippine Commonwealth
era in 1935, became the set of the provincial government of the sub-provinces of Ifugao.
In 1936, Luis Pawid Sr. was designated as the first deputy governor of Ifugao until the
outbreak of World War II in 1942.

Japanese Regime.
From 1942-1945, several deputy military governors were appointed by Japanese
authorities.

Post Liberation Period

In 1946, Civilian authority was restored after the Second World War. Luis Pawid
Sr. was reappointed as the Deputy Governor until 1947.

Ifugao as a Province
Ifugao became a Province when Republic Act No. 4695 known as the Division
Law of Mountain Province (House Bill No. 1526) was signed into law on June 18, 1966.
On March 26, 196, the first officials in the Province with Gualberto B. Lumaiug as governor
was inducted by President Marcos.
Nov. 14, 1967, Gualberto Lumauig retain his position as governor after having the
first formal election. He remained as the governor until June 15, 1976. He was replaced
by retired B/Gen. Zosimo Paredes Sr. after President Marcos terminated his term.
A transitory government was created after the 1986 EDSA Revolution, new local
officials were appointed.
In 1987, Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) was created through Executive
Order 200 issued by Pres. Corazon Aquino.
Ifugao was divided into two board-member districts in 1922.

Self-Check:
A. Create a chronological timeline of the Ifugao province

Additional Readings:
1. Ifugao Province. (2023). The land of the 8th Wonder of the World.
https://ifugao.gov.ph/
2. Ifugao Socio-economic and Ecological Profile Version 2019.

Ifugao | 3
Lesson 2
PEOPLING AND ETHNOLINGUISTICS GROUPS

The Ifugaos possess a well-developed culture just like most other Filipino and
Cordillera ethnic groups. It is well known for its unique culture and its rice terraces clusters
which are found in most of the municipalities. The Hudhud chants of the Ifugao, were
inscribed in 2008 as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Punnuk, a tugging ritual
practiced by the Tuwali ethnolinguistics groups in the municipality of Hungduan, was also
recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (UNESCO 2015).

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Identify the different ethnolinguistic groups of the province
2. Describe the different municipalities of the province.

Mode of Delivery:
AV presentation

Lesson Content:
The Ifugao People

The Ifugao people like to identify themselves by their historical ties to certain village
territories, which is why phrases like "ikiyangan" (native of Kiangan), "Ibannawor" (native
of Banaue), "Imayawyaw" (native of Mayoyao), and "Ihapao" (native of Hapao) are used
to refer to them. This is consistent with the regional norm of people identifying themselves
by their place of origin. Languages like Tuwali and Ayangan, which are spoken in Ifugao
province, are also used to identify groups in Ifugao (Aboitiz, 2017; Dulawan, L. 2001).

• Major Ethno-Linguistic Groups:

1. Tuwali is considered the official language spoken largely in the Western
area (Kangan, Lagawe, Hungduan)
2. Ayangan is spoken in the Eastern area (Ayangan, Caba & parts of Lamut)
3. Kalanguya is spoken in Central Ifugao (Tinoc & Asipulo)

• Religion: Roman Catholicism & Evangelical

• Economic Activities: Farming, fishing, vegetable & fruit production, woodcarving
& weaving
• Annual Festival: Gotad ad Ifugao, to commemorate the founding of the province.
• Municipalities:
1. Aguinaldo – The Rodeo Capital of Ifugao
- named after Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo.
- a tribal hunting ground in Pre-Hispanic Times.
- “One Shot Teddy” By Teddy Roosevelt Jr. (Area for his wild-game
hunting expedition).
Festival: Igkhumtad ad Aguinaldo
Igkhumtad features the Ayangan cultures & traditions of the
Aguinaldo people through dances, songs & ethnic games.
Barangays: 16
Population: 21,128 (as of 2020 from PSA)

Ifugao | 4
2. Alfonso Lista - Home of The Magat Dam
- named after their 1st town mayor Alfonso Lista
- Mun-uupag (Bubbles) and Potia (opening of flower buds)
Festival: Ammung ad Alfonso Lista
Ammung means gathering or getting together. This festival
celebrates the harmonious co-existence of the different
ethnolinguistic groups in Alfonso Lista.
Barangays: 20
Population: 34,061 (as of 2020 from PSA)
3. Asipulo - Ube King of Ifugao
- is located in the lower portion of the Cordillera Mountain Range.
Festival: Kulpi ad Asipulo
Kulpi is a family thanksgiving held after the transplanting of
rice seedlings. The people of Asipulo gather together & celebrate
cultural presentations & activities.
Barangays: 10
Population: 15,963 (As of 2020 from PSA)
4. Banaue - Home to The Magnificent Rice Terraces
- Its name is derived from the Spanish slang of the word ”bannawol”,
a swift-flying bird resembling a crow. It is believed that these once
prolific birds are now extinct as a result of loss of habitat and
hunting.
Festival: Banaue Imbayah
The name of the festival comes from bumayah meaning a
well-to-do person who celebrates his good health & old age with
gong beating, dancing & feasting.
Barangays: 18
Population: 20,652 (As of 2020 from PSA)
5. Hingyon - The Heartland of Ifugao
- The smallest of Ifugao’s municipalities.
Festival: Gotad ad Hingyon
A highlight of this festival is the ginnat (royal rumble), where
participants who slaughter the sacrificial animal can have their
share of its meat.
Barangays: 12
Population: 9,930 (as of 2020 from PSA)
6. Hungduan - Yuyu King of Ifugao
- Mount Napulawan
- Mount Polis
- MMount Puloy in Maggok
Festival: Tungoh ad Hungduan
Tungoh is observed as a rest day for the Ifugao farmers at
the end of the planting season.
Barangays: 9
Population: 8,866 (as of 2020 from PSA)
7. Kiangan- Land of The Warmest Welcome
• the presence of the Cordillera Regional Museum.
• the site where General Yamashita surrendered to US forces (Sept
2, 1945)
Festival: Gotad ad Kiangan

Ifugao | 5
 This festival is celebrated every May 1st and is a part of the
Ifugao prestige rites and traditionally involves general merry-
making.
Barangay: 14
Population: 17, 691
8. Lagawe - Home of The Capital
Festival: Kulpi ad Lagawe
Kulpi is a traditional cleansing rite performed after the rice
planting season to drive away pests and evil spirits, thus ensuring
a bountiful harvest
Barangays: 20
Population: 18,876 (as of 2020 from PSA)
9. Lamut – Gateway to Ifugao
- common hunting grounds for Ifugao’s & Gaddangs.
- encampment area for American liberating forces
Festival: Rambakan Ti Lamut
It is a Hodge podge of Ilocano & Ifugao traditions that
unfolds during this festival.
Barangays: 18
Population: 26,235 (as of 2020 from PSA)
10. Mayoyao - Hidden Shangri-La of Ifugao
Festival: Igkhumtad ad Majawjaw
- Traditionally, it is a victory feast of the Mayoyao tribe.
Barangays: 27
Population: 15,621 (as of 2020 from PSA)
11. Tinoc - The Vegetable Basket of The Ifugao
- Bounded on the west by the MT PULAG- the 2nd highest peak in
the Phils
Festival: Kelleng di Tinec
A municipal-wide festival that showcases the unique customs &
traditions of the Kalanguya of Tinoc.
Barangays: 27
Population: 18,475 (as of 2020 from PSA)
Self-Check:
A. Describe each municipality in detail as shown on the map

Source: wikemedia.org

Ifugao | 6
Lesson 3
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. identify the educational and social institutions in Ifugao;
2. discuss the development of educational and social institutions in Ifugao;

Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:

Social Institutions
Ifugao societies during the pre-colonial period are largely informal. Social
structures were mostly developed based on kinship. According to Dulawan (2001), the
Ifugao kinship system comprised all those related by consanguinity including the dead
ancestors at least up to the fourth generation ascending. This kinship system is of great
importance to the Ifugaos which underlies their social structure, land use, and rice
production. This system, which warrants the commitment and an obligation from each
member (usually adults), highlights its purpose, the survival, and the sustenance of the
Ifugao families of a certain clan.
Like many societies, the nuclear family is the smallest social group consisting of
the couple (husband and wife) commonly called “himbale” and children. The clan is the
larger group and is mostly based on the kinship system as discussed earlier. This bigger
social group is divided into classes (Dulawan (2001), Acabado, 2017). Dulawan (2001)
identified the three classes which include: 1) kadangyan (wealthy), 2) the common tagu
(children and family of kadangyan who did not perform any of the prestige feasts),and 3)
the nawotwot (the poor). The distinctions and generally based on material possessions
(rice fields, animal holdings, etc.), prestige rituals performed, and role in the community.
In certain groups, clothing/apparel is also distinct for each of the classes. The nawotwot
usually works as paid labors for the wealthy and is associated with root crop eaters.
Sometimes, the nawotwot, tills the fields of the wealthy and gets their share during
harvests.
Generally, wealth is measured by the volume and value of material possessions.
But not to the Ifugaos. Mere possessions of properties do not make one wealthy or
kadangyan (Dulawan (2001). He/she must perform the Ifugao customary prestige rites
which include the uyya-uy and/or the ultimate prestige rite, the hagabi. A person who
performed the rites are called immuyya-uy and/or himmagabi. The people belonging to
the wealthy clan usually dominate and usually control the political structure and even the
rice production cycle.
At present, like any other part of the country, Ifugao is structured in the same way.
However, through the law which creates NCIP, culture-based social structures are present
like the council of elders, who are often invited to be part of the local justice system. To
learn more about the social organizational structures of the Ifugaos in the past, reading

Ifugao | 7
other comprehensive references is recommended as they cannot be all contained in this
material.
Educational Institutions
Traditional Education
Education in Ifugao before the introduction of educational institutions is based on oral
tradition. Before the arrival of external influences in the 1900s, learning is mainly done at
home and in other communal areas. The mode of learning is generally the passing of
knowledge and skills orally and by observation. The role of skilled, elders, and other
culture bearers as mentors and teachers was imperative.
Education during the American rule
Education in Ifugao during the Spanish colonial times (in the larger Philippine area)
remained unchanged. The Spaniards were not able to successfully subjugate the Ifugaos.
The first schools opened during the American rule in Ifugao were in Kiangan and
Banaue. These first two schools were opened in 1905 by James Travis and H. Otley Beyer
in Kiangan and Banaue, respectively (Dulawan, 2001). Accordingly, Travis was replaced
by W. Wooden, who got hurt and later replaced by Roy F. Barton, who authored several
books about the Ifugaos. During this period, there were Ifugaos who are educated and
served in government posts. H. Otley Beyer, who is also considered the ‘Father of
Philippine Anthropology’ was the first American teacher in Banaue. In 1908, a school was
also opened in Mayoyao but paused due to the dwindling number of students. The schools
that were opened during this time cater to elementary education and hence, those who
wish to continue usually go outside Ifugao. In the succeeding years up to the present,
more schools were opened because of the increased coming of missionaries (Dulawan,
2001) and in the recent past, government-supported schools.
At present, many educational institutions cater to the basic, higher, and skills
education of the Ifugaos. These schools are now classified as public (government-
supported), private (religious or privately owned), and skill-based schools. Similar to other
provinces, elementary education is accessible in the barangay and even sitio level, and
all municipalities are housed in two or more secondary schools. There are also skills-
based schools usually supported by TESDA where interested Ifugaos can hone a career-
related skill. Ifugao State University, a government institution, is the lone higher institution
in the province of Ifugao.

Self-Check:
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the kinship system and its role in the lives of the Ifugaos
2. Differentiate the 3 classes in the Ifugao social structure.
3. Discuss the development of education in Ifugao.

Ifugao | 8
Lesson 4
GAMES, ORAL LITERATURE, MUSIC, SPORTS AND DANCES

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. identify the indigenous games, oral literature, music, sports, and dances of the
Ifugao;
2. determine the changes in the Ifugao indigenous and contemporary games, oral
literature, music, sports, and dances.

Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:
Indigenous sports

Indigenous sports of the Ifugaos as now termed, are originally part of the practices
having cultural relevance and purpose. They were not started as competitive events for
entertainment purposes only but rather, have a greater societal role. In the distant past,
most of the indigenous competitive events identified are done to settle disputes, determine
favored groups by deities, and identify individuals for a specific task, among others.
Hence, these indigenous games have played a role in the justice system of the Ifugaos. It
is believed that winners of such competitions, with the appropriate rites which are
conducted before, are the wills of the gods/deities.
At present, these games are being performed during cultural festivals and
occasions as a way of paying homage to the cultural identity and also for the generation
to be educated through practice the diminishing cultural practices.
Some examples of the cultural competitions which are commonly used to settle
disputes or to determine the favored groups in the past include but are not limited to the
following:
1. Uggub
The ‘Uggub’ or throwing of darts (young runo shoots) is a trial by ordeal in cases
of theft. Representatives of the two parties are selected and will stand six to seven meters
apart. The accuser is the first to throw the uggub while the accused turns his back. If the
accuser hits the back of the accused, then it proves his accusation. If he fails, then his
accusation is false, and/or if the accuser is hit by the accused, then it further proves that
the accusation is false.

2. Bultung
The “Bultung” or wrestling in the past is one way to settle disputes, especially those
involving land disputes such as boundaries. In most cases, the claim of the victorious party
is deemed the true boundary and the loser in the wrestling is also the loser in the dispute
(Dulawan, 20021). The ‘Hidit’, a rite that is usually performed to signify negotiations and
settlements, is usually performed to ensure that no ill feelings between the parties.
3. Guyyudan
The “Guyyudan” or tug-of-war is a common game nowadays but could be traced
to the ‘Punnuk’ ritual of the Ifugaos. Among the activities that culminate the “Punnuk” is
the tug-of-war by the river. Participants and spectators from different social groups

Ifugao | 9
(geographical or clan) will gather at the selected river. All parties prepare a long but thin
wooden pole with a hook at the end which will be used to hook and pull the ‘tagtagu’, a
person-like scarecrow made of rice stalks. At the river, they all have equal chances of
being ready and once the scarecrow is thrown, the participants will hook it and pull. The
one with the scarecrow (or most of it) is declared the winner and deemed favored by the
gods/deities and will have a bountiful harvest in the coming harvest season as compared
to the losing parties.
Oral Literature
Ifugao has a rich oral literature heritage that has been passed down from
generation to generation. The Hudhud, an Ifugao oral literature, is inscribed by UNESCO
in 2008 as one of the world’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The Ifugao oral
literature comprised of the following (Dulawan, 2001):
1. Hudhud (Epics)
This includes long narrations depicting the lives and conquests of local heroes.
They also portray the life of early Ifugaos and their culture. This is evident in one of the
oral literature called “Hudhud”, which consists of narrative chants performed especially
during harvest and wakes (elderly persons who died a natural death).

2. Alim
This is a ritual ballad that highlights the supposed achievements of a hero. This is
not as popular as the Hudhud since the Alim cannot be performed by anyone and for
anybody. This is only performed during prestige rituals and the death of a wealthy elder
as they remove precious items from his body.

3. Liwliwa
This is a jovial parody and mostly contains mutual criticism by males and females
who are chanting alternately. This usually happens during prestige feasts when people
are intoxicated by the wines.

4. A-apo
These are usually short stories consisting of myths, folktales, legends, and fables
for entertainment and also in teaching the children cultural values.

Music
Music also plays a huge part in the Ifugao ways of life. Their music is among the
constant in festivities, ceremonies, and other social gatherings in the communities. The
songs are generally chant-like storytelling which is commonly performed in groups on
occasion. In some songs, the community singing may also include solo parts. The
instruments which are usually used include gongs, wooden bars (bangibang), palipal
(made of bamboo), Ingngiing (nose flute), and dipdipu (leather drum).

Dances
The Ifugaos have a distinctive indigenous dance that features the eagle-like
opening of hands. The dance is usually accompanied by the beating of gongs. There are
slight variations in the dance steps among the three ethnolinguistic groups in Ifugao but
share many commonalities. There are types of Ifugao dances that are commonly based
on geographical origin and/or purpose. Identified dances are as follows (Ngohayon, 2011,
Ifugao IK Workbook):

Ifugao | 10
 1. Dinnuy-a
This is usually performed by the Ifugao-Tuwali group in Kiangan, Lagawe,
Hingyon, Banaue, and Hungduan. The number of gong beaters may vary from 3-5. This
is performed during weddings, thanksgiving parties, and other social gatherings.

2. Futageh
This is widely danced by the Ayangan people who inhabit the Northeastern region
of Ifugao. This dance recognizes the equal role of men and women in the community.
Accordingly, this dance originated in the past as a victory dance in celebration of a
successful head-hunting expedition. Nowadays, it is mainly performed during special
occasions such as a wedding or other social gatherings.

3. Pagaddut
The Pagaddut is a wedding dance that originated in Kiangan, characterized by a
faster beat as compared to the dinnuy-a. This becomes a ceremonial dance when
performed during an Uya-uy ritual.

4. Tayaw
The tayaw dance is commonly performed by the Kalanguya people, especially
during festivals like “Keleng”. Accordingly, it is a natural dance based on a bid bird
called “Tuldo”.

Self-Check:
Answer the following questions:
1. Discuss the changes from the early Ifugaos and the present in terms of sports and
literature
2. Explain the role of dances and music in the Ifugao culture
3. Describe the cosmic beliefs of the Ifugaos

Ifugao | 11
 UNIT 2
PHILOSOPHY/MORALITY
Lesson
COSMOLOGY, VALUES, SPIRITUALITY, HEALING, AND RITUALS

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. identify the Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healing, and Rituals;
2. determine the changes in the indigenous games, oral literature, music, sports,
and dances of the Ifugao.

Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:

Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healing, and Rituals

The cosmic belief of the early Ifugaos is considered polytheistic. They believe in
many gods and goddesses. This covers the worship of nature and ancestors. Barton
(1919) pointed out that there are more than a thousand named gods/deities which are
often called out during rituals, especially by the “Mumbaki”. This belief system is strong,
especially among the early Ifugaos, and permeates even to this 21st-century society (with
a significantly lower hold on the people).
Among the early written references related to Ifugao cosmology is by Beyer and
Conklin (1911) who stated that the great deities reside in the Sky World (Ad Daya) and
the Upper World (Ad Kabunian). The minor deities inhabit other realms. An Ifugao
contemporary writer, Manuel Dulawan (2005) described the six realms that are the homes
of the deities. It should be noted, however, that differences in the written texts could be
attributed to the changes that have occurred with the influence of outsiders and also
developments such as roads that allowed the people to experience other cultures.
“In the Ifugao system of worship, Pugaw is one of the six realms of the cosmos.
Four of these are the habitations of gods and deities. These are the Kabunyan
(skyworld), Dalom (Underworld), Daya or Pah-adan (Western World) and Lagud
(Eastern world), and Pugaw (earth world). The sixth is Kadungayan, the place
where the linnawa or souls of the dead go after being accorded the appropriate
death rites.)” Manuel Dulawan (2005)
Some of the recorded gods and deities (Beyer and Conklin, 1911, Getting to Know
Ifugao) and include the most important ones:
Amalgo - chief of the Sun gods
Ambulan - chief of the Moon gods
Manahaut - the Deceiver
Amkidul - Thunder god
Amkolyog - Earthquake god

Ifugao | 12
 The gods/deities are clustered following a hierarchy according to Dulawan (2001)
and may belong to any but not limited to the following categories:

1. Bagol - superior gods

2. Maknongan - gods to whom the sacrifice is due and considered gods of
reproduction and controllers of man’s life
3. Matungulan - gods to be appeased
4. Nangga Idoh - evil gods
5. Halupe - charmer gods
6. Munkontad - charmer gods
7. Pipinading ya bibiyo - earth spirits who dwell in big trees, rivers, mountains, etc.
Rituals
Rituals are part of the cosmic beliefs of the early Ifugaos. The rites performed
usually cover the life cycle of man (including before birth and after death), health, politics,
and agriculture (Gonzales, 2009). The Baki is the Ifugao form of prayer and also the
general term for sacrificial rituals to the gods/deities and ancestors (Getting to Know the
Ifugao). The ‘priests’ or mumbaki play very important roles in the Ifugao rituals. They are
in charge of identifying appropriate rites as well as their subsequent performance. Animals
such as carabaos, pics, chickens, and others specifically identified by a mumbaki are
butchered. Ritual paraphernalia is also present during rituals. These include but are not
limited to bulul, hukup, etc.
Rituals among the early Ifugaos range from simple to elaborate series of rites
which may take months. These are characterized by the constant butchering of animals
and rituals performed by the mumbaki. Some of the rituals involving the life cycle of man
and rice production are as follows:
1. Imbango/ moma - this is a betrothal ritual and may even start at infancy
2. Bubun/tanig - marriage ceremony
3. Uya-uy - elaborate marriage feasts for the kadangyans
4. Hagabi - a prestige rite and the most expensive, highest, and final display
of wealth. A himmagabi attained the highest social status and is entitled to
respect and privileges.
5. Burial rites – burial rites vary depending on the social status and/or cause of
death. The burial ritual for a kadangyan follows an elaborate series of rites. For
a murdered victim, an elaborate but unusually different ritual called the
‘munhim-ong’ is performed. Beyer and Conklin (1911) documented the ritual at
a time when limited external influences have impacted cultural practices.
6. Punnuk – is an elaborate post-harvest ritual among the Hungduan people and
is inscribed by UNESCO in 2015 on the Representative List of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This is performed on the concluding days of the
harvest season and includes a series of activities culminating in the tug-of-war
competition at the river. Performance of ‘Baki’ is also part of the activities.
Beliefs in superstitions and taboos are also strong among the early Ifugaos. Some
of the common superstitions include; the red or black bird omen, kilkilang, and sneezing
among others. Examples of taboos may include not eating fish with meat, not sleeping on
the roof by brothers, sisters, or cousins of opposite sexes, not eating fish or edible snails
after attending a wake, etc.

Ifugao | 13
 With the introduction of Christianity by missionaries in the past, the cosmic beliefs
in present-day Ifugao are highly diverse. The Ifugao people in terms of their cosmic belief
can be categorized as follows: those who adopted the totality of the new religion (e.g.
Christianity), those who hold onto the old Ifugao cosmic belief and would do nothing with
the ‘Christian beliefs and practices” and those who accept both or more (they go to church
but still practice rites dedicated to a deity/es). Cosmology at present is impacting the ways
of life of the people, and the Ifugao ‘culture’ in general. Christianity in Ifugao is among the
top factors in the rapid changes and reasons for the abandonment of indigenous
knowledge systems and practices. Christianity is monotheistic in nature with the belief in
one God and most often than not, believers regard other gods/goddesses as not belonging
to the ‘good One’ but rather of the other side.

Self-Check:

Ifugao | 14
 UNIT 3
TECHNOLOGICAL
This section consists of three lessons, with the first lesson focused on symbols and
textiles, the second session covering land, biodiversity, and natural resource
management, and the third lesson touching on engineering and architecture.

The students would be able to impart knowledge and awareness to others about
the meanings behind those symbols, the sustainability tenets drawn from the indigenous
Ifugaos' management of their land, water, biodiversity, and the development of indigenous
dwellings.

Lesson 1
SYMBOLS AND TEXTILES, ARTS AND CRAFTS

The Ifugaos are among the hardest-working and most inventive Filipinos. This is
demonstrated by their remarkable farming and craft-making abilities. As indicated by their
continuous use in Ifugao daily life, there is a healthy and lively interest in the Ifugao crafts
that are still being practiced.

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Discuss the significance of the various textile symbols.
2. Identify the several arts, crafts, and symbols of the Ifugao province

Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:
The most popular arts in Ifugao include woodcarving, textile weaving, basketry,
carpentry, and blacksmithing. On market days, craft products are swapped or sold at the
market, artisans proudly present their goods, and a lot of attention is paid to the finest
items on display. A significant number of handicrafts are sold directly or ordered by dealers
from beyond Ifugao province, in addition to those sold for local consumption (Lim, 1973).
One of the most fascinating crafts in the Philippines is handweaving textiles, which
has a huge cultural impact. Weaving is a religious craft, of which many people might not
be aware. It is a complex procedure with numerous steps, including conducting a ritual
(Aguilar, 2019).
When making traditional fabrics, Ifugao uses a variety of symbols that have been
passed down from earlier generations. Every design serves a function, and the
combinations of patterns reveal stories (Ifugao Nation, 2020).

Ifugao | 15
TINIKTIKU – Lightnig Bolt This emblem stands for the Munkontad, who serve
as intermediaries between the Ifugao and the
greater gods. Buh-wit (cobra), Bagillat (lightning),
and Atibungallon are a few of the Munkontads
(rainbow). They have a reputation for moving very
quickly throughout the Ifugao realm.

The gammit skirt, the kinuttiyan and inlah'dang

blankets, and the tinonwe loincloths all have this
symbol.

GINLOT - Beheaded Manaha-ut, the Great Deceiver, and his

descendants are symbolized by this emblem.
Given that Manaha-ut is rumored to eat the souls
of imprisoned fallen warriors, it is one of the most
potent emblems for the Ifugao warrior.

The gammit skirt and inha'dang blankets contain

this symbol.

INAMBAYUNG- Hip Bag The ambayung is a triangular bag with brass

handles used to store basic personal necessities
like amulets and betel nuts. The Halupe or
charmer gods who dedicate these amulets to
protect a person from harm are represented by the
inambayung in textiles.

The gammit skirt and inlah'dang blanket both use

this pattern.

TINAGGU- Hu man This image is for the Ifugao deified ancestors who
have attained demi-god status in the afterlife. The
tinagu design conjures up protection from the
ancestors for the welfare of their offspring and an
earthy village.

Ifugao | 16
 HINIKKITAN - Shuttle A representation of the weaver gods. To complete
the fabric, the hikitan is the shuttle that inserts the
weft (horizontal) thread into the warp (vertical).

KINATTIBANGLAN - Diamond This is an image of the aammod dih do'ne, or the

ancestors, and their period. The designs found on
the trunk of the enormous fern wood served as its
inspiration. of the most ancient living organisms in
the domain of plants.

Typically, it is utilized in blankets and skirts.

HINULGI – Diamond Pattern A complicated design of diamond x's and v's is the
hinulgi. It is a design that can be seen in gamong
blankets and sporadically in baya'ung. According
to legend, an Ifugao must take a gamong blanket
with them when they pass away and go to the
afterlife to give it to their ancestors. The quantity
of hinulgi patterns on this blanket should be equal
to that of their immediate predecessors.

HINAPPIYO – Shield This represents the Maknongan or Inumban, a

group of powerful protector gods from the early
pantheon. The Ifugao Maknongan people.

Ifugao | 17
 BINITTUWON – Star The children of the sun and moon are represented
by the stars in Ifugao mythology. They are
members of the group of war gods who are highly
revered and called upon in rituals involving war
and magic.

The many star patterns in a woman's belt also

stand for fertility.

BINANNIYA - Lizard The lizard represents riches and aristocracy in

kadangyan culture, in a proverbial old myth. One
of the messenger gods assumed the shape of a
lizard to demonstrate to the first terrace builders
where the water for their irrigation came from. The
lizard has since been carved into the rice terraces
of the Ifugao people.

LINUHHUNG – Mortal These patterns depict the Ifugao's excellent

agricultural gods. The Ifugao must offer sacrifices
and offerings to these gods, who are responsible
for favorable harvests.

INNIDOL AND INNULOG These patterns have a serpentine appearance.

The innidol highlights serpents as a symbol of
prosperity, while the innulog emphasizes the
value of boundaries.

(Source: Ifugao Nation, 2020; Dulawan, L., Martin, M., Ngohayon, S., & et al. 2019)

Ifugao | 18
 Ifugao arts and crafts include a
variety of a wide range of items, many of
which are used regularly.
Among the examples are:
The HAGABI is a symbol of wealth,
prestige, and influence among the hardy
Ifugaos. Only those who belong to the
Ifugao elite and who have already
performed at least two Uya-uy are
vested with this privilege (Dait, J. 2012).

The BULUL is by far the most important art form

since it symbolizes the Ifugaos' most revered
traditional beliefs. It is made of wood and hand-carved.
Bulul is essential to the Ifugao People even though it is
currently produced and sold as a range of souvenir
products or decorative art.
It is typically placed within a rice granary where
it is thought to guard the rice against bugs, and
robbers, and simply from being eaten too soon.
Furthermore, it's thought that installing a bulul will
increase the rice stock and it is said to ensure not only
the welfare of its owners but also the welfare of the
entire village.
The following are the reasons for carving a
bulul:
a. building of a new rice granary,
b. to avert and cure illness in the family
c. the exhumation and re-interment of departed family members' remains,
d. the construction of new homes for the married children,
e. and other measures to prevent and treat illness within the family.

The Ifugaos are also popular in

terms of their wood-carved products.
Most of the wood-carved products
displayed in handicrafts stores or
museums in Baguio or Banaue may
have been made by the Ifugaos. Anima,
Nid (1985) stated that in earlier times,
most of the Ifugaos’ wood works are
related to their religion. She furthered
that they carve their version of gods and
goddesses and later included less
Image: PNA, 2022 serious versions of animals, exhibitionist
persons, and other similar things. The
Ifugaos' wood carving skills are related to the indigenous practice of the "muyong" system
or community forest preservation which the government has recognized and viewed it as
a practice that will allow wood carving as a livelihood activity to be preserved (Agoot, L,
2022). At present, wood products are generally for commercialization and personal
displays.

Ifugao | 19
 The LINGLING-O, called the hubong/uvong is
made of gold, silver, and copper, the basic form of this
ornament is an almost closed C. The possession of Ling
ling-o serves as a symbol of the bearer's social standing.
This has developed into a symbol of honor worn by
young mountain-dwelling people even in recent years.
The center of the lingling-o has a hole that resembles the
outline of an embryo with an umbilical cord, which is
thought to represent fertility (Museo Kordilyera, 2021).
The Ling ling-o is still made today and offered as
beautiful art or a variety of souvenir items.

Self-Check:
A. Show the numerous patterns and their underlying meanings found in our tapis

Ifugao | 20
Lesson 2

LAND AND BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

This chapter on Ifugao province presents lessons on the Ifugao environment with
a focus on land and water management, forest and its biodiversity, and natural resource
management.
The various indigenous methods for conserving biodiversity are discussed in this
lesson. It goes on to explore how conservation is accomplished using native traditions like
the muyung system, building rice terraces and swiddens, and multi-story agroforestry
systems. This lesson helps the students comprehend the significance of ecological
balance and improves their knowledge of environmental protection and conservation.

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Describe the indigenous land and water management practices of the Ifugaos;
2. Describe the various biodiversity conservation practices; and
3. Appraise the sustainability of Ifugao IKSPs in forest and biodiversity conservation
Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:

Similar to the rest of the provinces in the Cordillera region, Ifugao is a landlocked
province and is rugged and mountainous. Accordingly, almost 75% of its land area is
rolling hills with steep, to very steep slopes.
A. Land Use and Management
The sustainable land use and management of the Ifugao Indigenous peoples are
the main reason for its inscription by UNESCO in 1995 as a world heritage site. The
indigenous Ifugao practice of land surface appropriation maximizes its potential with the
least depletion of natural resources. The villages, forests, pond fields, and grasslands are
situated such that the natural setting of the natural resources is sustained (Ngohayon, S.
(Ed). (2021). The Banaue Rice Terraces are the perfect example of how the Ifugaos
manage their usage of land and water.
Following are some of the indigenous methods used by early Ifugaos to manage
their utilization of land and water (Ngohayon, S.(Ed).2021):
1. Numboblayan (village), payoh (pond fields), habal(swidden), muyung (forest),
pa’laban (pastureland) and punbakiyan (religious and ritual site.
2. For mutual safety and assistance, the Ifugao live in communities known as
"bobleh." Ordinarily, residential areas are located in a predetermined place
near pond fields, a little away from the muyung, and on a raised area that is
only a bit higher than the river.
3. The Ifugao constructed payoh on the narrow plains and valleys along river
banks. Terracing for rice fields is done on mountainside.

Ifugao | 21
 4. When the soil is unsuitable for cultivating rice, it is converted into habal for root
crops to supplement human diets and feed livestock.
5. Ifugao land is used also for punbakiyan (religious ritual site) and pa'laban
(pasture land).
6. The significance of Muyung in the Ifugao ecosystem is embedded in the
Ifugaos. It holds water in reserve and releases it as needed. The main function
of the water from the creeks, streams and rivers is to water the rice terraces
aside from the daily use in households. With the direct connection between the
forest and water production, the Ifugaos see to it that the forests are sustained.
The Ifugao realizes that there is interconnectedness between the land and
water and the depletion of one will lead to consequences at his disadvantage.
The sustainability of the communal and private forests directly relates to the
water production.
B. Indigenous Biodiversity Conservation Practices

Biodiversity provides direct economic benefits, which sustain human existence.

Care, protection, and maintenance are thus observed as a result. The native forest trees
provide shelter, medicine, and money in addition to other medicinal plants and pesticide-
producing plants. Animals play a role in the balance of biodiversity in addition to being
used as food.

Given the significance of the biodiversity of plants and animals, it is necessary to

preserve it by maintaining and protecting the muyung, payoh, and pinugo system.

Ifugao indigenous biodiversity conservation practices (Gonzales, N. et.al, 2021, p.

105)
a. Muyung System.
The term "muyung" (forest) is categorized as both family- and community-
owned forests. Family-owned are reserved for that family or clan only, whereas
community-owned resources can be used by any community member as long as
they follow specific rules and guidelines.
b. Rice terraces forest coupled agroforestry (Payoh-pinugo/hayyukung/hino-ub
system).
a distinctive indigenous agroforestry approach that entailed creating rice
terraces on a sloped region while considering the water source. The source of the
water is an unaltered forest that is managed and maintained by a clan, family or
another social unit that uses it as a watershed.
c. Multi-storey Agroforestry System
Is characterized by having 2-5 layers of canopies. The above layer is
occupied by trees and fruit trees/shrubs while crops/animals are found below. The
multistorey system is classified into three with varying degrees of diversity.
a. woodlots (forest)
b. silvipasture
c. home garden

Self-Check:
A. Showcase the biodiversity conservation measures your community uses.

Ifugao | 22
Lesson 3
ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1. Describe the indigenous engineering and architectural prowess of the Ifugaos;
2.
Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:

Engineering and Architecture

The engineering and architectural prowess of the Ifugaos are evident in the
tangible heritages which are still relevant and functional in today’s society.
The Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT)
The Ifugaos are well known for their unique culture and extensive rice terraces and
are found in most of the municipalities. The five clusters; the Nagacadan Cluster in
Kiangan, Central Mayoyao, Batad, and Bangaan Clusters in Banaue, and the whole rice
terraces clusters of Hungduan comprise the five clusters of the Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT)
placed on the World Heritage List in 1995. However, in 2001, the IRT was included in the
World Heritage in Danger List. This is mainly due to the human-induced threats to the
areas and requires collective action to protect the heritage (UNESCO, 2008). Fortunately,
after the collective efforts from the local, national to international governments and private
institutions/organizations and individuals, the IRT was restored and subsequently
removed from the list of heritages in danger. The IRT is also identified as among the
Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (FAO, 2023). The FAO states:
“Ifugao terraces have shaped a characteristic landscape in the Mountains between
800 and 1500 meters. Indeed, some were previously forested areas while others
are presumably grasslands. It is, however, the availability of water that dictates the
Ifugaos build terraces and allowed them to create this system.” (FAO, 2023)

The IRT in itself and even the irrigation systems are evidence of the engineering
principles adopted by the people.

Another heritage showing the ingenuity of

the Ifugaos is their indigenous houses. The Ifugao
native house is one of the most admired
architectural designs having employed an
indigenous system of construction that is more
complex than its seeming simplicity (Ananayo,
2010). A typical Ifugao house is typhoon resistant
and is built entirely with natural materials. The
wood-and-thatch dwelling is a practical structure
that is an architectural wonder. Built with only four

Ifugao | 23
posts and without the use of nails, iron bolts, or straps, it antedates the invention of the
modern prefabricated building by centuries. (Provincial Government of Ifugao Publication,
2009).

Self-Check:

Ifugao | 24
 UNIT 3
POLITICAL FEATURE
This lesson covers the various Ifugao laws, taboos, justice systems, property law
practices, and criminal law practices. This will aid the students in gaining a deeper
comprehension and appreciation.

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Discuss the elements of Ifugao customary laws
2. Evaluate the relevance of indigenous laws in today's culture
3. Compare the justice systems of the Ifugao with those of the present-day world.

Mode of Delivery:
PowerPoint/video presentation

Lesson Content:

INDIGENOUS GOVERNANCE, LAWS, AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

To uphold peace and order in the community, the Ifugao people had their own set
of customary laws, codes of ethics, taboos, values, and beliefs, as well as a justice system
that governed their interactions with others on a personal, familial, and communal level.
And as expected, Ifugaos are supposed to follow the teachings of their ancestors, known
as tugun di a-am-mod, and to keep the paniyo in mind when interacting with their family
and the community.
Accordingly, Ifugao law derives from two sources. The first is the paniyo or taboo.
Paniyo is the “evil way” or “bad way of doing”, which largely concerns the individual and
is based on “magic” (Barton, 1919 in NCCA, 2015). These taboos are ethical and religious
in nature and were occasionally created as superstitious beliefs; therefore, breaking them
may be the cause of some bad omens. The second is custom laws that embrace the laws
on property, individual rights, family laws, and penal laws. (Martin, M & et.al, 2021, p. 185).
As mentioned, Ifugaos has prohibited acts and conduct of Taboos or Paniyo related to
gender-family, religion-related, Property, Life and Financial, and personhood related.
Likewise, Ifugaos has Property laws on inherited properties, on the sale and purchase of
properties especially land or rice fields, and on other means of acquiring properties
especially when the owner is childless.

Crimes and Penalties

a. Person related crimes
b. Property related crimes
c. Chastity related crimes
Settlement of crimes
a. Against persons
b. Life
c. Properties
d. Trial by Ordeal

Ifugao | 25
Self-Check:
A. Give 3 examples of each taboos related to the following: a. gender-family taboos, b.
religion-related, c. Property, d. Life and Financial related taboos, e. personhood
related.
B. Are Ifugao Indigenous laws still relevant in today's culture? Yes or No, elaborate
comprehensively.

Rubrics for the essay

Category Statement Score
Content - points discussed are convincing and related to the 30
topic
- points are supported by examples
Organization - Points presented are in a logical order 15
- Used rhetorical devices to move from one point to
the other
Grammar & - Free from errors in grammar 5
Mechanics - Choose the right words
Total 50
Note: teachers may modify the scores and the rubrics

C. Show the similarities between the Ifugao indigenous justice system and the present-
day justice system in a venn diagram.

Present-day Justice
Ifugao Indigenous System
Justice system
Similarity

Ifugao | 26
References:

1. Ifugao Province. (2023). The Ifugao Geography. https://ifugao.gov.ph/geography/

2. Aboitiz. (2017). Ifugao People of the earth. Publication of Aboitiz.
3. Agoot, L. (25 October 2022). ‘Muyong' practice helps sustain Ifugao's wood carving
industry. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1186988
4. Aguilar, J. (Sept 23, 2019). The Untold Sacred Weaving of Ifugaos.
https://www.habiphilippinetextilecouncil.com/blogs/what-we-do/the-untold-sacred-
weaving-of-ifugaos
5. Dait, J. (2012). Ifugao Rituals and Cultural Practices and Other Stories. ET Homes
Enterprise. Lagawe, Ifugao.
6. Dulawan, L. (2001). Ifugao Culture and History. National Commission for Culture and
the Arts (NCCA). Manila.
7. Ifugao Nation. (June 21, 2020). Ifugao Weaving Symbols.
https://ifugaonation.com/blogs/news/weaving-symbols
8. Sison, S. (September 28, 2017). 11 Ifugao Symbols You Can Actually Wear.
https://www.preview.ph/fashion/ifugao-textile-symbols-a00191-20170928
9. Suacillo, G. (Oct 10, 2019). A quick guide to indigenous textile symbols.
https://nolisoli.ph/68912/habi-textile-symbols-asuacillo-20191010/

Ifugao | 27