PSYC12010 – Introduction

Lecture 2: Theories of to Human Development

Dr Cassy Dittman
human development cont. c.dittman@cqu.edu.au
Housekeeping

Quiz 1 (10%) opens this Friday, 27th March

• Due Friday, 10th April at 5.00PM [AEST]
• Assesses topics 1 to 4
Census date is next Tuesday, 31st March
• The last date for students to withdraw from enrolled units without
academic or financial penalty
Final examination
• Will be conducted online
• More information to follow
 • Emphasises the role of
cognitive processing of social
experiences for motivating
and self‐regulating behaviour
• Beliefs about likely
consequences impact
behaviour
• Consequences can be external
and internal
• Observational learning –
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY‐SA
learning by observing the
behaviour of others
(modelling)

Learning theories – Social • Vicarious reinforcement –

observation of consequences
(cognitive) learning theory given to others predicts own
behaviour
Learning theories – Social learning theory
• Reciprocal determinism – people
choose, build and shape their
environments, they are not just Person
shaped by them
• Self‐regulation – ability to reflect
on, evaluate and manage own
behaviour
• Personal agency – one’s capacity to
control or change the environment
to produce an outcome
• Self‐efficacy – belief in one’s Behaviour Environment
competence or ability to produce a
desired outcome
Learning theories:
Contributions and weaknesses
Contributions

• Theories are precise and testable – experimental psychology

• Principles apply across the life span
• Practical applications are possible

Weaknesses

• Inadequate accounts of developmental changes

• Little consideration of genetics and maturation
Case study: Xavier and
school
• Watson – classical conditioning
• Traumatic experience  school building
becomes a CS for anxious response
• Skinner – operant conditioning
• Consequences for staying home (i.e.
removal of anxiety negatively reinforces
school refusal, my attention could be
positively reinforcing) are stronger than
those for going to school
• Bandura – social learning
• Observational learning of anxious
behaviour
• Beliefs about punishing consequences
of going to school
• Self‐efficacy in school environment
Major theories of human development

PSYCHOANALYTIC LEARNING HUMANISTIC COGNITIVE SYSTEMS

THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES
• Emphasises the innate goodness of people
• Cognition and behaviour is motivated by
“To oversimplify the matter, it
personal growth, autonomy and self‐ is as if Freud supplied to us the
determination sick half of psychology and we
• Our development is focused on self‐ must now fill it out with the
actualisation, an innate desire to reach our full healthy half.”
potential ‐‐ Abraham Maslow (1968)
• Rogers – primary motivator is self‐
actualization
• Maslow – hierarchy of needs as motivators for
development

Humanistic theories – Rogers

and Maslow
Humanistic theories – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self‐
Need to fully achieve one’s talents, capabilities and potential
actualisation

Need for self‐respect through sense of competence

Esteem and personal achievement; and respect from others
through appreciation, status or fame

Need for close relationships and being a part of

Belonging and love a group (community, family, peers)

Safety Need for secure and stable environment

Biological requirements for

Physiological needs survival (food, water, oxygen,
shelter, sex)
Humanistic theories:
Contributions and weaknesses
Contributions

• Focused on psychological wellness as more than simply absence of disease

• Focus on positive dimensions of development laid the foundation for
positive psychology

Weaknesses

• Initial theories and concepts too broad and hard to measure (has improved)
• Universality of hierarchy questioned
• Important components missing from hierarchy and sequence does not
always apply
Case study: Xavier and
school
• Unmet needs (deficiencies)
results in unpleasant states that
he is trying to avoid by not going
to school
• Unmet safety needs – bullying, in
trouble with teacher
• Unmet belonging and love needs
– peer friendships, parents
• Unmet esteem needs –
difficulties with school tasks,
losing confidence
Major theories of human development

PSYCHOANALYTIC LEARNING HUMANISTIC COGNITIVE SYSTEMS

THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES
• Interaction between biological maturation
(developing brain) and experience is responsible
for developmental progress
“What we see changes what we
• Children acquire ever more complex cognitive
structures, or organised patterns of thought or know. What we know changes
action, that aid them in adapting to their what we see.”
environments ‐‐ Jean Piaget (1950)
• Constructivism ‐ children actively construct new
understandings of the world based on their
experiences
• Interaction between maturation and experience
drive progression across qualitatively different
stages of development

Cognitive developmental
theories – Piaget
Cognitive developmental theories – Piaget
• Qualitative different ways of
thinking in each stage
• Occur in an invariant
sequence
• Age ranges are guidelines,
children can progress at
different rates
Cognitive developmental theories – Vygotsky and
Information processing approaches
• Vygotsky
• Disagreed with universal stages
• Cognitive development is shaped by and varies across sociocultural contexts
• Social constructivism – humans actively create their own understandings of the
world from their social interactions and exposure to cultural tools such as language,
art and media

• Information processing approach

• Likens the developing mind to a computer
• Development proceeds due to changes in the capacity and speed (not structure) of
the nervous system produced by maturation and experience
• Examines fundamental processes of attention, memory, decision‐making, etc.
 • Post‐formal thought –
complex adult cognition
beyond formal operations
• Shaie & Willis proposed
that adult cognition
responds to the different
demands of adult life
• How is knowledge
acquired during childhood
used and applied across
adulthood?
Adult cognitive developmental
theories – Schaie‐Willis
Cognitive developmental theories:
Contributions and weaknesses
Contributions

• Well researched, mostly supported

• Influenced education and parenting
• Vygotsky highlighted importance of social interaction and culture

Weaknesses

• Too little consideration of motivation/emotion

• Piaget underestimated some abilities of children and placed little
emphasis upon parents and caregivers
• Vygotsky’s ideas too broad, vague, difficult to test
Major theories of human development

PSYCHOANALYTIC LEARNING HUMANISTIC COGNITIVE SYSTEMS

THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES THEORIES
• Developmental changes over the life span
“A child needs the enduring,
arise from the ongoing interrelationships
irrational involvement of one or
between a changing organism and a
changing environment
more adults in care of and in
joint activity with that child. In
• The individual and their physical and social short, somebody has to be
contexts are a part of a larger dynamic crazy about that kid.”
system
‐‐ Urie Bronfrenbrenner (1970)
• Development can take a variety of paths
depending on the complex interplay of
multiple influences

Systems theories –
Bronfrenbrenner and Gottlieb
Systems theories – Gottlieb’s epigenetic
psychobiological systems perspective
• Development takes place in the context of our evolutionary
history as a species
• Products of evolution such as genes and hormones interact with
environmental factors to guide the individual’s development
• Development is the product of ongoing interactions between
biological and environmental influences
• Interplay of nature and nurture can occur:
• At the species level – species heredity and cultural evolution
• At the individual level – epigenesis, ‘over and above’ genes

Systems theories – Gottlieb’s
epigenetic psychobiological
systems perspective
Epigenetic process involves 4
mutual influences over time
making certain
developmental outcomes
more or less likely:
1. Activity of the genes
2. Activity of neurons
3. Organism’s behaviour
4. Environmental influences
Each system is important and
their influence is bi‐
directional
Genes are not deterministic –
they are turned on with the
help of environmental input
Systems theories:
Contributions and weaknesses
Contributions

• Hugely influential
• Best captures the complexity of development across multiple domains
• Calls attention to transactions between individual and environment

Weaknesses

• Only partially formulated and tested

• Do not provide (or not intended to provide) a coherent
developmental theory
Theories of human development: a snapshot
• More nature: • Passive: Freud, • Continuous: • Universal: Freud,
Freud, Piaget, Watson, Skinner Watson, Skinner, Erikson, Piaget,
• More nurture: • Active: Bandura, Bandura, Maslow, • Context specific:
Watson, Skinner, Maslow, Piaget, Vygotsky, info Watson, Skinner,
Bandura, Vygotsky, processing Bandura, Maslow,
Vygotsky, information • Discontinuous: Vygotsky, info
• Both: Erikson, processing, Freud, Erikson, processing,
Maslow, info Gottlieb Piaget Gottlieb
processing,
• Both: Gottlieb
Gottlieb
Universality
Nature and Activity and Continuity and
and context
nurture passivity discontinuity
specificity
LECTURE 3: GENES,
ENVIRONMENT AND THE
BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
PSYC12010 – Introduction to Human Development
Dr Cassy Dittman
c.dittman@cqu.edu.au
OVERVIEW
 Individual heredity

 The interplay of genes and the

environment

Disclaimer: I am not a geneticist, molecular

biologist, chemical biologist, obstetric specialist or
neonatologist… but, I will do my best!

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

 The mother determines the sex of a child
Genes can ‘skip’ a generation
There is a specific or single gene pair that
determines whether we develop psychological
Genetics and disorders like ADHD, Austism or Schizophrenia
heredity If we find the gene for a certain personality
trait or problem behaviour, then we can alter
True or False? that gene to ‘fix’ that behaviour
If a trait is highly influenced by genes, it cannot
be changed by the environment
Environmental influences do not effect if a gene
is expressed or ‘turned on’ in an individual
 Conception, fertilisation and implantation

A. 300 million sperm B. Some spermatozoa

cells enter the vagina move up the fallopian
and move into the tube toward the ovum
uterus

D. The blastocyst C. Fertilisation occurs –

implants itself in the fertilised ovum
wall of the uterus by (zygote) drifts down
the 7th to 8th day after the tube, dividing and
fertilisation forming new cells as it
goes

For a neat visualisation, check out:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwTZ1fypivg
 Chromosomes
 Threadlike structures in the cell nucleus made
up of genes
 All human cells contain 46 chromosomes (23
pairs) provided at conception
 New cells are created through the cell
division process called mitosis
 Sex cells, however, contain 23 chromosomes
and are produced through meiosis

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

The genetic code

 The genetic code
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Strands of DNA in each chromosome
 Double-helix molecule
 Contains chemical sequences some of
which are functional units called genes
Genes
 Stretches of DNA transcribed onto
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 Provides instructions for production of
proteins that are the building blocks
of all bodily tissues and substances
 These are transmitted via
chromosomes from parent to child at
conception
 Variants of a gene are called alleles
 A human shares 96% of his genetic structure
with a chimp... 50% with a banana, and
99.9% with the person sitting next to him

Things we know Differences in the remaining 0.1 percent hold

our unique variability and gives important
about human clues about the causes of diseases

genetics thanks 8% of our DNA is viruses. Most viruses are

to the Human disposed of by the immune system, but some
succeed in penetrating their host's genome and

Genome Project are then passed down through the generation

In 2000, it cost US$300 million and took 13

years to be able to sequence the first draft
human genome. Now it costs about US$1,000
and takes about 2 days.
Source: www.worldgovernmentsummit.org/press/news-
press-releases/7-facts-you-didn't-know-about-genomics
Individual heredity: Uniqueness
and relatedness Lottery of
genetic
Millions of uniqueness!
unique sex
Each pair cells containing
splits different
Which pair independently combinations
ends up in a of the other of chromosome
Pair of sperm or ovum 22 pairs pairs
parental is a matter of
chromosome chance
split during
meiosis We have
Siblings and
fraternal Identical
50% of our
twins share twins share
genes in
50% of 100% of
common with
genes on their genes
each parent
average
  The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes
 Males have one long X chromosome (1100
genes) and one shorter Y chromosome (80
genes)
 Females have two X chromosomes
 Fathers ‘determine’ a child’s gender
• Sperm cells contain either and X or Y
chromosome
• Ovum cells contain only X chromosomes
This Photo by Wellcome Images is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

X XX
X ovum sperm zygote:
girl
Individual heredity:
Determination of sex X ovum Y
sperm
XY
zygote:
boy
Genotype Phenotype
The genetic endowment that an The expression of a person’s genetic
individual inherits endowment – the observable or
measurable trait that we see in a
person

Single-gene-pair inheritance Dominant gene allele

The genetic mechanism in which a Stronger allele that is expressed as
[Mendelian] trait or characteristic is an observable characteristic and
influenced by only 1 pair of genes masks the effect of a less-powerful
with two gene variants (alleles) recessive gene allele

Recessive gene allele

Weaker allele that is not expressed
as an observable characteristic
when paired with a dominant gene

Mechanisms of inheritance: Terminology

Single-gene-pair inheritance
Mother
No dimples Dimples Dimples Phenotype
dd dD DD Genotype
dd dd dd dD dD dD
No
dd dd dd dd dD dD dD
dimples
All have no dimples 2 dimples, 2 no dimples All have dimples

dd Dd dd Dd dD DD
Father

Dimples dD dd Dd dD DD dD DD
2 dimples, 2 no dimples 3 dimples, 1 no dimples All have dimples

Dd Dd Dd DD DD DD d Recessive
Dimples DD Dd Dd Dd DD DD DD D Dominant
All have dimples All have dimples All have dimples
Incomplete dominance
Dominant allele fails to mask all of
the effects of the recessive allele,
resulting in a ‘blended’ phenotype
that is similar to the dominant allele
Sex-linked inheritance
A characteristic is determined by a
gene that appears on one of the two
sex chromosomes, usually X
Mechanisms of inheritance: Terminology
Co-dominance
Two different but equally powerful
alleles are both expressed in the
phenotype
Polygenic inheritance
A characteristic is influenced by the
action of many gene pairs rather
than a single pair (also affected by
the environment)
Sex-linked inheritance
 Mechanism of inheritance
in which a gene is
transmitted via the sex
chromosomes
 Males are more vulnerable
because they do not have
a second X chromosome to
counteract the gene on the
first chromosome
 Haemophilia is an example
of an X-linked recessive
disorder
 Gene mutation is a spontaneous change in the structure or
arrangement of one of more genes that produces a new
Genetic characteristic or trait (phenotype)
 Mutation can be inherited or spontaneous
abnormalities:  Can have desirable or undesirable effects
 Fathers contribute 4 times the number of new mutations
Changes in genes than mothers and the odds of mutations increase as they
age e.g. autism, schizophrenia
or chromosomes  Copy number variations occur when a person receives the
that result in an wrong number of copies of a stretch of DNA via
inheritance or spontaneous mutation
abnormal DNA Chromosomal abnormalities occur when a person receives too
many or too few chromosomes at conception
sequence and  Can be inherited or caused by unexplained errors in cell
genetic disorders division during meiosis or mitosis
 More common as parents age
 In most cases, a zygote with a chromosomal abnormality is
spontaneously aborted – main cause of pregnancy loss
Explaining down syndrome (Trisomy 21)
 Genetic counselling – information
and guidance on genetic disease
Genetic screening and diagnosis and disorders in the context of
planning or being pregnant

Ultrasound Amniocentesis Chorionic villus

sampling (CVS)

Maternal blood Preimplantation

sampling & genetic
NIPT diagnosis
  Rare metabolic disorder caused by
recessive mutations in a single
gene pair
 Individuals lack an enzyme that
metabolises phenylalanine
 Causes intellectual disability,
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA seizures, behavioural problems and
developmental delays
 Newborn infants are screened
A genetic success story: using the ‘heel prick’ test
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Studying the interplay of genetics and the
environment
 The genetic makeup we inherit (genotype) is not always a perfect
reflection of the characteristic or trait we eventually display
(phenotype)
 Behavioural genetics is the study of the extent to which genetic and
environmental differences among people are responsible for
differences in their traits
 Behavioural geneticists can estimate the heritability of traits,
behaviours or abilities
 Heritability is the proportion of all the variability in the trait within
a large sample of people that can be linked to genetic differences
 Variability in a trait not associated with genetic differences is linked
to differences in experiences and environmental influences
How is heritability studied?
 Twin studies
• Are identical twins raised together more similar
in traits than fraternal twins raised together?
• Are identical twins raised together more similar
than those raised apart?
• Are fraternal twins raised together more similar
than those raised apart?
 Adoption studies
• Are adopted children psychologically similar to
their biological parents or to their adoptive
parents?
• Limitations: impact of prenatal environment,
application to singletons, higher quality adoptive
environments
How is heritability studied?
 Family studies
• Compares pairs of siblings with different
degrees of genetic similarity – identical twins,
fraternal twins, full siblings, half siblings, step-
siblings
• Also measure family environment to assess
degree of similarity in environmental
experiences
 Molecular genetics
• Analysis of gene alleles and their effects by
comparing the traits of those who have the
alleles and those who do not
 Estimating heritability: ADHD

Genetics –
Non-shared heritability
Concordance rates: % of environment (0.73)
pairs that both share a (0.27) Correlation: used when a
trait can be present in
trait (dichotomous)
varying degrees
58% MZ, 31% DZ

Shared
environment
(ns)
Sherman, McGue & Iacono (1997)
Levy, Hay & Bennett (2007)
Heritability of
different traits
 Physical traits tend to have
higher heritability than
psychological traits
 Attitudes and interests only
modestly heritable
 Genetic factors tend to
account for up to 50%
variation in psychological
traits and environmental
(non-shared) for the rest
 Genes and Passive gene-environment
correlation: correlation between a
the child’s home environment
(influenced by parents’ genotype)
environment and their genotype (reinforcing
effect)
working
together: Evocative gene-environment
correlation: correlation between a
Gene- child’s genotype and the
reactions from other people they
environment receive (and hence, the
environment they experience)
correlations
Nature Active gene-environment
correlation: correlation between a
influences child’s genotype and the kinds of
environments they seek
Nurture
  How we respond to the environment
depends on our genes and
 The effects of our genes depends on the
environment we experience
 Caspi et al. (2003)
 Interaction between serotonin-related
alleles and stressful life events impacts
risk of depression
 Brody et al. (2009)
 RCT to show that an evidenced-based
parenting program attenuates the link
between genetic risk and engagement
in risky behaviour

Genes and the environment working together: Nature and

Gene-environment interactions Nurture combined
 During development, the DNA in our
Epigenetics is an emerging area of
genes accumulates chemical marks
scientific research that shows how
that determine how much or little of
environmental influences affect the
the genes is expressed. This imprint
expression of our genes – whether
of chemical codes on top of our
they are turned on or off.
genome is known as the epigenome.

The different experiences children have rearrange

the chemical marks that govern gene expression.
This changes whether and how genes release the
information they carry. This explains why genetically
identical twins can exhibit different behaviors, skills,
health, and achievement (non-shared influences).

Epigentic effects are Environmental events during

especially important during pregnancy can increase
Genes and the prenatal development. Foetal
programming occurs when
susceptibility to later health
environment events during pregnancy alter
and mental health problems
into adulthood. This legacy
working together: molecular pathways and
genetic unfolding of the
can carry over to the next
generation.
Epigenetics embryo or foetus.
 Thus, the epigenome can be ... or negative influences,
affected by positive such as prenatal drug use,
experiences, such as good environmental toxins, stressful or
prenatal care & diet, traumatic life circumstances, that
supportive relationships and leave an epigenetic signature
opportunities for learning... on the genes.

Experiences prenatally and during early childhood cause

epigenetic adaptations that influence whether, when and how
genes release their instructions for building health, skills and
resilience. Supportive relationships and rich learning
experiences generate positive epigenetic signatures that
activate genetic potential.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-
SA-NC

Genes and the This means that services that help provide nurturing and
supportive experiences in the early years are critical
environment for healthy development. High-quality prenatal care,
health and early intervention services for young
working together: children and support for parents can, literally, affect

Epigenetics the chemistry around children’s genes.

Excellent online resources

FuseSchool Global Education Biology: Genetics series

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW0gavSzhMlTeTj8290mOkZ0SO
yNCkNz2

Crash Course Biology #9: Heredity, Epigenetics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBezq1fFUEA
Amoeba Sisters Biology Learning Playlist: Heredity and genetics
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLwL0Myd7Dk1F0iQPGrjehze3eD
pco1eVz
An Introduction to Epigenetics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aAhcNjmvhc
 The mother determines the sex of a child FALSE
Genes can ‘skip’ a generation FALSE
There is a specific or single gene pair that
determines whether we develop FALSE
psychological disorders like ADHD, Austism
Genetics and or Schizophrenia
heredity If we find the gene for a certain personality
trait or problem behaviour, then we can
True or False? alter that gene to ‘fix’ that behaviour
FALSE

If a trait is highly influenced by genes, it

cannot be changed by the environment FALSE

Environmental influences do not effect if a

gene is expressed or ‘turned on’ in an FALSE
individual