Chapter 15:

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

REPORTERS:
Nievarez, Princess Adriane C.
Ranola, Miko
Rodriguez, Erika Mae
Ros, Gianna Aislee S.
15.1 FUNCTIONS
OF THE
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
15.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

RESPIRATION
REGULATION OF BLOOD pH
VOICE PRODUCTION
OLFACTION
INNATE IMMUNITY
15.2 ANATOMY
OF THE
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

UPPER AND LOWER

RESPIRATORY
TRACT
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

NOSE
consists of the external nose, composed of hyaline
cartilage while its bone and cartilage are covered by
connective tissue and skin.

Nares Nasal Cavity

the external openings of the starts from the nares to the
nose choanae.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

PROCESSES IN NASAL CAVITY

1. The coarse hairs just inside the nares and the mucus produced by the goblet
cells trap large dust particles.
2. Cilia sweep the debrisladen mucus toward the pharynx, where it is
swallowed. The acid in the stomach kills any bacteria that were trapped by
the mucus.
3. Air is warmed by the blood vessels underlying the mucous epithelium. It is
humidified by moisture in the mucous epithelium.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nasal Septum
divides the nasal cavity into right and left parts.

Hard Palate Chonchae

The floor of the nasal cavity the three prominent bony ridges
which separates the nasal on the lateral walls on each side
cavity to oral cavity. of the nasal cavity.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Paranasal
Sinuses
are air-filled spaces within the bone. it
opens into the nasal cavity and are lined
with a mucous membrane. They reduced
the weight of the skull, produce mucus,
and influence the quality of the voice by
acting as resonating chambers.
Sinusitis
the inflammation of the mucous
membrane of a sinus, especially one
or more of the paranasal sinuses. Viral
infections, such as common cold, can
cause mucuos membranes to become
inflamed and swollen and to produce
excess mucus.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nasoclacrimal
Sneeze reflex
ducts
Mechanism that dislodges foreign
which carries tears from the eyes, also substances from the nasal cavity.
open into the nasal cavity. Sensory receptors detect the foreign
substances, and action potentials are
conducted along the trigeminal nerves
to the medulla oblongata, where the
reflex is triggered.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
PHARYNX
the common passageway for
both the respiratory and the
digestive systems. Air from the
nasal cavity and air, food, and
water from the mouth pass
through the pharynx.
Nasopharynx
located in the superior part of the pharynx. It is
located posterior to the choanae and superior to the
soft palate, which is an incomplete muscle and
connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx.
Pharyngeal tonsil
The soft palate is elevated during swallowing; this
movement closes the nasopharynx and prevents
food from passing from the oral cavity into the
nasopharynx.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Oropharynx
extends from the uvula to the epiglottis, and the oral
cavity opens into the oropharynx.

Palatine tonsils Lingual tonsils

located in the lateral walls near is located on the surface of the
the border of the oral cavity and posterior part of the tongue.
the oropharynx
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Laryngopharynx
food and drink pass through the laryngopharynx to the esophagus.
A small amount of air is usually swallowed with the food and drink.
Swallowing too much air can cause excess gas in the stomach and
may result in belching.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

LARYNX
commonly called the voicebox, is located in the anterior throat and
extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea.

It has three main functions: it (1) The larynx consists of nine

maintains an open airway, (2) cartilage structures: three singles
protects the airway during and three paired. The cartilages
swallowing, and (3) produces the are connected to one another by
voice. muscles and ligaments.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Thyroid
also called adam’s apple. The thyroid cartilage is
attached superiorly to the hyoid bone.

Cricoid
forms the base of the larynx on
which the other cartilages rest.
Epiglottis
the epiglottis differs from the other
cartilages in that it consists of elastic
cartilage rather than hyaline
cartilage.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Cuneiform, corniculate, and

arytenoid cartilage
The top cartilage is the cuneiform, the middle cartilage is
the corniculate cartilage, and the bottom cartilage is the
arytenoid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages articulate
with the cricoid cartilage inferiorly. The paired cartilages
form an attachment site for the vocal folds.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Vocal folds and vestibular folds

The superior set of ligaments forms the vestibular folds, or false vocal cords, and
the inferior set of ligaments composes the vocal folds, or true vocal cords.
When the vestibular folds come together, they prevent air from leaving the
lungs, as when a person holds his or her breath. Along with the epiglottis, the
vestibular folds also prevent food and liquids from entering the larynx.
Air moving past the vocal folds causes them to vibrate, producing sound.
Muscles control the length and tension of the vocal folds. The force of air
moving past the vocal folds controls the loudness, and the tension of the vocal
folds controls the pitch of the voice.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Laryngitis
the inflammation of the mucous epithelium of the vocal folds. Swelling of the
vocal folds during laryngitis inhibits voice production.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TRACHEA
the windpipe, allows air to flow into the lungs.
It is a membranous tube attached to the larynx. It consists of connective tissue
and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16–20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage

Cough reflex
Sensory receptors detect the foreign substance, and action potentials travel
along the vagus nerves to the medulla oblongata, where the cough reflex is
triggered. During coughing, the smooth muscle of the trachea contracts,
decreasing the trachea’s diameter.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TRACHEA
the windpipe, allows air to flow into the lungs.
It is a membranous tube attached to the larynx. It consists of connective tissue
and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16–20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage

Cough reflex
Sensory receptors detect the foreign substance, and action potentials travel
along the vagus nerves to the medulla oblongata, where the cough reflex is
triggered. During coughing, the smooth muscle of the trachea contracts,
decreasing the trachea’s diameter.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

BRONCHI
The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or primary bronchi,
each of which connects to a lung.
The left main bronchus is more horizontal than the right main bronchus
because it is displaced by the heart.
Foreign objects that enter the trachea usually lodge in the right main bronchus,
because it is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left main bronchus and
is more in direct line with the trachea.
The main bronchi extend from the trachea to the lungs. Like the trachea, the
main bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and
are supported by C-shaped pieces of cartilage.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

LUNGS
The right lung has three lobes: (1) the superior lobe, (2) the middle lobe, and (3)
the inferior lobe. The left lung has two lobes, called the superior lobe and the
inferior lobe.
The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep, prominent fissures on the lung
surface. Each lobe is divided into bronchopulmonary segments separated from
one another by connective tissue septa, but these separations are not visible as
surface fissures.
There are nine bronchopulmonary segments in the left lung and ten in the right
lung.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

LUNGS
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Tracheobronchial tree
The tracheobronchial tree consists of the main
bronchi and many branches. Each main
bronchus divides into lobar bronchi (or
secondary bronchi), as they enter their
respective lungs.
The lobar bronchi conduct air to each lung
lobe. There are two lobar bronchi in the left
lung and three lobar bronchi in the right lung.
The lobar bronchi in turn divide into segmental
bronchi (or tertiary bronchi), which lead to the
bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Tracheobronchial tree
The bronchi continue to branch many times, finally giving rise to
bronchioles. The bronchioles also subdivide numerous times to give
rise to terminal bronchioles, which then subdivide into respiratory
bronchioles.
Each respiratory bronchiole subdivides to form alveolar ducts, long,
branching ducts with many openings into alveoli.
Alveoli are small air-filled chambers where the air and the blood
come into close contact with each other. The alveoli become so
numerous that the alveolar duct wall is little more than a succession
of alveoli. The alveolar ducts end as two or three alveolar sacs,
which are chambers connected to two or more alveoli.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory membrane
The respiratory membrane of the lungs is where gas exchange
between the air and blood takes place. It is formed mainly by the
walls of the alveoli and the surrounding capillaries. To facilitate the
diffusion of gases, the respiratory membrane is very thin; it is thinner
than a sheet of tissue paper. The respiratory membrane consists of
two layers of simple squamous epithelium, including secreted fluids,
called alveolar fluid, and separating spaces.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pleural Cavities
the lungs are contained within the thoracic cavity. In addition, each
lung is surrounded by a separate pleural cavity. Each pleural cavity is
lined with a serous membrane called the pleura

Pleura Parietal pleura

The pleura consists of a parietal The parietal pleura lines the walls of
and a visceral part. the thorax, diaphragm, and
mediastinum.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Visceral pleura
The visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs. The parietal
pleura is continuous with the visceral pleura.
The pleural cavity, between the parietal and visceral pleurae, is filled
with a small volume of pleural fluid produced by the pleural
membranes. The pleural fluid performs two functions:
(1) It acts as a lubricant, allowing the visceral and parietal pleurae
to slide past each other as the lungs and thorax change shape during
respiration, and (2) it helps hold the pleural membranes together.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Lymphatic Supply
The lungs have two lymphatic supplies: the superficial lymphatic
vessels and the deep lymphatic vessels.

Superficial lymphatic vessels

The superficial lymphatic vessels are deep to the visceral pleura.
They drain lymph from the superficial lung tissue and the visceral
pleura.
 15.2 ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Deep lymphatic vessels

The deep lymphatic vessels follow the bronchi. They drain lymph
from the bronchi and associated connective tissues.
No lymphatic vessels are located in the walls of the alveoli. Both the
superficial and deep lymphatic vessels exit the lungs at the main
bronchi.
Phagocytic cells within the lungs phagocytize most carbon particles
and other debris from inspired air and move them to the lymphatic
vessels.
 15.3 VENTILATION AND
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES
 15.3 VENTILATION AND
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

Ventilation, or breathing

is the process of moving air into and

out of the lungs.
is regulated by changes in thoracic
volume, which produce changes in air
pressure within the lungs.
 2 Phases of Ventilation

Inspiration, or inhalation
is the movement of air into the
lungs

Expiration, or exhalation

is the movement of air out of the

lungs
 15.3 VENTILATION AND
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

The Diaphragm

is a large dome of skeletal muscle

that separates the thoracic cavity
from the abdominal cavity
 Changing Thoracic
Volume

The muscles associated with the ribs are

responsible for ventilation. Inhaling requires a set
of muscles called the muscles of inspiration.
The muscles of inspiration include the diaphragm
and the muscles that elevate the ribs and sternum,
such as the external intercostals.
Forceful exhalation requires a set of muscles called
the muscles of expiration.
 Changing Thoracic Volume

During quiet inspiration, muscles of inspiration contract to increase the volume of the
thoracic cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm causes the top of the diaphragm to move
inferiorly.
 Pressure Changes and
Airflow
Two physical principles govern the flow of air
into and out of the lungs:

Changes in volume result in

changes in pressure. As the
volume of a container increases,
the pressure within the container
decreases.
 Pressure Changes and
Airflow
Two physical principles govern the flow of air
into and out of the lungs:

Air flows from an area of higher

pressure to an area of lower
pressure. If the pressure is higher
at one end of a tube than at the
other, air or fluid flows from the
area of higher pressure toward the
area of lower pressure.
 Pressure Changes and
Airflow
The volume and pressure changes responsible for one cycle of
inspiration and expiration can be described as follows:

At the end of expiration, alveolar

pressure, which is the air pressure
within the alveoli, is equal to
atmospheric pressure, which is the
air pressure outside the body.
During inspiration, the volume of
the thoracic cavity increases when
the muscles of inspiration contract.
 Pressure Changes and
Airflow
The volume and pressure changes responsible for one cycle of
inspiration and expiration can be described as follows:

At the end of inspiration, the

thorax and alveoli stop expanding.

During expiration, the thoracic

cavity volume decreases.
 Lung Recoil
Lung recoil is due to the elastic properties of its tissues and because the alveolar fluid has surface
tension. Surface tension exists because the oppositely charged ends of water molecules are
attracted to each other

During quiet expiration, thoracic

volume and lung volume decrease
because of lung recoil, the
tendency for an expanded lung to
decrease in size.
As the water molecules pull
together, they also pull on the
alveolar walls, causing the alveoli
to recoil and become smaller.
 Lung Recoil
Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing

Surfactant
is a mixture of lipoprotein molecules
produced by secretory cells of the alveolar
epithelium.
surfactant molecules form a single layer on
the surface of the thin fluid layer lining the
alveoli, reducing surface tension.
Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)
is caused by too little surfactant. IRDS, also
called hyaline membrane disease, is
common in premature infants because
surfactant is not produced in adequate
quantities until about the seventh month of
gestation.
 Lung Recoil
Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing

Pleural Pressure
the pressure in the pleural cavity, is less
than alveolar pressure, the alveoli tend
to expand. Normally, pleural pressure is
lower than alveolar pressure.

is lower than alveolar pressure because

of a suction effect caused by fluid
removal by the lymphatic system and
by lung recoil.
 Changing Alveolar Volume
Air moves into and out of the lungs due to changes in alveolar pressure. Alveolar pressure
change is due to alveolar volume changes. Alveolar volume changes result from changes in
pleural pressure

The events of inspiration and expiration can be summarized

as follows:

During inspiration, pleural pressure decreases because

of increased thoracic volume and increased lung recoil.
As pleural pressure decreases, alveolar volume increases,
alveolar pressure decreases, and air flows into the lungs.

During expiration, pleural pressure increases because of

decreased thoracic volume and decreased lung recoil. As
pleural pressure increases, alveolar volume decreases,
alveolar pressure increases, and air flows out of the lungs.
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Spirometry
is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory
system
Spirometer
is the device that measures these respiratory volumes.
Measurements of the respiratory volumes
can provide information about the health of the lungs.
Respiratory volumes
are measures of the amount of air movement during different portions of ventilation,
whereas respiratory capacities are sums of two or more respiratory volumes.
The total volume of air contained in the respiratory system ranges from 4 to 6 L
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Tidal volume
is the volume of air inspired or expired with each breath. At rest, quiet breathing results
in a tidal volume of about 500 milliliters (mL).
Inspiratory reserve volume
is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully beyond the resting tidal volume
(about 3000 mL).
Expiratory reserve volume
is the amount of air that can be expired forcefully beyond the resting tidal volume
(about 1100 mL).
Respiratory volumes
is the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs after maximum
expiration (about 1200 mL).
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Functional residual capacity

is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. This is the amount of air
remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration (about 2300 mL at rest).
Inspiratory capacity
is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. This is the amount of air a
person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (about 3500 mL at rest).
Vital capacity
is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve
volume. It is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from the respiratory
tract after a maximum inspiration (about 4600 mL).
Total lung capacity
is the sum of the inspiratory andexpiratory reserves and the tidal and residual volumes
(about 5800 mL).
 GENERATION OF
RHYTHMIC BREATHING
15.4 GAS EXCHANGE
 GAS EXCHANGE

oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream

The major area of gas exchange is in the alveoli,
although some takes place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts. Gas exchange
between blood and air does not occur in other
areas of the respiratory passageways, such as the
bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea.
The volume of these passageways are therefore
called anatomical dead space.
 Factors That Affect Gas Exchange
Respiratory Membrane Thickness
allows gases to cross by simple diffusion, allowing oxygen to be picked up by the blood
for transport and CO2 to be released into the air of the alveoli.

Surface Area
This is the area or space where the gas exchanges take place

Partial Pressure
measures the concentration of gasses in a mixture, such as air.
 Movement of Gases in the Lungs

In the body, cells consume oxygen (O2) and produce carbon dioxide (CO2). Blood
returning from tissues to the lungs has lower oxygen partial pressure (PO2) and higher
carbon dioxide partial pressure (PCO2) compared to alveolar air.
This creates a gradient for O2 to diffuse into pulmonary capillaries and for CO2 to diffuse
out. As blood flows through the capillaries, equilibrium is reached, facilitating oxygen
uptake and carbon dioxide release into the alveoli.
Breathing mixes atmospheric air with alveolar air, maintaining a higher PO2 in the
alveoli, which further enhances oxygen diffusion into capillaries. Despite some mixing in
pulmonary veins, arterial blood PO2 remains higher than tissue PO2.
 Movement of Gases in the Lungs

Differences in partial pressure are responsible for the exchange of O2 and CO2 that occurs
between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries and between the tissues and the tissue
capillaries.
 Movement of Gases in the Lungs
1.Oxygen diffuses into the arterial ends of
pulmonary capillaries, and CO2 diffuses into
the alveoli because of differences in partial
pressures.

2.As a result of diffusion at the venous ends

of pulmonary capillaries, the PO2 in the
blood is equal to the PO2 in the alveoli, and
the PCO2 in the blood is equal to the PCO2
in the alveoli

3.The PO2 of blood in the pulmonary veins is

less than in the pulmonary capillaries
because of mixing with deoxygenated blood
from veins draining the bronchi and
bronchioles
 Movement of Gases in the Lungs
4.Oxygen diffuses out of the arterial ends
of tissue capillaries, and CO2 diffuses out
of the tissue because of differences in
partial pressures.

5.As a result of diffusion at the venous

ends of tissue capillaries, the PO2 in the
blood is equal to the PO2 in the tissue,
and the PCO2 in the blood is equal to
the PCO2 in the tissue.
 Movement of Gases in the Tissues

Blood travels from the lungs to the left side of the heart and then to tissue capillaries.
Oxygen (O2) diffuses from the blood into interstitial fluid due to a higher partial pressure
(PO2) in the capillary. From there, O2 moves into cells where its partial pressure is even
lower. Cells utilize O2 in cellular respiration, maintaining a constant PO2 difference
between capillaries and cells. Carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by cellular respiration
diffuses from cells into interstitial fluid and then into the blood, establishing equilibrium
between blood and tissues.
15.5
GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

Oxygen is carried in the blood in two forms

1. Reversibly bond with

2. Dissolved in plasma
hemoglobin

98.5% of oxygen transported in 1.5% of oxygen

the blood combines resersibly remains dissolved in
with the iron-containing heme the plasma.
groups of hemoglobin.
15.5

GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

Oxyhemoglobin
hemoglobin with oxygen
bound to its heme groups.

ability of hemoglobin to bind to oxygen depends

on the P02 (partial pressure of oxygen)

If the partial pressure of oxygen is high, hemoglobin binds to

oxygen.
If the partial pressure of oxygen is low, hemoglobin releases
oxygen.
15.5
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
AND BLOOD PH

Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways

7% is transported as carbon
dioxide dissolved in the plasma.

23% is transported bound to

blood proteins. 
70% is transported in the form of
bicarbonate ions.
15.5
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
AND BLOOD PH

Carbonic anhydrase
It is located inside the red blood
cells and on the surface of capillary
epithelial cells.
increases the rate at which carbon
dioxide reacts with water to form
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions
in the tissue capillaries.
promotes the uptake of carbon
dioxide by red blood cells.
15.5
CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
AND BLOOD PH

Gas exchange in the lungs

the process is reversed.

bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions

combine to produce carbonic acid,
which then forms carbon dioxide
and hydrogen ions.

carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli

and is expelled.
15.6

RHYTHMIC BREATHING

The rate of breathing is determined by the number of

times respiratory muscles are stimulated.
The normal rate of breathing in adults is between 12
and 20 breaths per minute.
In children, the rates are higher and may vary from 20
to 40 per minute.
The basic rhythm of breathing is controlled by neurons
within the medulla oblongata that stimulate the muscles
of respiration
15.6
RESPIRATORY AREAS
IN THE BRAINSTEM

Medullary respiratory center

generates the basic pattern of normal breathing.
Two Dorsal respiratory groups
forming a longitudinal column of cells
located bilaterally in the dorsal part of
the medulla oblongata.
responsible for stimulating
contraction of the diaphragm
Two ventral respiratory groups
forms a longitudinal column of cells
located bilaterally in the ventral part of
the medulla oblongata.
responsible for stimulating the external
intercostal, internal intercostal, and
abdominal muscles.
pre-Bötzinger complex is known to
establish the basic rhythm of breathing.
15.6
RESPIRATORY AREAS
IN THE BRAINSTEM

Pontine respiratory group

is a collection of neurons in the pons.

It has connections with the medullary

respiratory center and appears to
play a role in switching between
inspiration and expiration.
15.6

GENERATION OF
RHYTHMIC BREATHING

Starting inspiration
when the medullary respiratory center constantly receives stimuli from many sources,
such as receptors that monitor blood gasses and movement from muscles and joints
reach a threshold level, somatic nervous system neurons stimulate respiratory muscle
viaia action potential, and inspiration starts.

Increasing Inspiration
progressively stronger stimulation of the respiratory muscles which last for 2 seconds
Stopping inspiration
Expiration begins when the neurons causing inspiration are inhibited.
 NERVOUS CONTROL
OF BREATHING

Higher brain centers allow voluntary control of breathing

Emotions and speech production affect breathing.

Breathing can be consciously controlled; it is possible to

breathe or stop breathing voluntarily.

Touch, thermal, and pain receptors in the skin stimulate or

affect breathing.
 NERVOUS CONTROL
OF BREATHING

Hering-Breuer reflex
helps regulate breathing rhythm. As the lungs inflate during
inhalation, stretch receptors in the lungs signal the brainstem
to inhibit inspiration and promote expiration. This prevents
overinflation.
This reflex is more prominent in infants to protect their
developing lungs, but in adults, it's only significant during
heavy exercise when lung inflation increases.
 CHEMICAL CONTROL OF
BREATHING

Carbon dioxide is the major chemical regulator of breathing. An increase

in blood carbon dioxide causes a decrease in blood pH, resulting in
increased breathing.
Low blood levels of oxygen can stimulate chemoreceptor in the carotid
and aortic bodies, resulting in increased breathing
Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata respond to changes in blood
pH. Changes in blood pH are produced by changes in blood Carbon
dioxide.
15.6

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON
BREATHING

1. Breathing increase abruptly

At the onset of the exercise, the rate of breathing
immediately increases. This increase can be as much
as 50% of the total increase that will occur.
2. Breathing increases gradually
After the immediate increase in breathing, breathing
continues to increase gradually and then level off
within 4-6 minutes after the onset of exercise.
 15.7 :
Respiratory
Adaptations
to Exercise
Our bodies are amazing machines
that adapt to the stresses we put
them under. Exercise is one such
stress, and our respiratory system
undergoes several adaptations to
meet the increased oxygen demands
of our muscles.
 Here are some of the key
respiratory adaptations to
exercise
Increased breathing rate and tidal volume
During exercise, your breathing rate
(number of breaths per minute) and tidal
volume (amount of air inhaled or exhaled
with each breath) increase. This allows you
to take in more oxygen and expel more
carbon dioxide.
 Strengthened respiratory muscles

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles,

which are responsible for breathing,
become stronger with regular exercise. This
allows you to breathe more deeply and
efficiently.
 Increased diffusion capacity
The diffusion capacity is a measure of how
well oxygen can move from the air sacs in
your lungs into your bloodstream. Exercise
training can increase the diffusion capacity
by increasing the surface area of the alveoli
(air sacs) and the number of capillaries
surrounding them.
 Capilllary beds

Connective tissue

Alveolar sacs

Alveolar duct

Mucous gland

Mucosal lining

Pulmonary artery Alveoli

Pulmonary vein Atrium
 Improved ventilation
Ventilation is the movement of air in and
out of the lungs. Exercise training can
improve ventilation by increasing the
efficiency of the respiratory muscles and
by coordinating breathing with movement.
regular exercise can also lead to:

1. Increased lung capacity

2. Decreased respiratory rate at rest
athletic performance increases
because the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems become
more efficient at delivering O2
and picking up CO2.
 15.8:
Effects of
Aging on the
Respiratory
System.
As we age, our respiratory
system, like many other bodily
functions, experiences a
gradual decline.
Breakdown of how aging
affects your respiratory
system:
 Decreased lung function
Lung capacity, which is the amount of air
your lungs can hold, naturally decreases with
age. This is partly due to changes in the
alveoli, the tiny air sacs responsible for gas
exchange. They can lose their elasticity and
become less efficient at transferring oxygen
to the bloodstream.
 Weakened respiratory muscles

The muscles involved in breathing,

including the diaphragm, can weaken with
age. This makes it harder to take deep
breaths and can lead to shortness of
breath during activities.
 Reduced chest wall flexibility

The rib cage, which protects the lungs, can

become stiffer with age. This limits how
much the chest can expand during
inhalation, further reducing lung capacity.
 Impaired cough reflex

The nerves in the airways that trigger

coughing become less sensitive as we age.
This makes it harder to clear mucus and
irritants from the lungs, increasing the risk
of infections.
 Weakened immune system

The body's natural defenses tend to weaken

with age, making older adults more
susceptible to respiratory infections like
pneumonia and bronchitis.
These age-related changes can lead
to several respiratory issues,
including:

Shortness of breath (dyspnea)

Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infections
Sleep apnea
well done!