Cambay Basin

INTRODUCTION

The Cambay Basin, a rich Petroleum Province of India (Fig. 1), is a narrow, elongated
rift graben, extending from Surat in the south to Sanchor in the north (Fig. 2). The basin
with a total area of about 53,500 sq km, including 6,880 sq km in the shallow waters
(Gulf of Cambay), is under intensive exploration for the last 50 years. The basin, roughly
limited by latitudes 21˚ 00' and 25˚ 00' N and longitudes 71˚ 30' and 73˚ 30' E, is flanked
by the Saurashtra-Kutch uplift on the west and rock exposures of the Aravalli-Delhi
system and Deccan Trap basalts on the east. In the north, the basin narrows, but
tectonically continues beyond Sanchor to pass into the Barmer Basin of Rajasthan. On
the southern side, the basin merges with the Bombay Offshore Basin in the Arabian Sea.

Systematic exploration for hydrocarbons in the basin commenced in 1956 and gravity
and magnetic surveys over major parts of the onland area of the basin were acquired.
Subsequently, detailed conventional and CDP seismic surveys were carried out.
Geological and geophysical surveys carried out in the basin culminated in drilling of
more than 2419 exploratory wells over more than 244 prospects by ONGC. As a result of
exploratory efforts, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) has discovered
more than 97 oil and gas fields, two of which - Ankleshwar (discovered in1960) and
Gandhar (discovered in 1984/85) - are giant oilfields. In addition, exploration drilling
under pre-NELP and NELP exploration licenses in recent years has resulted in discovery
of several oil and gas fields, such as Gauri, Lakshmi, and Ambe in the Gulf of Cambay,
and NSA, Bheema, CB-X, Pramoda, Tarapur-1, Tarapur-G, ESU-1, ESM-1, SPD-1, PK-
2, Sanand E-1, E-4 and E-8, Miroli-1and 6, West Patan-3, Charada-3, South Kadi-144
and Dhirubhai 47 to 51, GSAH-5, Vadatal-3, Vadatal-5, Uber-2, Aliabet-2, Aliabet-3,
Aliabet-4 , ANK-40S, ANK-41S, Prospect-1E, Tar-Olpad-1, CB-3A, Kothi-1 and Karan
nagar-1, within onland basin extending from Surat in the south to Mehsana in the north.
Majority of the discoveries are of structural and strati-structural type with productive
zones falling mainly within the Miocene, Middle Eocene and Oligocene sequences.
Presence of oil in late to Early Eocene rocks is also known. Recent exploration has
resulted in the discovery of oil and gas in Early Miocene reservoirs in the northern
Cambay Basin and in the Gulf of Cambay.

1
 Cambay Basin

The prognosticated resources of the basin are estimated to be 2050 million tons (14,965
million bbls) of oil and oil equivalent gas.

The Cambay Basin is an intra-cratonic rift graben (Fig.2). The general orientation of the
basinal axis is NNW-SSE, which swings to north-south in the northern part near Tharad.
Based on major transverse basement ridges and fault systems, the basin is subdivided
into five tectonic blocks from north to south, namely Tharad–Sanchor, Mehsana–
Ahmedabad, Tarapur–Cambay, Jambusar–Broach and Narmada (Fig.2). Each tectonic
block contains an independent depo-center except the Narmada block, which deepens
towards SSW direction.

4
 Cambay Basin

PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND COMMUNICATION

Physiography
The entire sedimentary area of the Cambay Basin stretches over eight revenue districts of
the Gujarat State, which are: Banaskantha, Mehsana, Ahmadabad, Kheda, Baroda,
Broach, Surat and Valsad. The Gulf of Cambay which forms a part of the Arabian Sea,
separates the Saurashtra Craton from the mainland. The drainage is controlled by the
four principal rivers, viz., Sabarmati, Mahi Sagar, Narmada and Tapti (Fig.3). The
Cambay Gulf is often subjected to very strong tidal currents due to a large variation in
the spring and neap tides. A number of shallow sandbars are observed in the central part
of the Gulf. The coastal part is mostly covered with mud flats. The onland area is
generally plain, having a gentle slope towards south. The maximum ground elevation is
100 m above the mean sea level. Whereas the principal river Sabarmati flows in a
southwesterly direction, other rivers such as the Banas, Mahi Sagar, Dadhar, Narmada
and Tapti flow from east to west. The area is agriculturally rich and fertile. Gujarat state
is also highly industrialized and densely populated.

Climate
The area has a moderate to hot climate, where temperature varies between 15-20º C
during the winter and 30-45º C during the summer. Persistent dry and hot winds blow
between May and mid June. Normal annual rainfall is around 600 mm. The monsoon
starts in mid June and continues till October.
The best season for field work is between November to March.

Communication
Gandhinagar, the capital of Gujarat State, is in contiguity of Ahmedabad, the biggest city
of the state with all the modern facilities including an International airport. Surat,
Broach, Vadodara and Mehsana are the other big industrial towns. The state is well
connected with highways, all-weather metalled roads and railway lines. The National
highway No. 8 (NH 8), between Mumbai and New Delhi passes through Ahmedabad
(Fig.3). Gujarat State Road Transport maintains an efficient and regular bus service
connecting remote places. Oil and Natural Gas

5
 Cambay Basin

Corporation Limited (ONGC) has also laid a network of all-weather metalled roads to
facilitate its drilling operations.
Mumbai, in the south and Kandla in the west are the two major seaports, available close
to the basin area. The other smaller seaports close to the area are Bhavnagar, Dahej (near
Broach), Okha and Porbander (Fig.3). Mumbai is connected to Vadodara and
Ahmedabad by regular domestic flights.

7
 Cambay Basin

STATUS OF EXPLORATION

Geological Surveys
Cambay Basin is one of the most extensively explored basins of India. A.B. Wynne, was
the first geologist to survey the region in 1862 followed by W.T. Blanfold, T. Oldham
and Bruce Foote. All of them belonged to Geological Survey of India (GSI). In 1910, the
area was surveyed in greater detail by V.S.S. Iyer to assess the mineral potential of the
then Baroda Estate. Between 1907 and 1914, B.C. Gupta and P.N. Mukherjee mapped
several areas of Gujarat and southern Rajputana and worked out a stratigraphic
succession of the area.

The basin is flanked in the northeast by Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks and
on the east and west, by extensive volcanic lava flows (Deccan basalt). Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks are exposed on the eastern flank of the basin and in the northeastern
part of the Saurashtra Peninsula, close to the western margin of the Cambay Basin.
Mesozoic outcrops also occur as inliers further south in the eastern part of Narmada
Valley (Fig. 4).

Thin veneers of Tertiary rocks are exposed in the south near Broach and along the
eastern Saurashtra coast in Gogha–Bhavnagar area. The central part of the basin is
completely covered by Gujarat Alluvium.
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) has mapped in detail the above
mentioned Mesozoic and Tertiary exposures (Fig. 4). The area of detailed mapping and
reconnaissance mapping carried out in Cambay Basin is about 1480 sq km and 4500 sq
km, respectively. Geological survey data has been acquired in the basin is approx
60,625skm.

Geophysical Surveys
Gravity and magnetic surveys initiated by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) in 1948
in the basin were subsequently continued by ONGC, and by 1962 most of the basin area
was covered. A total of 21,000 gravity and magnetic stations were measured by ONGC
in the entire Cambay Basin. The Bouguer Anomaly map (Fig. 5) has helped in
identification of the major structural highs and lows in the basin. The Magnetic Anomaly
map (Fig. 6) also depicts the broad structural configuration of the basin.

8
 Cambay Basin

Conventional seismic surveys, initiated by GSI in 1954 were continued by ONGC from
1957 onward. In the Gulf of Cambay, conventional seismic surveys were initiated during
1962-63, concentrating mainly on tidal banks of Aliabet Island situated at the mouth of
the Narmada River, and Rhuk Bank, Channel Bank and Mal Bank on the Eastern shore
of the Gulf. These surveys brought out two interesting structural highs, one near Aliabet
Island and the other near Channel Bank. A total of more than 30,688 LKM of
conventional data has been acquired.

The CDP seismic surveys were introduced in Kadi area in 1970. In the Gulf area, 24 fold
CDP seismic data was acquired by Western Geophysical during 1985-87. In 1986,
ONGC initiated 3D seismic survey in parts of Balol, South Kadi, Linch, Nandasan, Nada
and Limbodra areas. The total volume of seismic reflection data acquired in the Cambay
Basin is of the order of 1,18643 LKM (2D) and 16,288 Sq km (3D). The density of
seismic coverage is depicted in Fig. 7.

The interpretation of seismic data resulted in mapping a number of structural and

combination prospects. Under the Intensive Integrated Exploration Project (IIEP),
Techno-Export (USSR) acquired 3100 LKM of seismic data in Patan- Tharad-Sanchor
block. A Polish seismic company, Polservice (Poland) was deployed during late eighties
and nineties to acquire 48 fold seismic data in different parts of the basin.

National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, in collaboration with the

ONGC, carried out Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) to estimate the thickness of the
Deccan Trap and underlying Mesozoic sequences. MT data has been acquired in 1000
SKM area. As on 31.03.2015 approximately 123,059 LKM 2D and 181,96.58 SKM 3D
have been recorded for exploration of conventional hydrocarbon.

Exploratory Drilling
In 1958, ONGC drilled its first exploratory well on Lunej structure near Cambay. This
turned out to be a discovery well, which produced oil and gas. The discovery of oil in
Ankleshwar structure in 1960 gave boost to the exploration in the Cambay Basin. As on
31.03.2015 more than 2757 exploratory wells have been drilled in Cambay Basin for
exploration of

12
 Cambay Basin

conventional hydrocarbon. A large number of prospects have been drilled and more than
104 prospects have been found oil & gas bearing.
Besides this the information regarding exploratory wells drilled for the purpose of
exploration of Unconventional Hydrocarbons also have been mentioned at chapter
Unconventional Hydrocarbon resources.

Oil and Gas Resources

Prognosticated hydrocarbon resources in the basin have been estimated to be about 2050
million tons (14,965 million bbls) of oil and oil equivalent gas, of which about 60% of
have been upgraded into in-place geological reserves.

14
 Cambay Basin

TECTONICS AND STRATIGRAPHY

Tectonic Framework
The Cambay Basin, an intracratonic rift graben, came into existence at the close of
Mesozoic era marked by widespread Deccan Trap volcanic activity. This caused
development of basin marginal faults accommodating up to 2000 m thick Deccan Trap
basalts within the graben and 300-500 m thick basalts on the western and eastern flanks
of the basin. Following cessation of Deccan Trap volcanic activity, there was continued
rifting, which resulted in the formation of Tertiary graben limited between the basin
marginal faults.

The basin roughly trends north-south, but is influenced by ENE-WSW trending

primordial structural trends, dominant between the Narmada and Tapti rivers (Fig. 8).
Raju et al. (1971) discussed the influence of major Precambrian tectonic trends on the
configuration of Deccan Trap and deposition of the overlying Tertiary sediments.
The ‘Deccan Trap’ constitutes the floor of Tertiary sediments in the Cambay Basin and
is also considered as the economic basement. The Saurashtra Craton, which was earlier
under the influence of fluvial and deltaic regime prior to Deccan lava eruptions, became
a positive area. The contiguous Kutch Basin, having a thick pile of Mesozoic sediments
was also uplifted and tilted towards southwest (Biswas and Deshpande, 1983).

The Cambay rift valley is bounded by well demarcated basin margin step faults. Based
on the cross trends the basin has been divided into five tectonic blocks. From north to
south, the tectonic blocks (Fig. 8) are: (i) Sanchor – Tharad, (ii) Mehsana – Ahmedabad,
(iii) Cambay – Tarapur, (iv) Jambusar – Broach and (v) Narmada Block. The marginal
faults flanking the basin are mainly aligned N-S to NNW-SSE, parallel to the
Dharwarian trends. The structural trends aligned ENE-WSW is prominent between
Narmada and Tapti Rivers and in its western continuation. It is probably a continuation
of and rejuvenation of Narmada-Son-Damodar tectonic lineaments during Paleocene age
in the basin. Composite structural trends and faults system, in the Ahmedabad-Mehsana
block, at the top of four sequences within Paleogene of the Cambay Basin depict the
nature of tectonics in this part of basin (Figs. 9 and 10).

15
 Cambay Basin

Basin Evolution
Following the cessation of Deccan trap volcanic activity, the basin floor was differentiated into
narrow linear horsts and grabens aligned nearly north-south in the northern part of the basin and
ENE-WSW between Narmada and Tapti rivers. No trends are, however, discernible in the
Jambusar-Broach block. Within the grabens, a trap-derived low energy sequence comprising
conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and claystones (trap-wacke sequence of Olpad Formation)
was deposited during Paleocene to Early Eocene. Subsequent subsidence of the basin during Late
Early Eocene resulted in a marine transgression and deposition of a thick sequence of euxinic
black shales during the Late Early to Middle Eocene in the south (Cambay Formation), inter-
fingering and inter-tonguing with a fluvial and deltaic sequence in the north (Tharad and Kadi
formations). This was followed by a widespread major regression during Late Eocene resulting in
deposition of widespread fluvial sequences (Kalol and Vaso formations) extending as far south as
the Mahi Sagar River. During Late Eocene, Deccan Trap cover along the course of paleo-
Narmada River was removed by erosion exposing Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks.
As a result of which coarse grade clastics were brought into the basin and were deposited in a
deltaic to shallow marine facies (Anklesvar Formation) in the southern part of the basin. The
subsequent Oligocene period witnessed a short-lived transgression depositing gray to dark gray
marine shales (Tarapur Formation) in the basin. Deposition during the Miocene took place in
positive phase followed by post-rift phase during the Pliocene and Pleistocene period depositing
alternating sequence of coarse clastics and claystones. The basin was finally covered by deposits
of Banas, Sabarmati, Mahi Sagar, Dadhar, Narmada and Tapti rivers (Gujarat Alluvium).

Stratigraphy
Seismic and drilled well data indicate a thickness of about 8 km of Tertiary sediments resting over
the Deccan Trap volcanics. The basin gradually shallows towards north. The Precambrian
basement consisting of igneous and metamorphic rocks has been penetrated in a few drilled wells.

During the Mesozoic period, Kutch, Saurashtra and Narmada basins were genetically related. It is,
therefore, logical to infer that, the Son-Narmada geo-fracture which was rejuvenated several
times, played an important role in controlling marine transgression during Mesozoic. The exposed
Mesozoics in the vicinity of the Cambay Basin are of Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous age.
These sediments were deposited under fluvial to deltaic environment. A few wells drilled down
to the Precambrian basement on the western flank of the basin and a well drilled on the Mesozoic
outcrops on the northeastern corner of Saurashtra craton suggests that the Mesozoic sequence
gradually increases in thickness towards the west (Fig. 11) and that the sequence was deposited
mainly in fluvial to deltaic facies. The presence of paralic to shallow marine sequence along the
upper reaches of Narmada River, however, suggests a marine incursion and deposition of
Mesozoic sequence in shallow marine facies along the Narmada embayment.
The generalised stratigraphy of the basin is shown in the Figs. 12 and 13 and is briefly discussed
in the following pages.

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 Cambay Basin

Mesozoic
The following three formations have been recognized within the Mesozoic sequence in the
Cambay Basin.

Serau Formation (Jurassic-Early Cretaceous)

Overlying the Precambrian basement, sediments of Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age have been met
with in a few wells drilled in Patan-Tharad-Sanchor tectonic block and on the eastern flank of the
basin. A 300m thick succession of sandstone with minor inter-beds of shales and basal
conglomerate was encountered in Serau East-1 well below the Deccan Trap and overlying the
granitic basement. In the southern part, the formation is represented by orthoquartzites exhibiting
current bedding at places. This arenaceous unit appears to be the subsurface extension of the Bhuj
formation of Kutch. Based on the presence of spores and pollen assemblage, the formation is
assigned Neocomian to Aptian age.

Viramgam/Dhandhuka Formation
This sandstone dominated formation is homotaxial with the exposed Wadhwan and Dhrangadhra
formations of Saurashtra. It overlies the Precambrian Basement and underlies the Deccan Trap.
Like the Serau Formation, this formation was also deposited in a fluvial regime.

20
 Cambay Basin

Songir Formation
The name of the formation has been taken from the Songir Sandstone, exposed on the
eastern side of the Narmada tectonic block. This arenaceous formation has been
encountered in Dabka-2 well, located in the Broach–Jambusar tectonic block. It is
1275m thick in the Dabka well. The formation, underlain by Precambrian basement and
overlain by Deccan Trap, is correlatable with the Himmatnagar Sandstone in the north
and Bagh beds and Nimar Sandstone in the south-east.

Deccan Trap (Late Cretaceous)

The term Deccan Trap was first used by W.H. Sykes in 1833 for the effusive basaltic
rocks covering a large part of the Deccan Peninsula. The same term is applied to the
basaltic rocks present in and around Cambay Basin subsurface. The rock unit comprising
many lava flows is about 300-420m thick on the western margin of the basin in
Viramgam and Dhandhuka area and more than 3000m around Ankleshwar area. Deccan
Trap which overlies either Mesozoic formations or Precambrian granitic basement forms
the floor of the Tertiary sediments. A regional depth map on top of this formation is
shown in Fig. 14. Disposition of various stratigraphic units in north Cambay Basin is
shown in Fig. 19

Cenozoic (Tertiary)
Olpad Formation (Paleocene)
The Olpad Formation, first recognized in Olpad-1A well in the Cambay basin subsurface
directly overlying the Deccan Trap basalts, is similar in lithology to the Vagadkhol
Formation exposed on the eastern margin of the basin and as such the Olpad Formation
is considered to be its subsurface continuation. Generally, the formation is overlain
unconformably by the Cambay Shale, although in some areas it has a gradational contact
and/or inter-tonguing relationship with the latter. It is composed of volcanic
conglomerate, trapwash, sandstone, silt, ashy claystone and clay exclusively derived
from Deccan basalts. The succession exhibits varying colour shades from light grey to
reddish brown. In conglomerate, the trap fragments occur as pebble, gravel, sand and silt
without any selective sorting. The matrix is clayey and shows diagenetic alterations.

24
 Cambay Basin

During the deposition of the Olpad Formation, the basin floor was uneven, differentiated
into narrow linear horsts and grabens, and during its deposition fluvial to lacustrine
environments prevailed. The formation is unfossiliferous except for some unidentified
wood remains. A regional isopach map of Olpad Formation is given in Fig.15.

Cambay Shale (Late Paleocene to Early Eocene)

The name was proposed by Zubov et al. (1966). The type section is designated after a
Cambay well, where it is about 432m thick. The formation unconformably overlies the
Olpad Formation. The thickness of the formation varies widely from 50 to 70m in the
northern part over the Mehsana horst to more than 2500m in Linch, Tarapur and Gandhar
areas. A regional isopach map of Cambay Shale is given as Fig. 16.

The entire Cambay Shale sequence was deposited in relatively more reducing conditions.
However, the presence of glauconite in the upper part indicates deposition in shallow
quiet water condition. The formation is poorly fossiliferous though it contains
Operculinoides, Globigerina sp. with many ostracods and indistinct plant leaf
impressions restricted to specific stratigraphic levels.

The Cambay Shale is gradually replaced by a sandstone-coal-shale sequence towards

north, designated as the Tharad Formation. The inter-fingering and inter-tonguing
relationship between the two formations is illustrated by a region stratigraphic section
along northern part of the Cambay basin, extending from Vaso-1 in the south to Tharad-1
well in the north (Fig. 17).

At places, the Cambay Shale appears to be a monotonous section with occasional silty
streaks. The thick section of the Cambay Shale can be broadly divided into two
prominent, but informal rock units, based on a persistent electric log marker commonly
known as “Neck Marker” (NM). This marker seems to be a surface of disconformity. In
the shallower part of the basin, it loses its identity. The shale sections, below and above
this marker, is designated informally as the Older Cambay Shale (OCS) and the Younger
Cambay Shale (YCS), respectively.

27
 Cambay Basin

The Older Cambay Shale comprising grey to dark grey, fissile, carbonaceous shales with
rare occurrence of pyrite crystals has occasional interbeds of red clays. Heavy minerals
include epidote, zoisite, biotite, garnet, zircon, pyroxenes and rare minerals such as
tourmaline, andalusite and sphene. A thick zone characterised by Nummulites thalicus
has been noticed. The Lower Kadi sands of south Linch and Nandasan were deposited
within this argillaceous unit. Locally, these sandy units have been designated as Unawa
and Linch members and are good reservoirs in Unawa, Linch and Jotana fields. Some of
the coarser clastics corresponding to the Linch Member were subjected to reworking.
These were deposited as tidal bars/ridges in South Kadi area. Fig.18 shows a
diagrammatic model depicting paleo-environment for deposition of the Linch Member.

Some of the older Cambay Shale around Nawagam and Dholka were subjected to
subareal erosion. Due to the percolation of fresh water some of the minerals like siderite
were subjected to leaching. This resulted in the development of porosity in the
underlying trapwacke sequence of Dholka and Nawagam fields. Two discrete sandstone
reservoirs, one overlying the older Cambay Shale and the other above the shale
sequence, are present in parts of Narmada block. They are known as “S○ lower” and “S○
upper”.

The Younger Cambay Shale is identified by dark grey to black, massive, soft to
moderately hard, pyritiferous, and occasionally fissile shales. The carbonaceous matter
with coal bands is prominent. Heavy minerals such as epidote, zircon, andalusite and
sillimanite are very common in the upper part.

Tharad Formation (Early to Middle Eocene)

This arenaceous formation is developed north of the Khari river in Sanchor–Patan Block.
It is unconformable with the underlying Olpad Formation/Cambay Shale, but
conformable with the overlying Tarapur Formation. Lithological characters along with
palyno-fossils indicate that these sediments were deposited in a fluvial to lower delta
plain to delta front regime under fluctuating conditions. The formation has been dated
Early to Middle Eocene. It is also considered as lateral equivalent of Cambay Shale and,
Kadi and Kalol formations (Fig. 21).

31
 Cambay Basin

During the deposition of the Cambay Shale, there was a continuous supply of coarser
clastics from the north, which resulted in the deposition of several thick deltaic
sequences inter-fingering and inter-tonguing with the Cambay Shale towards the north;
one of the clastic tongues extending in Ahmadabad-Mehsana block is designated as Kadi
Formation. The deltaic sands are medium to fine-grained. They extend from Unawa in
the north to Jhalora in the south. The intervening fractured coals are also good reservoir
at places. Fractured pro-delta shales of the Kadi Formation along with silts are developed
as good producing reservoirs around Wadu and Indrora areas located in Ahmedabad-
Mehsana tectonic block.

Kadi Formation (Early Eocene)

The formation occurs as a non-marine tongue within the YCS and is areally restricted to
the Ahmedabad–Mehsana tectonic block. It has an unconformable relationship with the
underlying OCS and overlying Kalol Formation. The Kadi Formation is subdivided into
four members, namely Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan and Chhatral in ascending order
(Fig. 13). These are, in turn, separated from each other by a tongue of marine shale. The
formation is devoid of micro–fauna. Its lithologic character and association indicate its
deposition in continental to paralic environment. An inter-tonguing relationship with the
Younger Cambay Shale is inferred (Fig.17). The Kadi Formation is assigned Early to
Middle Eocene age.

Kalol Formation (Middle Eocene)

The Kalol formation is well developed in the North Cambay Basin. The Vaso Formation,
developed in the Tarapur–Cambay block is a lateral equivalent of the Kalol Formation. It
has conformable relationship with the overlying Tarapur Shale, but unconformable
relationship with the underlying Kadi Formation or Cambay Shale. The Kalol Formation
has been subdivided into three members: Sertha, Kansari and Wavel members from
bottom to top. The formation was deposited under alternating regressive and
transgressive environments in an overall paralic to deltaic regime. Regressive events led
to the deposition of the Wavel and Sertha members, while a transgressive phase led to
the deposition of the Kansari Shale. The formation has been assigned Middle to Late
Eocene age. Major thickness centers of the Kalol Formation are shown in Fig. 20. The
areal spread of the Kalol Formation and its lateral equivalents in the basin is shown
Figs.13 and 20.

Ankleshwar Formation (Middle to Late Eocene)

The formation is restricted in areas south of the Mahi Sagar River. Its lateral equivalent
in North Cambay Basin is the Kalol Formation (Fig. 13). It is underlain unconformably
by the Cambay Shale and overlain conformably by the Dadhar Formation. It is
subdivided into four members, namely Hazad, Kanwa, Ardol and Telwa members. The

34
 Cambay Basin

formation is thickest (603m) in Gandhar-1 well. Lithological association and faunal and
floral assemblages indicate its deposition in an open marine (neritic) environment of
deposition for the lower part. The sandstone beds of this formation represent a series of
constructive delta front sands of proto–Narmada delta system. A littoral environment for
the sand units of the Ankleshwar Formation and shallow marine environment for the
shale units have been suggested. A delta front (Fig. 22) and distributory channel
environment is inferred for the Hazad Member, and a marine environment for the Kanwa
Shale. The arenaceous Ardol Member exhibits deltaic progradational features and the
Telwa Shale represents an open marine depositional condition. The formation has been
dated Middle to Late Eocene. The sandstone layers within the formation shale out
towards west, where it is represented by shale facies of Tarapur Formation (Fig.23).

Bhavnagar Formation (Middle to Late Eocene)

This formation is developed in the Gulf area along the eastern shelf of the Saurashtra
Peninsula and is considered homotaxial with the Ankleshwar Formation of South
Cambay Basin (Fig. 13). It is, however, devoid of typical quartzose sandstones of the
Ankleshwar Formation. It is characterised by lithic-wacke derived mainly from the
Deccan Trap basalts. The formation is also homotaxial with the Kalol Formation, but
does not contain thick coal beds. It passes into the Kalol Formation towards north and
grades into the Tarapur Formation towards east. In the Gulf–1 well, where it was first
recognised, the formation is 70m thick. The depositional environment of the Bhavnagar
Formation varies from near shore to shallow marine. Its age ranges from Middle and
Late Eocene.

35
 Cambay Basin

Tarapur Shale Formation (Late Eocene to Early Oligocene)

The Tarapur Formation, recognized in the northern part of the basin, is replaced by
Dadhar Formation and the upper two members of Anklesvar Formation to the south of
Mahi Sagar River. The formation, however, continues in the Gulf of Cambay as pro-
delta facies of Anklesvar Formation.

The Tarapur Shale has a conformable relationship with the underlying Kalol Formation
in Mehsana–Ahmedabad block, Tharad Formation in Sanchor-Patan Block and
Bhavnagar Formation along the eastern Saurashtra shelf. It is unconformably overlain by
the Babaguru Formation. On the eastern and western rising flanks of the basin, it directly
overlies the Deccan Trap or Olpad Formation or Younger Cambay Shale. The thickness
of the formation ranges form 59m in Mehsana–Ahmedabad block to 400m in Tarapur–
Cambay block. Two arenaceous members, viz., Lunej and Balol - separated by a shale
band are recognized within the formation. The Lunej Member comprises a number of
sandy units separated by thin shales. The arenaceous units of the formation were
deposited during short regressive phases in an overall transgressive event. The formation
has been assigned a Late Eocene to Lower Oligocene age. Fig. 24 shows an isopach
map of the Tarapur Shale.

39
 Cambay Basin

Dadhar Formation (Late Eocene-Early Oligocene)

The formation is underlain by the Ankleshwar Formation and overlain by the
Tarkeshwar/Babaguru formations (Figs. 12 and 13). Its thickness ranges between 142
and 245m. The lithological characters and faunal/floral assemblages indicate that the
lower part of the formation was deposited in inner to middle shelf environment under
warm water condition. The major part of the Dadhar Formation, however, was deposited
during the destructive phase of the proto-Narmada delta system. The upper part of the
formation represents a short regressive phase. The formation is dated Late Eocene to
Early Oligocene.

Tarkeshwar Formation (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene)

The formation outcrops on the western flank of the Narmada tectonic block where it
comprises variegated mottled claystone. Its thickness in outcrops is estimated to be 50m.
In the subsurface, its thickness ranges from 125m to 346m. The formation was deposited
in a series of shallow inland depressions and was frequently subjected to sub-areal
exposure. It is assigned Late Oligocene to Early Miocene age.

Babaguru Formation (Early Miocene)

The formation is extensive in occurrence in the Cambay Basin and has unconformable
relationship with the underlying Tarapur Shale in the north and has conformable relation
with the Tarkeshwar Formation in the south. It comprises ferruginous, current bedded
sandstones, conglomerates and grey clays. The basal part of the formation shows
development of sandy facies known as the Miocene Basal Sands (MBS) in the axial part
of the Cambay Basin. In exposures, it is 130m thick, but in the subsurface, its thickness
ranges from 200m to 575m. The formation was deposited in fluviatile to shallow water
environment under mildly oxidizing condition. The formation has been dated as Lower
Miocene.

Kand Formation (Early to Middle Miocene)

Like the underlying Babaguru Formation, the Kand Formation is also widely spread in
the Basin. It is dominantly composed of grey clays and claystones with rare sandstones
and conglomerates. Its thickness ranges from 150m to 400m in outcrops. The formation
has conformable relationship with the underlying Babaguru Formation and the overlying
Jhagadia Formation. It was deposited in a shallow marine environment in the South
Cambay Basin and fluctuating transitional to shallow inner shelf in the North Cambay
Basin. The formation is assigned an Early to Middle Miocene age.

Jhagadia Formation (Middle to Late Miocene)

The formation is unconformably overlain by the Gujarat Alluvium in areas south of the
Narmada river and by the Broach Formation in North Cambay Basin. It is composed of

41
 Cambay Basin

current bedded micaceous sandstone, shaly sandstones and loose sands. It is poorly
fossiliferous and was deposited in continental to marginal marine environment. It is
assigned Middle to Late Miocene age.

Broach Formation (Pliocene)

The formation is present throughout the Cambay Basin and is represented by chocolate
brown to reddish brown claystone, sandy claystones and sandstones. Its thickness ranges
between 150m and 928m from north to south. The formation shows unconformable
relationship with the underlying Jhagadia Formation and conformable relationship with
the overlying Jambusar Formation. It was deposited in a shallow marine oxidizing
environment and is of Pliocene age.

Jambusar Formation (Pleistocene to Recent)

The formation shows conformable relationship with the underlying Broach Formation
and gradational contact with the overlying Gujarat Alluvium and is composed of yellow
and grey clay, coarse sands and kankar. Its thickness ranges from 115 to 676m. The
formation was deposited under regressive shallow marine to fluviatile condition during
Pleistocene.

Gujarat Alluvium (Recent)

The formation unconformably overlies the Jhagadia Formation in areas south of the
Narmada river and in Mehsana-Sanchor–Patan area, but has gradational contact with the
underlying Jambusar Formation in North Cambay Basin upto Mehsana. The alluvium,
consisting of sand, silt and clay, was deposited by the major rivers, such as Sabarmati,
Mahisagar, Narmada and Tapti during Pleistocene and Recent.

42
 Cambay Basin

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
The formation of the Cambay Basin began following the extensive outpour of Deccan
Trap basalts during late Cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India.
The NNW-SSE Dharwarian tectonic trends got rejuvenated creating a narrow rift graben
extending from the Arabian Sea south of Hazira to beyond Tharad in the north (Fig. 2).
Gradually, the rift valley expanded with time.

During Paleocene, the basin continued to remain as a shallow depression, receiving

deposition of fanglomerate, trap conglomerate, trapwacke and claystone facies,
especially, at the basin margin under a fluvial and swampy regime. The Olpad Formation
(Figs. 12, 13 and 15) was thus best developed along the basin margin against fault
scarps, possibly, as alluvial fans. The end of deposition of the Olpad Formation is
marked by a prominent unconformity. However, at places a gradational contact with the
overlying Cambay Shale has also been noticed. It has been observed that with the
expansion of the rift, the litho-facies corresponding to the Olpad Formation progressively
migrated towards basin margins.

During Early Eocene, a conspicuous and widespread transgression resulted in the

deposition of a thick, dark grey, fissile pyritiferous shale sequence, known as the
Cambay Shale. This shale sequence has been divided into Older and Younger Cambay
Shale (Fig. 13) with an unconformity in between. During the deposition of the Older
Cambay Shale, the sea extended far towards north and covered almost all the existing
morphological features. This sedimentary sequence in the basinal part of the graben is
substantially thick. A continuous supply of coarser clastics in the Northern Cambay
Basin led to the development of deltaic sequences, which are well defined in Unawa,
Mehsana, Nandasan and Linch areas (Fig. 18 and Fig. 19). In other parts of the basin,
however, shale was the dominant facies to be deposited. Subsequently, there was a
strong tectonic activity that resulted in the development of the Mehsana Horst and other
structural highs associated with basement faults.

In the following period, relative subsidence of the basin continued leading to the
accumulation of the Younger Cambay Shale. The deltaic sequences of Mandhali and
Mehsana members, belonging to the Kadi Formation, were deposited in the Ahmedabad–
Mehsana Block. The end of Cambay Shale deposition is again marked by the

development of a widespread unconformity that is present throughout the basin.

Middle Eocene is marked by a regressive phase in the basin and this led to the
development of the Kalol/Vaso fluviatile system in the north and the Hazad delta system

43
 Cambay Basin

in the south. Hazad and Kalol/Vaso deltaic and fluviatile sands hold large accumulations
of oil. A diagrammatic paleo-environmental map in Fig. 22 shows the development of
the Kalol d fluviatile system in north and the Ankleshwar delta system in the south of the
basin.

Major transgression during Late Eocene-Early Oligocene was responsible for the
deposition of the Tarapur Shale over large area in the North Cambay Basin. Its
equivalent in the South Cambay Basin is a dominantly sand–shale sequence (Telwa and
Ardol members and lower part of the Dadhar Formation). The end of this sequence is
marked by a regressive phase leading to deposition of claystone, sandstone, and shale
alternations and a limestone unit of the Dadhar Formation.

The end of the Paleogene witnessed a major uplift, resulting in the development of a
widespread unconformity. The tectonic activity along the fault blocks reduced and the
horst and graben features prominently seen during Paleocene became quiescent. Whereas
the Paleocene-Eocene sequence was mostly restricted within the graben rift, the Miocene
sequence covered a larger area of the basin, extended beyond the basin marginal fault
and covered marginal flanks of the basin.

During Miocene there was a perceptible shift in depositional axis related to basinal fills.
The depocenters continued to subside resulting in the deposition of enormous thickness
of Miocene sediments as the Babaguru, Kand and Jhagadia formations. At this time,
there was activity along the Narmada fault with down throw towards north exceeding
2000m; the fault controlled deposition of thick Miocene sequence to the north of the
fault with very thin or no deposition to its south.

Pliocene was a period of both low and high strands of the sea level, which allowed
deposition of sand and shale units of the Broach and Jambusar formations over the entire
basin, except the Narmada block which during post-Miocene remained a positive area.

During Pleistocene to Recent, the sedimentation was mainly of fluvial type represented
by characteristic deposits of coarse sands, gravel, clays and kankar followed by finer
sands and clays, comprising Gujarat Alluvium.

Throughout the geological history, except during early syn–rift stage (Fig.13), the North
Cambay Basin received major clastic inputs from north and northeast, fed by proto-Luni,
proto–Sabarmati and proto–Mahi Sagar rivers, originating in Aravalli mountain ranges.
Similarly, the proto–Narmada river system was active in the south, supplying sediments
from Deccan Trap provenance, and after its removal some time by the end of Early
Eocene by igneous and metamorphic provenance, lying to the east (Fig. 22).

44
 Cambay Basin

Seismo-geological sections across the basin (Fig.25, Fig.26, Fig.27, Fig.28 Fig.29)
representing all the five tectonic blocks as well as a seismo-geological section (Fig. 30)
along the basin axis bring out the structural configuration of the basin. Oil window is
indicated on these sections to demonstrate the relationship between centers of
hydrocarbon generation and major structures of oil and gas accumulations in the basin.

45
 Cambay Basin

OIL AND GAS HABITAT

The Cambay Basin is a proven petroleum province, in which oil was first discovered at
Lunej, near Cambay, during 1958, followed by the discovery of the giant Ankleshwar oil
field in 1960. This latter discovery established the rich potentiality of the basin.
Subsequently, many more oil and gas fields were discovered, of which Kalol, Sobhasan,
North Kadi, Balol-Lanwa-Santhal heavy oil belt, Nawagam and Gandhar are major
fields. So far, more than 97 oil and gas fields have been discovered. Important oil and
gas fields are shown in Fig. 31.

SOURCE ROCKS

General
Systematic geochemical studies (Table-1 and Table-2) on a large number of subsurface
samples of the Cambay Basin, consisting of conventional and routine analysis for
organic content, total organic carbon (TOC), type of macerals etc. have revealed that the
thick Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon source rock in the Cambay Basin.

Whereas a large part of the Tertiary sediments represents generally a shallow water
environment, the Cambay Shale and Tarapur Shale represent slightly deeper and euxinic
environments. These shales as well as shales and coals within the Kalol Formation, are
considered important source rock sequences. These shales have adequate amount of type
III and II and I organic carbon, the latter being present in small amount and has patchy
distribution. The total organic content of shales, as also type I and II type organic matter
increases towards the depocenters. Fig. 32, Fig. 33 and Fig. 34 show the regional
distribution of organic matter, its quality and maturation. Additionally, coal, which is
well developed within the deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and Mehsana fields in the
northern part of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, is also inferred to be an important
hydrocarbon source rock.
Furthermore, simulation studies for basin evaluation carried out with data inputs from
reservoir and source rock along with their distribution and maturation suggest a very rich
hydrocarbon potential for the entire basin.
The maturation history of the organic matter clearly reflects the effects of the high rate of
sediment accumulations in the depressions, keeping pace with subsidence. In the central
part of the Broach depression, the

52
 Cambay Basin

organic matter (Fig. 33) reached VRo maturity value of 1.6 % before the deposition of
Miocene sediments.

Studies on genetic modeling by Yalcin et al. (1988) have shown that the Older Cambay
Shale reached the ‘wet gas’ stage at the time of deposition of the Kalol Formation
(Middle to Late Eocene). Peak oil generation was attained in Hazira, Tarapur and
Ahmedabad depressions after the deposition of the Jhagadia Formation (Late Miocene).
The computation study on hydrocarbon generation has also shown that most of the oil in
the northern fields would have been sourced from the Cambay Shale. The Cambay Shale
is rich with 0.5% - 4.0% of organic matter of type I & II kerogen (Fig. 32). The
maximum generation of hydrocarbons has been along the depositional axis. Source rock
studies conducted on cuttings and cores of deep wells like Kalol 263, South Warosan-1,
C-1 and Sanchor-1 have confirmed the presence of good source rock potential in
Cambay Shale sequence throughout the basin from north to south. In addition to Cambay
Shale, the Olpad Formation has also been described as having rich source rock properties
for generation and expulsion of hydrocarbon (Fig. 32).

The total organic carbon and maturation studies suggest that shales of the
Ankleshwar/Kalol formations also are organically rich, thermally mature and have
generated oil and gas in commercial quantities. The same is true for the Tarapur Shale.
Oil generated in the Kalol Formation (Fig. 29), however, appears to have accumulated
only in some of the fields of North Cambay Basin.

Shales, deposited during Miocene are observed to be thermally immature, except in

Broach syncline where these sediments are buried deeper. Therefore, there is a
possibility that shales within the Miocene section in the Broach depression might have
also acted as source rocks.

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 Cambay Basin

HYDROCARBON GENERATION
Kerogen rich sediments, comprising the Cambay Shale of Eocene age are buried under a
thick pile of younger formations deposited in a continuously subsiding basin. The
temperature gradient in the basin is high, varying from 4º C/100 m to about 6º C/100 m
in its different parts. This has provided a very favourable setting for hydrocarbon
generation.
The peak of oil generation and migration is understood to have taken place during Early
to Middle Miocene. According to Yalcin et al. (1988), “……. Cambay Shale contributed
most of the total oil generated in the basin. Considering further the timing of generation,
it could be demonstrated that, oil and gas accumulations in the northern part of the basin
were sourced by Older Cambay Shale and those in the south were derived from Kalol
and Tarapur shale source.”

In a recent study by Banerjee et al. (2002), it is reaffirmed that the potential source rocks,
with type III and II kerogen, occur in the Olpad (Paleocene), Cambay Shale and Kalol
formations (Middle to Late Eocene) (Fig. 32). These formations, in the Ahmedabad-
Mehsana Block, attained oil window maturity (VRo - 0.7%) at 1, 5 and 45 Ma
respectively.

RESERVOIR FACIES
Most of the reservoirs in the Cambay Basin are within the Paleogene sequences. These
reservoirs have been variously designated and their development and nomenclature is
shown in Fig. 35. The geometry and spatial distribution of each reservoir, is controlled
by its environment of deposition, nature, provenance and quantity of clastic influx. In
some parts of the basin, hydrocarbons are also found in Lower and Middle Miocene
reservoirs (Fig. 12). Chowdhary and Blakeley (2009) have described the regional
depositional patterns of the sandstone reservoirs in the basin.

Paleocene – Early Eocene Reservoirs

Essentially, the Paleocene sequence is a fluvial-deltaic unit (Olpad Formation) overlying
the Deccan Trap and the Early Eocene is as shallow marine sequence (Cambay Shale).
Samnata, Gavarshetty and Kumar (1997) recognized five separate litho-facies, which can
be grouped into two – coarse clastic volcanic conglomerate-wacke itho-facies and a fine
clastic claystone-shale-siltstone litho-facies. According to them, the

60
 Cambay Basin

coarse clastic facies deposited closest to source along the basin margins and fault scarps
as proximal to mid fan deposits, whereas finer trap derivatives were progressively carried
away from source areas and deposited as mid fan deposits inter-fingering with deeper
water lacustrine deposits. Unconformity between the Olpad Formation and the Cambay
Shale may have played a positive role in the generation of secondary porosities. There
are a good number of fields/pools producing from such zones. In the Cambay-Tarapur
block, such producing fields are Nawagam and Dholka. In addition, the Gamij discovery
along the eastern margin also suggests development of such reservoir facies. Basal
clastics overlying the Deccan Trap and fractured basalts (Trap) in Padra area also
constitute productive reservoirs near the basin margin.

Within the Early Eocene Cambay Shale, localized sandstone reservoirs, are present, as in
the Unawa, Linch, Mandhali, Mehsana and Sobhasan (Figs. 12 and 13). Sandstone
reservoirs within the Cambay Shale are oil producers in Ankleshwar, North Kadi, Linch,
Unawa and Jotana areas (Fig. 12 and 13).

Middle Eocene Reservoirs

Reservoir facies are also developed in many paleo-delta sequences of Middle Eocene,
both in northern and southern Cambay Basin (Fig. 22). In southern part, Hazad delta
sands of Middle to Late Eocene are prolific oil reservoirs in the Ankleshwar and
Gandhar fields (Fig. 31). These are distributed over a large area from north of the Mahi
Sagar river to south of the Narmada river.

In the Northern Cambay Basin, two delta systems are recognized. The Early Eocene
Kadi delta (Fig.18) has a limited development with extension upto Sanand-Kalol fields.
Deltaic sand bodies belonging to the Kalol Formation (Middle Eocene) have greater
areal distribution (Fig. 22) and extend southward upto the Tarapur Block. The deltaic
sequence is made up of alternations of sandstone and shale associated with coal. There
are many reservoirs (K–III, -IV, -IX, -X and –XII within the Kalol Formation and EP-III
and EP-IV reservoirs within the Vaso Formation developed within these Eocene deltaic
sequences and most of them are hydrocarbon bearing in almost all the wells drilled in
Ahmadabad-Mehsana and Cambay-Tarapur blocks. The reservoir quality within these
reservoirs, however, deteriorates towards south as compared to the wells in the north.

Late Eocene – Oligocene Reservoirs

North of the Mahi Sagar River, Late Eocene-Oligocene sequence hosts OS-I and OS-II
reservoirs, which are locally developed, as in Cambay field.
South of the Mahi Sagar River, a thick deltaic sequence, deposited during Oligocene and
Miocene, prograded up to south Tapti area (Fig. 35 and Fig. 36). These sandstones are
the main reservoirs in most of the fields discovered in the Gulf of Cambay and the

62
 Cambay Basin

northern part of Mumbai Offshore, such as Gauri, N Tapti, M Tapti, S Tapti, C Series of
fields etc. This sequence is observed to possess good reservoir facies in the entire Gulf of
Cambay.

Early Miocene
Early Miocene sandstone reservoirs within Kathana, viz. Miocene Basal Sand and
Babaguru formations are secondary reservoirs within the southern part of the basin;
however, the Early Miocene reservoirs together with Oligocene reservoirs become main
reservoirs in the fields located in the southern part of the Gulf of Cambay and the
northern part of Mumbai Offshore Basin, where they have good reservoir properties. Oil
has recently been discovered from reservoirs in Babaguru Formation in Tarapur block,
viz. Dhirubhai-43 to 51.

CAP ROCK AND ENTRAPMENT

The Cambay Basin, a typical rift valley, has the dominance of horst and graben feature
and is divided into tectonic blocks by NE-SW aligned basement ridges and uplifts. Each
tectonic block is limited by transverse ridges/faults of transfer zone. The Paleocene-Early
Eocene sequence represents a syn-rift stage followed by Middle Eocene-Early Miocene
rift stage. The horst and graben features, limited by faults, formed the nucleus for the
development of drape folds in the overlying Eocene and Oligocene sequence. Most of
oil and gas bearing structures in younger Late Eocene-Oligocene sequence are due to
differential compaction over the basement highs and tilted fault blocks. Consequently,
the area of these structures increases and amplitude diminishes upward.
Hydrocarbon accumulations in the northern part of the basin are mainly in structural
traps. Accumulations in the Patan area are expected to be

63
 Cambay Basin

mostly in fault closures. Except Padra area, evidences of long distance migration are not
known in the basin. The Late Miocene tilt seems to have enabled the redistribution of oil
and gas. However, tectonic activity during and at the end of Paleocene also resulted in
the development of good structural relief.

The accumulation of oil and gas in the structures is mainly due to short distance
migration of hydrocarbons from the source into the adjacent reservoirs. As stated earlier,
in the entire basin, the Paleocene-Early Eocene sequence contains a large thickness of
euxinic shales which are excellent source rocks. After attaining adequate subsidence, the
hydrocarbons migrated into adjacent porous beds. Their distribution was structurally
controlled. The process of accumulation of oil and gas had initiated during Early Eocene,
but the Late Miocene subsidence witnessed major migration, although maximum
hydrocarbon bearing pools are within Paleogene sequence. Possibly Late Eocene-
Oligocene transgressive shales (Tarapur Shale) restricted upward movement of oil into
younger rocks in the north Cambay Basin. Similarly the widespread continental
claystone facies (Tarkeshwar Formation), overlying Paleogene sequence in the south
Cambay Basin restricted upward movement of oil and gas, although some oil/gas
occurrences are known in Early Miocene rocks. The peak of oil generation and migration
was during Early to Middle Miocene.

From the drilled wells and seismic data, it is observed that the Deccan Trap occurs at
different depths in each tectonic block and shows an uneven topography caused by horsts
and tilted fault blocks. This resulted in varying thickness of the Olpad Formation. The
most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Olpad
Formation is the favorable lithological change with structural support and short distance
migration. The lithological heterogeneity gave rise to permeability barriers, which
facilitated entrapment of hydrocarbons. The associated unconformity also helped in the
development of secondary porosity.

Rotated and tilted fault blocks are the conspicuous features of the basin. These are
flanked by depocenters which have sedimentary thickness of the order of 5 to 6 km and
were the primarily kitchen areas with favorable conditions for short distance migration
and immediate entrapment. Besides, the transgressive shales within deltaic sequences
provided a good cap rock. As such, the petroleum systems in the Cambay Basin are very
well defined. Where structural role diminishes, the entrapment is essentially governed by
geologic vagaries common in a deltaic system, with environments such as fluvial to
brackish in a lower delta plain having wider role in the entrapment.

Timing Aspect

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 Cambay Basin

Most of the structures in the Cambay Basin are associated with basement controlled
faults and are of early origin. Thus, these structures were formed earlier to the main
phase of oil migration which took place some times during Miocene. It is possible that
the structures in Narmada block, aligned ENE-WSW and associated with Satpura strain,
are not of early origin, but were formed some times during the Miocene simultaneously
with activity along the Narmada fault or, if formed earlier were at least accentuated by
activity along the Narmada fault.

In Broach block, the main accumulation in Gandhar field is mainly in a stratigraphically

controlled trap. It is considered that the southeasterly tilt of the northwestern limb of the
Broach syncline took place sometime during Miocene in response to subsidence of
Broach block along Narmada fault to form the Gandhar trap. Thus, the formation of traps
in the Broach block seems to have been coincident with the main phase of oil migration.

66
 Cambay Basin

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
Despite its maturity, the Cambay Basin is considered to be holding yet to be discovered
oil. Recent discoveries have highlighted this potential. Moreover, the economic viability
of future discoveries will be facilitated by a well-established infrastructure.
Both the central part of the basin and its margins has additional prospectivity as is
evident from the recent discoveries of oil and gas accumulations in various reservoirs:
 PK-2 well in Ingoli field from fractured Deccan Trap reservoir,
 ENM 1, Miroli 1, Sanand East-2 and 4 wells from reservoirs in Olpad Formation,
 Tarapur-6 and Miroli-6 wells from siltstone layers in Cambay Shale,
 South Kadi-155 and ESU-1 wells from sandstone reservoirs in Mandhali Member
of Kadi Formation,
 Anklesvar-21 and Ankleshwar-40S wells from deltaic sand bodies in Anklesvar
Formation,
 ESM-1, Sanand E-8, Ahmadabd-124, PK-1, Karan Nagar-1 and Nadiad-1 wells
from reservoir in Kalol Formation, and
 Tarapur-G and Vadtal-1 wells from EP-IV reservoir in Vaso Formation.

Some of the wells have produced large amount of oil. For example, PK-2 well in Ingoli
field has produced a total of 796,847 bbls oil and 1.75 million cu m gas from fractured
Deccan Trap reservoir......

The discovery wells are located in the central part of the basin extending from Mehsana-
Ahmadabad block in the north to Anklesvar block in the south, as well as also on both
the eastern and western margins of the basin.

The margins of the rift basin had relatively few discoveries to date, but in recent years
there have been some significant discoveries. On the eastern margin, oil and gas has been
discovered in ESM, ESU and ENM wells in CB-ON-3 block and in Nadiad-1, North
Kural-1, Karvan-1 wells. The western margin is generally considered less prospective
due to the presence of Deccan Trap in the source provenance which provided poor
reservoir rocks. However, oil and gas has been discovered in this flank also in Nadiad-1,
North Kural-1 and Karvan-1 wells not only from fractured Deccan Trap and Olpad
Formation but also from siltstone layers in Cambay shale and silty shale reservoirs in the
Kalol Formation. Thus, the structured flanks of various depressions and sub-blocks may
offer additional potential targets in a number of different formations.

Areas on the heavily structured up-thrown side of the Narmada fault may also be
prospective primarily not in the Ankleshwar Formation alone , but also in the Cambay
Shale.

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 Cambay Basin

Although some oil and gas occurrences are known in Early Miocene rocks, it was
hitherto considered that Miocene has poor prospectivity because of the presence of
widespread continental claystone facies (Tarkesvar/Kathana formations) overlying
Paleogene sequence in the basin, which restricted upward migration of oil and gas. In
recent years, however, oil and gas has been discovered in Babaguru sandstone reservoirs
of Lower Miocene age in several wells (Dhirubhai-43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50 and 51) located
in Cambay-Tarapur block, near north Kathana field. These wells on being tested,
flowed at a rate of 50 to 500 bopd. Karvan-1 well located on the eastern margin of the
basin in Mehsana block on testing flowed oil and gas from a shallow depth of 290-
421m. These discoveries have not only opened up a new play but also opened up large
area for exploration.

Discovery of oil in West Patan-3 from Cretaceous reservoirs in a fault closure by ONGC
has not only opened up a large area for exploration but also opened up deeper sub-
trappean prospects for exploration.

Recently Oil and Gas was discovered at SW of Gandhar field in Nomination area at well
Gandhar -686 by ONGC. ONGC also have discovered Gas in K-IV Sub sand towards
south of Sobhasen field in Geratpur ML Nomination block and discovered new oil
pool in the NW part of the Nandasan field in Nandasan Extn ML Nomination block.
Recently ONGC have discovered Oil and Gas from from Hazad Sands of Middle Eocene
age in well Gandhar -699. Oil from Chhatral pay of early Eocene age were established at
wells Vadatal-10,Vadatal-11 and Rupal-2. Although the commercial potentiality of the
discoveries Vadatal -11 and Rupal-2 were not proved still presence of hydrocarbon is
established
The offshore area of the Gulf of Cambay is identified as potentially highly prospective.
A few offshore discoveries have been made, but in view of some major structures which
are known to occur in the area and Ankleshwar, Dadhar and Babaguru formations, which
all are proven reservoirs in the Cambay Basin, warrants greater exploration inputs to
locate untapped oil. The discoveries in the Gulf of Cambay in the year 2012-13 are
Alibet-2, Aliabet-3 and Aliabet-4 in Hazad and Dadhar formation encourages further for
exploration inputs in the area. Potential exists in structural and combination
stratigraphic-structural plays, as well as in stratigraphic plays.

Pure stratigraphic plays have yet to be fully proven in the Cambay Basin despite the
abundance of stratigraphic traps in combination with structural features. The deltaic
systems of the Ankleshwar, Kalol and Kadi formations would be expected to be
favorable for the development of subtle stratigraphic features.

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 Cambay Basin

Non-conventional plays/reservoirs are thought to offer further prospectivity in the

Cambay Basin, in the form of fractured shale reservoirs in the Cambay Shale, and
fractured/weathered basalt of the Deccan Trap on the basin margins and on inter-basinal
highs.

69
 Cambay Basin

POTENTIALITY OF UNCONVENTIONAL HYDRO CARBON RESOURCES

Apart from Conventional Oil and Gas resources, the basin also possesses
Unconventional hydrocarbon resources making this basin more interesting from
investment point of view. Details of the different Hydrocarbon resources are as follows

1. Shale oil/ gas:-

The organic rich source rock (mainly shale) on deep burial with geological time,
results in conversion of organic matter into oil and natural gas. The quantities,
that are retained in-situ within source rock, constitute the unconventional shale
gas/oil. The important features of shale Oil/Gas mentioned below
• In case of shale oil/gas, shale acts as source, reservoir as well as cap rock.
• Based on the type of organic matter and maturation level (either oil or gas
window), the unconventional hydrocarbons could be shale oil or shale gas or a
combination of both.
• The gas in shale are held as free gas within natural fractures, pore spaces and
some are stored as adsorbed gas on the organic matter.
• The shale is characterized by low matrix permeability and it requires hydraulic
fracturing for shale gas / oil production.
• Shale gas and oil reservoir is characterized by moderate to high TOC, low clay,
high Gamma, high resistivity, low bulk density, low sonic velocity, low water
saturation, high Young’s Modulus and low Poisson’s Ratio generally termed as
‘Sweet Spots’.

The Government of India has carried out studies through various national and
international agencies for identification of shale gas and oil resources in the country.
Based on the geoscientific data available from conventional oil and gas exploration in the
country for so many decades , the country holds promising reserves of shale gas and oil
in cambay basin along with four other basin (KG Basin , Cauvery Basin, Assam &
Assam Arakan Basin, Ganga Valley)

The estimation by various agencies the regarding shale gas resource potential in these
sedimentary basins is tabulated below

Name of the Agency Year of Name of Basins Volume

Report
Shale gas Shale oil
(TCF)
Energy Information 2011 Cambay(onland) , KG (onland) , 290 (2011)
Administration, USA Cauvery (onland), Damodar
2013 584 (2013) 87 Billion bbls

70
 Cambay Basin

ONGC Cambay(onland) , KG (onland) , 187.5

Cauvery (onland), Assam & Assam
Arakan Basin, Ganga Valley)

USGS (under MOU 2011 Cambay, KG , Cauvery 6.1

between DoS, 2014 Cambay 62 Million Bbl
MoPNG)

At present total 28 shale gas/oil blocks were under exploration with ONGC at Cambay
basin. Two formations were important from Shale Oil/Gas point of view –Cambay shale
of Paleocene to Lr. Eocene
Age and Olpad formations of Paleocene age. Important geo-scientific information
acquired mentioned below-
 The total organic matter ranges from 1.0% to over 6.0% and is primarily Type III
with some Type II. TOC is higher in North Cambay basin with thermal maturity
is 0.6-0.8.
 With thermal maturity ranging from about 0.5% to 1.3 %, the shale is in the oil to
wet gas window.
 Cambay Shale in the South Cambay basin exhibits higher thermal maturity.
ToC Map and Thermal Maturity map of Cambay shale shown in Fig 37. Already Five
exclusive Shale gas / oil wells drilled in Jambusar-Gandhar area, South Cambay Basin
by ONGC. After Sedimentological, Paleontological studies of conventional cores taken
from Cambay Shale following geological information were gained
 Early Eocene Cambay Shale is dark grey, moderately indurated, moderately
fissile
 Carbonaceous and non-calcareous, Ferruginous matrix, at places silty.
 Siderite nodules/bands and Pyrites are often present indicating oxic alternate
anoxic conditions of deposition. Anatase, marcasite, chemosite also present.

71
 Cambay Basin

 At places fractured (oblique in nature), filled with secondary minerals.

 Pores filled with organic matter
 High clay content (Chlorite and Kaolinite), Avg. 58%
 Quartz average content av. 28%, Max: 46%
 Deposited under marginal marine (Subtidal-Coastal) / Shoreface deposit
VRo map of North cambay basin and south cambay basin is shown in Fig 38,
Fig.39.

73
 Cambay Basin

2. Coal Bed methane :-

The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called 'sweet
gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known
from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk.
Coalbed methane is distinct from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir,
as the methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption. The methane is in
a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called the matrix). The open
fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with
water.

Coal occurrence at Barmer basin

The Barmer basin along with its southern extension in the Cambay basin (Fig-40) is a
narrow elongate graben extending from Billimora in the south to north of Barmer where
it is limited by Fatehgarh fault (Fig-41). This prominent graben in western India
developed during the later stages of the Gondwana cycle at the time of separation of
Indian plate from the rest of Gondwanaland. The basin is mostly filled with Tertiary and
Quaternary sediments laid down on an irregular basement The Cambay basin is a rich
hydrocarbon province with a hydrocarbon exploration history over 30 years. Of late,
commercial hydrocarbon prospects have been discovered in the Barmer basin as well.
Exploration for hydrocarbons was commenced by ONGC in the Cambay basin since its
inception in 1956 which led to discovery of productive hydrocarbon zones in Tertiary
sequence. During this phase, ONGC acquired gravity data that demonstrated the
possible continuation of Cambay basin northward into Barmer basin.

During the course of drilling for hydrocarbons, ONGC discovered large lignito-
bituminous coal deposits in Eocene sequence of Tharad, Patan, Mehsana and
Ahmedabad tectonic blocks of Cambay basin at depths varying from 700 to 1800 m.
The lignito-bituminous seams are also found to be extensively developed in the Barmer
graben. Much of our present knowledge on the pattern of development of lignite seam in
Barmer basin is based on the seismic surveys carried out by Shell India Production
Development (SIPD) and later by Cairn Energy India Ltd. (CEIL) during the past few
years. A few deep boreholes drilled recently in the southern part of Barmer basin for oil
& natural gas also revealed the geometry of the

76
 Cambay Basin

lignite seams at depth. Preliminary studies in Cambay basin show that the thick lignito-
bituminous seams store moderate amount of methane. The borehole drilled in Barmer
basin also show evidence of emission of methane from lignite horizons. In recent years
successful economic development of coal bed gas from low rank coal / lignites of the
Powder River basin has led to modification of coal bed gas exploration concepts within
the petroleum system framework. It is now well established that low rank lignito-
bituminous coals may store significant quantity of methane which can be commercially
harnessed.

Stratigraphy of the Barmer Basin

CBM exploration was carried out in southernmost part of Barmer-Sanchor graben
adjoining the Cambay basin. In the northern part of the Cambay basin, the Patan
depression shows a progressive shallowing of the basin. The basin again deepens to the
north into the Sanchor depression where a total sediment thickness of 3800 m. is
estimated. The basin again shallows to the north before deepening again in Guda
depression. Further north is the Barmer depression, which defines the northern limit of
this rift system.

This segment of rift basin, occurs in the transitional area between Barmer basin in the
north and Cambay basin in the south and as such the basin fill sequence shows
community of characters with that of lithic fill of both North Cambay basin and Guda
area of Barmer basin. This area is floored with the basalt of Deccan trap as far north as
Guda depression. The trap encountered in Serau well is of basic effusive type. The trap
is divided into an upper unit and a lower unit with an intertrappean ash bed in between.
The upper unit in Serau borehole occurs between 1235 m. to 1410 m. where the lower
unit is encountered at depth of 1425 m. to 1721 m. The traps are normal basalts with
some Olivine rich glassy basalts. The initial syn-rift basin fill comprises the Barmer hill
and Fategarh formations, which are equivalents of the Olpad Formation of Cambay
basin. This in turn is overlain by a thick sequence of silty claystone with minor sand and
limestone bands which in Barmer basin has been classified into an upper Thumbli shale
unit, a middle Dharvi Dungar unit and a Lower Guda shale unit. These units are
equivalent of Cambay shale of Cambay basin. These are succeeded by lignite bearing
sequence, which is of importance for the present study. This lignite bearing strata in
North Cambay basin are confined to Kalol (M. Eocene) and Kadi Formation (L. Eocene)
whereas the Tharad Formation, a merged facies of Kalol and Kadi Formation is the
lignite bearing unit of Sanchor-Tharad area.The lignite bearing unit as such is designated
as Tharad Formation (Fig-42). Further north of Sanchor, this horizon is designated as
Thumbli lignite horizon.

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 Cambay Basin

Tharad Formation is named after the Tharad well where the interval between 962 m. and
1490 m. is designated as type section (Fig-43). The lower part of Tharad Formation
consists mainly of sandstone with minor shales, siltstone, claystone and rare lignite
seams. The upper part of the formation shows incomplete cycles of sandstones, lignites
and carbonaceous shales and claystones. The sandstones are poorly sorted and are
mostly medium to coarse grained. Typical Middle Eocene flora and fauna have been
reported from the upper part of Tharad Foramtion in Tharad well. The spore and pattern
assemblage from the lower part suggests a possible Lower Eocene age. The isopach map
of Tharad Formation (Fig-44) shows that the formation attains a thickness of 600 m.

The lignite bearing sequence is overlain by a varying pile of recent sand, Mio-Pliocene
and Oligocene sequence. The wav Formation of Oligocene overlies the lignite bearing
horizon with an unconformity. The overlying Mio-Pliocene sequence succeeds the
Oligocene horizon with a distinct unconformity. This comprises an upper Jagadia
Formation, a middle Kand Formation and a Lower Babaguru Formation. These are
overlain by Recent to sub recent Pleistocene sands and gravels. The generalised
stratigraphic sequence of the CBM exploration is tabulated below:

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 Cambay Basin

Generalized Stratigraphic succession

Age Formation Thickness Lithology

Loose sands, gravels,
Recent to Pleistocene Kaliana/ Jambusar 450 - 900
Kankar
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Up. Pliocene to Predominantly sandstone
Jagadia 100
Middle Miocene with minor clay beds
Mainly claystone and
Mid. to Early Miocene Kand 180 - 250
sheet sands
Channel sands with
Early Miocene Babaguru 10 - 200
interbedded clays
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Calcareous shales, marls,
Oligocene Wav 10 - 150
minor sands
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Lower to Mid. Tharad = Kadi & Sand, silt and lignite
500 - 700
Eocene Kalol Fm. seams
Cambay shale
(Upper humbli,
Dark grey shales with
Lower Eocene Dharvi Dungar 200
siltstones
Lower Guda shale
in Barmer)
Trap conglomerate trap
Paleocene Olpad 30 - 100
wash sediments
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Basaltic lava with
Late Cretaceous Deccan Trap 500 - 3000?
intertrappean

Depositional History
Sedimentation in this part of Cambay-Barmer basin commenced during the Mesozoic
period with the deposition of felspathic sandstones encountered below the Deccan trap in
Serau-1 borehole. These were essentially fluvial sediments. Subsequent to their
deposition, the area witnessed the outpour of Deccan volcanics which continued from
Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene period. The topographic lows in the Trap covered area
received basalt derived fluvial deposits of Olpad Formation.

The Lower Eocene witnessed the first transgressions of sea during the deposition of
Lower Cambay shales. The marine microfauna and facies organisms indicate littoral
environment, towards the upper part the deposits marked coarsening upward infill cycle
during the syn-rift phase of deposition.

During the deposition of Tharad Formation there were transitions between deltaic and
flood plains environment. The landscape was dominated by low lands where lakes and

84
 Cambay Basin

lagoons evolved during the deposition of extensive lignites (Fig-45). The lignites
represent deposition in wet lands during a regression phase. The nature of lignites and
the micro-flora indicate that algal biomass as well rooted plants were preserved in peat
swamps. The enclosing clay and silts are interpreted as overbank sheet flood and flood
plain clay. Abandoned sub delta lobes associated with channel shifting provided long
lived platform particularly at basin centre near Sanchor where thick peat could
accumulate over protracted period without much interruption from sediment laden flood
water. Due to tectonic instability near the rift margin the lignites tend to split into
several sections when there was episodic ingress of finer clastics into peat swamps
located close to basin periphery. Thus oscillating conditions gave rise to incomplete coal
cycles near basin margin.

The next phase of extensional tectonics took place shortly after the deposition of lignites.
The faulted and eroded top surface of lignites is buried below a thick shale sequence
formed during a fresh spell of marine transgression. The overlying marine sequence of
Wav Formation of Oligocene age denote another phase of marine transgression when the
basin was filled upto the level of erosionally peneplained rift shoulder. During this
phase, widespread strike slip movements and development of flower structure over the
re-activated basement fault took place.

Mio-Pliocene in the area showed a marine transgressive phase at the beginning when
sediments were laid in near shore to brackish water environment. Progressively, fluvial
conditions were established over the basinal area when channel sands and flood plain
clays constituted the basin fill.

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 Cambay Basin

Lignite Seams
Ahmedabad-Mehsana tectonic block showed thick lignite development in Lower Middle
Eocene Kadi and Kalol Formation.In the southern extremity of Barmer basin, the Tharad
Formation is the merged facies of Kalol and Kadi formations and is the main depository
of lignites.

The development of lignite horizons in Barmer basin in general is ascertained mainly

from seismic interpretation of the formations performed on 2D data sets. The top lignite
being an excellent reflector provided the crucial information on development of lignites.
The seismic profile however often do not give a precise picture of the base of lignite. As
such the isopach map (Fig-46) of lignite is to some extent approximate. The top lignite
horizon is also interpreted from 3D data where such surveys are undertaken. The check
shot data and logs acquired on boreholes of Guda-1, Guda-2, Sanchor-1, Serau-1 and
RJH-1 allowed generation of synthetic seismogram. For ascertaining thickness and
depth of lignites in Barmer basin the depth maps were produced using the stacking
velocity technique.

Based on limited borehole data and the seismic profiles it is observed the lignite horizons
show significant regional variation in thickness from faulted basin periphery to axial
regions where deeper depocentres were located. A careful perusal of available borehole
data depicted this pattern of thickening of lignite horizons in the basin. In Guda-2
borehole, the upper horizon (1105 m. depth) records a thickness of 10 m., whereas the
bottom horizon has a 30 m. thick lignite (1348-1378 m.) in addition to two thinner
younger seams of 4.0 m. (1319 m.) and 2.0 m. (1331 m.). The lower 30 m. thick seam,
however some time contains thin claystone bands. Thus cumulative lignite seam
thickness works out to be around 46 m.

In the deeper depocentre of Sanchor the lignite horizon shows remarkable increase in
thickness where the horizon is about 100 m. thick of which the lignite seams have
cumulative thickness of 70 m. as computed from resistivity logs. Some of the lignite
seams in this horizon ranges in thickness from 9.0 to 24.0. The lignite however is too
deep seated (1735-1837 m.) for economic exploitation of CBM.

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 Cambay Basin

In Serau East the lignite horizon was recorded at the depth range of 920 to 1090 m. In
this horizon the bottom section of lignite is about 22.5 m. thick which is overlain by
three other seams of 8.0 m., 3.0 m. and 2.5 m. thickness (Fig-47). The thickness of
seams has been worked out from old resistivity logs and as such there may be some
marginal modifications of the values. The computed total coal thickness is found to be
around 36 m.

The isopach map of lignite horizon has recently been made based on seismic profile. It
is observed that the lignite seams tend to split and thin out both towards the eastern and
western faulted basin periphery. In these areas the cumulative thickness is computed to
be around 20-25 m. Basinward the net cumulative thickness is around 40-50 m. The
splitting tendency of lignite seams near the peripheral part of the basin is well
documented by the data of a borehole RJ-H-1 drilled in the northern part of Barmer basin
close to eastern border. Here several thin lignite seams usually of 1 to 3 m. thickness
have been encountered between the depth of 175 m. to 451 m. Only one seam of 5.5 m.
thickness was intersected at a depth of 234.5 m. It is felt that close to the faulted margin
of the rift the coalification process was often interrupted due to episodic tectonic
impulse. As a sequel to this oscillating movement the peat swamps were periodically
inundated by flood plain clay and peat formation was arrested.

Based on this model it can be opined that the cumulative lignite thickness will be in the
range of 20-25 m. near both the eastern and western faulted margins. The splitting may
be more pronounced along the eastern margin. In the deeper part of the block the total
lignite thickness may be around 40 to 50 m. (upto 1500 m. depth). (Fig-48)

Petrological and Chemical Characters of Lignite

The petrographic make up and rank of the coal beds has an important bearing on gas
sorption characteristics. Methane sorption capacity of such low rank coal are usually
diminished substantially. However, often such low rank lignite store substantial amount
of biogenic of mixed methane and accordingly these lignites are favourable targets for

89
 Cambay Basin

methane exploitation. The prospect of CBM operation in Barmer lignite field is being
examined in this perspective.

Megascopically the lignites are brownish black, blocky with plant remains, pyrite streaks
and vitreous lustre. The clayey lignites have dull lustre and is compact. At places the
lignite is thinly laminated. The lignite is sometimes interbanded with lignitic clays. In
Giral mine, the lignite is brown, soft, woody in parts with fibrous texture. The petroic
study of the mine sample shows that the lignite contains 60% huminite, 10% spores, 10%
resin and 20% inertinite. The vitrinite reflectance is found to be 0.35%.

In the deeper part of the basin, the lignites show some variations in maceral composition
as compared to that of samples of Giral mine. This is evident from the petrographic
study of lignite seams encountered in the depth range of 1100-1367m in Guda-1
borehole. The study was conducted by CMRI at the instance of DGH. The petrological
characters of lignite seams of Guda 1 borehole is given in the following table :
Sample Internal Huminite % Liptinite % Inertinite % Mineral VRo%
(m) Matter

1100 - 1116 83.4 5.0 3.2 8.4 -

1312 - 1321 86.2 5.1 2.3 6.4 0.35
1324 - 1330 82.1 5.4 3.4 9.1 -
1345 - 1354 84.2 6.2 1.9 7.7 0.35
1364 - 1367 88.8 3.2 2.3 5.7 -

Interestingly, there is no marked increase in vitrinite reflectance of the lignites even after
greater depth of burial, which indicates very little enhancement of rank even at greater
depth. The low geothermal gradient possibly accounts for little variation of rank even at
greater depth.

Similar petrographic character of the lignite was also observed in homotaxial Sobhasan
coal seams of adjoining Cambay basin. The seams show low reflectivity and correspond
to lignito-bituminous rank. The huminite is mostly composed of densinite, texto-
ulminite. Exinite consists of resinite, sporinite, cutinite, bituominites etc. The inertinites
comprise mainly sclerotinites. The maceral composition of lignites encountered in some
wells of Mehsana area of Cambay basin is indicated in the following table:
Well No. Depth Huminite Inertinite Liptinite VRo
(m) % % % %
Jotana 113 1143 - 1150.5 94.4 4.3 1.3 0.25
Nandasan 42 1393 - 1402 92.3 5.1 2.6 0.34
W. Sobhasan 20 1450 - 1457.5 93.2 4.3 2.5 0.35
W. Sobhasan 20 1556 - 1562.5 89.6 0.8 9.6 0.40

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 Cambay Basin

Petrographic composition of lignites encountered in the R&D wells of Essar Oil Ltd.,
drilled near Mehsana town in Cambay basin was also studied. The lignites on an average
have 90.4% huminite, 3.5% liptinite, 4.5% inertinite and 1.6% mineral matter. The
reflectance of vitrinites of more than 100 samples varies from 0.30 to 0.46%, the average
being 0.36%. Near the basin margin the reflectance varies from 0.30 to 0.32%. In short,
there is only a marginal trend of increase in vitrinite reflection with greater depth of
burial in this part of Cambay basin.

The petrographic study of the lignite seams of Barmer basin as well as of the adjoining
Cambay basin depicts that even in the depth range of 1500m, the seams have not
advanced beyond lignito bituminous stage in the coalification path. Further, the average
vitrinite reflectance is around 0.35% which is normally below the threshold of early
thermogenic methane generation field.

Chemical Character of Lignites

The proximate analysis of the lignite samples gives the percentages of volatile matter,
fixed carbon, ash and moisture content. In addition, the calorific value of the samples
gives an idea of the rank parameter. Ultimate analysis indicates the percentages of
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur etc. which indicates the degree of coal
metamorphism. The lignites are of high moisture and high volatile content. These are
lignitous in rank as per Seyler’ classification with carbon content (air dried) varying from
52.8 to 56.3% in some samples of Guda 1 borehole. The proximate and ultimate analysis
of the lignite samples of Guda-1 boreholes are indicated below :
Proximate Analysis of lignites of Guda-1 Borehole (air dried)
Sample Moisture Ash Volatile Matter Fixed Carbon
Interval % % % %
(m)
1100 - 1116 19.2 9.2 39.2 32.4
1312 - 1321 21.7 7.4 39.5 31.4
1324 - 1330 17.4 9.4 44.6 28.6
1345 - 1354 16.9 8.1 45.5 29.5
1354 - 1357 18.9 9.8 38.3 33.0
1459 - 1462 22.6 8.4 40.0 29.0

Ultimate analysis of lignite samples of Guda-1 borehole

Sample Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Nitrogen Oxygen

Interval % % % % %
(m)
1100 - 1116 52.84 4.45 1.06 0.72 12.53
1312 - 1321 53.33 4.48 1.12 0.79 11.18
1324 - 1330 55.18 4.74 0.81 0.72 11.75

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 Cambay Basin

1345 - 1354 56.37 5.04 1.28 0.79 11.52

1459 - 1462 53.23 4.34 0.68 0.72 10.03

The lignites of Barmer basin show broad similarity of chemical character with those of
Cambay basin as evident from the analytical data of Kalol and Sobhasan coals of
Cambay basin given in the table below:

60% RH 400C Kalol Sob-I Sob-III

Exband Inband Inband Exband Inband
Moisture % 10.5 9.5 11.9 11.6 11.0
Ash % 19.6 25.0 11.1 13.7 19.5
VM % 403.3 38.1 44.6 41.1 38.4
FC % 29.6 27.4 32.4 33.6 31.1
Calorific Value 4495 5725 5465 4980
(K.cal/Kg)
C% 50.3 46.8 58.4 56.3 51.6
H% 3.74 3.5 5.03 4.46 3.66
N% 0.74 0.57 0.85 0.73 0.39
S% 1.45 1.51 0.23 0.17 0.16
O% 20.6 - 16.3 17.4 -

The analytical data of lignites of Barmer-Cambay master basin depicts deposition of

carbonaceous matters with relatively low ash content. The ash content only increases in
shaly lignite bands. The high hydrogen content of lignite suggests the potentiality of
lignites for gas generation. The analytical data of lignites occurring at great depths in the
boreholes, however, document that there is no significant enhancement of rank beyond
sub-bituminous stages despite the deeper burial of the lignite seams.

Gassiness of seams
The lignites are normally immature (vitrinite reflectance < 0.4%). Coal rank is in lignito
bituminous stage. The lignites are rich in vitrinite with subordinate amount of liptinite.
Such low rank lignites normally are not likely to be in the thermogenic gas window. The
geothermal gradient as deciphered from Guda-1 & 2 and RJ-H-1 wells (Fig-49) shows a
gradient of 3.7o C / 100m. which demarcated low rank coal regime. Isotopic studies by
ONGC however reveal interesting results.

The molecular analysis of desorbed gases of two main lignite seams of Mehasana area
and carbon isotope analysis of associated gas from two wells were studied by ONGC.
Methane percentage of the desorbed gas varies between 65 to 81%, other hydrocarbon
being 1.5 to 3.0% along with 2-12% nitrogen and 8 to 20% carbon dioxide. Cross plot of
C2/C3 and ic4/nc4 values shows that the desorbed gases are dry and not related to oil
generation (Fig-50). Some well data when plotted on C 1/C2+C3 and d13 C1 cross plot

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 Cambay Basin

shows that gases are mainly of thermogenic origin. The cross plot of d 13 C1 and C2
concentration however shows that the plot of one well data is in thermogenic field and
that of the other in mixed or diagenetic gas zone. In short, d 13 C1 and d13 C2 values and
their cross plot from desorbed gases indicate early thermogenic and mixed origin. The
biogenic isotope signature is weak and mostly overlapped with thermogenic signature.
High concentration of CO2 and N2 is suggestive of some biogenic contribution. It has
been opined based on isotopic study that methane in coal bed is of mixed origin
containing both early thermogenic methane and some biogenic methane but not any gas
associated with oil.

Significant storage of methane in the lignite seams of Barmer basin is evident from the
emission of gas from the lignite seams, which are intersected in the different boreholes.
The following table gives an

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 Cambay Basin

indication of gas show as recorded in lignite seams encountered in borehole RJ-H-1

drilled in northern part of Barmer basin.

Gas shows in lignites seams encountered in borehole RJ-H-1

Gas type Depth (m) Background gas (%) TG (%) C1 (ppm)
Peak 236 0.1 0.9 8610
Peak 267-270 0.1 1.1 9460
Peak 375-380 0.08 6.21 59097
Peak 390-393 0.32 4.81 38772
Peak 411-414 0.32 5.33 46755
Peak 421-429 0.32 3.75 31512

Similarly, in the borehole RJ-E-1 high gas show is recorded from lignite seams within
the interval of 1000-1300 m. In Guda-1 borehole, gas shows are reported from lignite
seams at depth of 1319-1321 and 1345-1375 m. In Guda-2 borehole also, gas shows are
known from lignite at depth of 1394-1407 m. In short most of the deep boreholes drilled
in Barmer basin have encountered gas emission from lignite seams.

Though the above boreholes in Barmer basin gave indications of emission of gas no
desorption studies have yet been carried out to ascertain the gas content of lignite seams.
In fact, gas content measurements have been made by USBM direct method in
Underground Coal Gassification (UCG) information wells, LBM wells drilled by Essar
Oil in Mehsana and in some wells in Sobhasan drilled by ONGC. The results of
desorption studies in UCG well 3 by CMRI are indicated below in the following table :
Methane Gas Content in Sobhasan coals in UCG Borehole

Lithotype Depth (M) Methane Content

(m3/t)
Coal 822.6 - 822.65 1.79
Coal 823.4 - 823.45 1.89
845.0 - 854.04 2.67
854.88 - 854.95 2.50
856.4 - 856.44 3.9
858.3 - 858.38 4.1
860.2 - 860.25 5.2
864.75 - 864.8 1.89
Sobhasan
870.9 - 870.96 2.38
(Horizon)
874.0 - 870.08 5.78
875.33 - 875.40 4.23
883.32 - 883.36 4.09
887.39 - 887.4 4.49
891.3 - 891.42 4.88
892.9 - 892.98 4.53
Sandstone 895.3 - 895.35 0.22

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 Cambay Basin

From the above table it is seen that different sections of Sobhasan seam shows show
wide variations in gas content from 1.79 to 5.78 m3/t.

More systematic desorption studies of fresh lignite cores at well site and gas adsorption
isotherms of seam samples by Terra Tek Lab., USA were carried out for Kalol and
Sobhasan seams encountered in three R&D wells drilled by Essar Oil Ltd. east of
Mehasana town. The gas content as studied in three R&D wells is indicated in the
following table.

Gas content of Sobhasan coals in LBM wells

Parameters LBM1 LBM2 LBM3
Lignite depth (m) 1340-1454 1330-1426 1350-1495
Lignite thickness (m) 46 61 77
Absorbed gas content (m3/t) 7.7 6.73 -
Desorbed gas content (m3/t) 7.89 6.41 6.75 (SI coal)
7.26 (SII coal)
8.25 (SIII coal)

The gas content of Sobhasan coal seams ranges from 4 to 9 m 3/t from several canister gas
desorption studies the majority of the samples giving values between 5-6 m 3/t. The
isotherm test of core samples for Sobhasan seams at 1350 m. depth with reservoir
pressure of 2085 psi is 6.4 m3/t. The plotting of desorbed gas content on the adsorption
isotherm curves shows that coal seams are more or less gas saturated. A trend of gas
content of the seams in respect to depth in Mehasana area shows that gas content will be
around 5 m3/t upto 1000 m. depth 6 m3/t upto 1200 m. The gas content may be around 4
m3/t near basin periphery as seen in UCG borehole. The Sorption time of the coals is
found to vary from 5 to 24 hours which suggests fast desoprtion rate from porous
lignites.

Some desorption studies have also been done of Sobhasan Top and Bottom seams
encountered in Sobhasan borehole 181 and 183, the results of which are given below :

Desorption results of Sobhasan well # 181 and 183

Well No. Coal Seam Depth Gas content

(m) (CC/gm)
Sob 181 Sobhasan Top 1405.5 - 1414 3.86
Sob 181 Sobhasan Bottom 1492 - 1501 6.46
Sob 183 Sobhasan Top 1422.6 - 1429.6 2.77
Sob 183 Sobhasan Bottom 1577.8 - 1585 5.14

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 Cambay Basin

The above table depicts that seams at the depth range of 1400-1500 m. does not show
marked increase in gas content.

In regard to Tharad coal developed no desorption data are available but isotherm tests
were carried on samples collected from Giral lignite mine as well as cores of borehole
RJ-H-1 (Fig-51 & Fig-52). These samples at a pressure of 74.4 to 78.19 atmosphere
show gas content of 4.8 to 6.6 m 3/t on dry ash free basis. Thus the isotherm curves of
Barmer basin lignite show more or less similar adsorptive capacity as that of Mehsana
area. Moreover, ubiquitous gas shows from various lignite horizons encountered in deep
boreholes of Barmer indicates that the seems are likely to be gas saturated and free gas is
liberated as soon as the seams are intersected in the boreholes.

Keeping all the aspects in view it has been considered realistic to assume an average of 5
m3/t of gas in seams upto 1000 m. depth and 6 m 3/t from seams occurring in the depth
range of 1000 to 1200 m. These inferences need to be further validated by systematic
desorption tests and laboratory isotherm studies for determination of gas content and
saturation of seams so as to arrive at a reasonable estimate of in situ gas content.

Permeability
The permeability of the lignite seams is a most important reservoir parameter for CBM
productivity. The matrix permeability of lignite is too low for commercial gas
production. Fluid flow in seams is mainly through

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natural fractures and cleats. Cleats are systematic orthogonal fractures that are
perpendicular to bedding plane. Cleat permeability is controlled by cleat spacing,
aperture width, its openness and connectivity which in turn is controlled by coal rank,
quality, maceral composition, degree of mineralisation and insitu stress. Recent studies
have revealed that early cleat development occurs in coal seams having vitrinite
reflectance values between 0.3 and 0.5 percent. Cleat formed at vitrinite reflectance of
0.3% of the initial stage may become annealed, progressive desiccation at vitrinite
reflectance of 0.4 to 0.5% under localised stresses may result in the development of more
dominant cleats. The lignito-bituminous coals have reached the threshold of early stage
of cleat formation. Detailed megascopic study of core samples of Guda boreholes shows
certain characteristic featuers. The core samples depict very well developed bedding
plane fissility and concoidal features. In some of the bright bands these are evidences of
early formation of cleats which are developed in orthogonal sets and are ½ cm. to 1 cm.
apart. The dull bands are usually devoid of any cleat. Incrustation of resins and pyrite
are ubiquitous along fissility / bedding plane. Resin and pyrite infilling is often common
along cleats and fractures. The megascopic study reveals that the lignites are likely to
have good permeability due to early-formed cleats, bedding plane fissility, fracture
networks and their connectivity.

Further, the coal beds are highly compressible and as such the insitu stress usually affects
reservoir permeability and production characteristics. Generally permeability decreases
with depth owing to overburden stress. The tectonic stress which is extensional in
Barmer rift is additive to overburden stress. As such a limiting depth of 1200 m has been
kept in view for assessment of CBM resource. The lignite seams occurring below 1200
m. are likely to be under greater in situ stress allowing cleats to close. Assuming a
thumb rule of 1 psi/ft of gravitational stress and hydrostatic pressure of 0.433 psi/ft, the
net effective stress at 1200 m. depth works out to 2280 psi/ft which shows moderate
stress regime.

For ascertaining permeability of coal, an analysis of structural framework is of

paramount importance. The overall structural style s defined by rift related NNW-SSE
faults and fractures and cross trend of NNE-SSW and E-W faults. These faults have
dissected the lignite horizons and have induced fractures in seams in varying degrees.
Closer to the faults the lignite seams are more fractured. As such, the permeability will
vary significantly from place to place and even within an individual lignite horizon
showing an anisotropic pattern in permeability.

The R&D well (LBM) of Essar Oil Ltd. are the only ones to be tested for systematic
determination of permeability by injection fall off tests. As the tests have been carried at
1300-1400 m. depth the results show somewhat lower values of permeability despite the

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target horizons being porous (6-10% porosity) and fractured. The permeability of the
seams as determined in the R&D boreholes of Mehasana area is indicated below.

Permeability of Sobhasan Coal in R&D boreholes

Well No. Coal Seam Depth (M) Permeability
(md)
LBM1 SI 1348 - 1361 1.09
SII 1365 - 1375 2.50
LBM2 SII 1387 - 1408 0.16 (pre frac.)
0.35 (post frac.)
2.36 (post frac.)

It is rather difficult to predict whether the above permeability figures will hold good for
lignite seams. However, at the depth of 800-1200 m. the lignite seams likely to have
higher permeability due to less overburden pressure than indicated in the LBM wells.

Assessment of lignite resources of already offered CBM block and gas in-place
resources
An idea about the pattern of development of lignite seams in the area can be made
primarily from the 2D seismic data acquired. The seismic profiles show well defined top
of the lignite and gives an idea of the continuity of the seams in sub-crop levels. It is
however, admitted that in seismic profiles the base of the horizon is not well constrained.
As such the isopach map of lignite horizon prepared from seismic data may be to some
extent approximate. Further the seismic profiles give an indication of the gross thickness
of lignite horizons but not of the net thickness of lignite seams excluding the dirt bands
and partings in the seams.

The data generated from the seismic profiles is viewed in conjunction with the records of
a few boreholes drilled in Serau, Guda , Sanchor and Tharad to have an idea of the
geometry of the seams . Here again the density of well data is too meager for the large
block size. The thickness of coal seams is computed mainly from SP & resistivity logs
of boreholes, which give a broad idea of the lignite seam thickness without precise
indication of seam structure and quality. Very rarely density logs are available to
compute coal thickness.

From the synthesis of available data it is observed that the lignite seams tend to thin and
split due to movements along the border faults. The cumulative thickness of the lignites
will be 20-25 m. near basin margin in several split sections. The seams thickens towards
the central depression is 35-40 m. or even more. The depth to the top of lignite map of
the block shows that lignite seams in the eastern and western margins of the block occur

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in the depth range of 800 to 1200 m. whereas in the central part of the block these occur
beyond the depth of 1500 m. and are not suitable targets for CBM operation (Fig-53).

Taking all the factors into consideration the economically viable segment in is
considered to be delimited by 1200 m. depth contour. The resources of CBM in 1200-
1500 m. depth zone may not be exploited in foreseeable future but can only be harnessed
once the technology of extracting deep seated CBM resources in a commercial manner is
developed.
As discussed earlier, the limited desorption data shows an increase in gas content
towards depth whereas at 800-1200 m. depth range near basin margin there is diffusive
loss of gas and under saturation to some extent. As such, an average gas content of 5
m3/t for seams upto 1000 m. and 6 m3/t for deeper seams have been assumed for the sake
of estimation of gas in-place resource.

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Hydrogeology

The hydrogeological conditions are of crucial importance for CBM productivity.

In generally, the area is flat with gentle southerly slope. Ground water recharge occurs
in the western and eastern basin periphery and ground water flows basinward. The
ground water usually flows down regional topographic slope in response to hydraulic
gradient.

Systematic ground water study was carried out in UCG-1 well in Mehasana area which
indicated that there are sandy horizons above the lignite seams and a few are interbanded
with the seams as well. The aquifer, which is recorded above Sobhasan coal at 760-855
m., is composed of coarse sandstone. Water level in this aquifer is 15 m. above ground
level. Reservoir pressure is around 86 kg/cm2. Hydraulic conductivity ranges between
0.32 m/d and 4.3 m/d.
The DST formational testing for evaluating hydro-geological parameters of lignite
bearing sequence at Mehasana revealed the following :-
(I) Presence of potential aquifer systems immediately below and above Sobhasan
seam. The aquifer below Sobhasan is under sub artesian conditions. The
permeability of aquifer above Sobhasan-I seam in UCG 1 hole shows very high
value of 1.05 darcy and a horizon below Sobhasan IV shows permeability of 0.6
darcy.

(II) The sub artesian over pressure is due to recharge along elevated wet land, a
potentiometric surface that slopes upwards towards recharge and occurrence of
aquifers with high permeability.

(III) The lignite seams are of low permeability compared to that of the
associated sandstones. But the unconsolidated aquifers associated with lignite
may cause significant seepage into the seams.
In the R&D well at Mehasana, the pumping showed continuous production of water from
lignite beds. The seams are not exposed and as such the seams got recharged by
seepage. The formation pressure observed in LBM 1 well was 2087 psi (146 kg/cm) at
1385 m. depth indicating a hydrostatic pressure of 0.46 psi/ft. or somewhat hydrostatic
over pressure. This will involve higher yield of water during depressuring operations.
As hydrogeological condition varies in different parts of the large sedimentary basin it is
rather difficult to forecast the behaviours of aquifers associated with lignite seams. But
the fact remains the porous lignito-bituminous coals with 6-10% porosity will be fully
water saturated. This may result in production of significant volume of water during the
initial period.

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The water produced from the UCG 1 is chemically analysed as given in the enclosed
table. The water analysed from R&D well also has high bi-carbonate, low sulphate, low
calcium and high sodium radicals as given in the table below :

Chemical Composition of water produced from coal in R&D well

Ph 7.04 – 7.222
Temperature oC 29 - 31
Chlorite as CL mg/l 3354 - 4221
Bi-carbonte as HCO3 mg/l 2935 - 3532
Sulphate as SO4 mg/l 150
Calcium as Ca+2 mg/l 100.2 - 184.3
Magnesium as Mg+2 mg/l 58.4 - 141.3
Iron as Fe +3 mg/l 1.25 - 9
Silica as SiO2 mg/l 36.5 - 66
Sodium as Na+ mg/l 864.5 - 2118
TDS mg/l 10738 - 12379

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 Cambay Basin

Status of CBM exploration

Cambay basin is one of the most explored sedimentary basins of the country. Earlier
geological surveys were carried out by W.T. Blanford, T. Oldham and Bruce Foote. In
1910, the area was covered in greater detail by V.S.S. Iyer to assess the mineral wealth
of the then Baroda Estate. Between 1907 and 1914 B.C. Gupta and P.N. Mukherjee of
GSI mapped part of Gujarat and southern Rajputana and worked out the geological
sequence of the area. In Barmer basin GSI conducted regional exploration in Giral,
Botia, Bhadaka, Nimbla and Kapurdi areas. The Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd.
carried out exploration for lignite in specific shallower areas of Barmer basin.

During the late 1960s, ONGC acquired gravity data that showed the continuity of
Cambay basin northward into Barmer graben. It also depicted a gravity low near Sanchor
(Fig-54). In 1971-72 single channel seismic data were generated in the southern part of
Barmer basin. During 1989, 48-fold 2D seismic (dynamite) data were acquired over the
Sanchor depression under Intensive Integrated Exploration Project by Techno Export
(USSR). Some of these data were successfully reprocessed in 1996-97 by Shell India
Production Development (SIPD), the then operator of exploration block RJ-ON-90/1
located in the Barmer-Sanchor basin of Rajasthan. SIPD also acquired, processed and
interpreted about 1600 LKM of 2D seismic data in this area during 1996-97.
Subsequently, Cairn Energy India Ltd. (CEIL), who became the operator of the block
RJ-ON-90/1, acquired 1000 LKM of 2D seismic and 450 LKM of 3D seismic data
during 2000 and 2001, in their leased hold area (i.e. areas within the block RJ-ON-90/1).

Prior to drilling campaign in the Barmer basin by SIPD in 1999, two wells were drilled
by ONGC. The first of these, Serau-1 (TD 2106 m. below mean sea level) was drilled in
1972 on surface anticline inversion fold. The second well Sanchor-1 (TD 3202 m. below
mean sea level) was drilled as a parametric well, in the core of a syncline. Another well
Balutri-1 (TD 501 below mean sea level) was drilled 10 km. to the west of the Serau-1
well and encountered Miocene fluvial sequences lying directly over the basement. In
1972 Tharad-1 well was drilled.

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 Cambay Basin

In 1999 two exploratory wells viz. Guda-1 & Guda-2 were drilled in prominent central
basement high of Barmer rift by SIPD. Interestingly, the Guda-1 (TD 2573 m) and
Guda-2 (TD 3512 m) wells intersected the thick lignite seams at depth. The logs of
Guda-1 and 2 wells and check shot data allowed the generation of synthetic
seismograms. The character match with the lignite interval was found to be excellent
and thus the seismic data provided crucial information on the spread and geometry of the
lignite seams in Barmer basin in general (Fig-55).

In addition to this, the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) in collaboration

with ONGC carried out Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) to analyse the crustal behaviour.
One profile was through Dharimanna-Sanchor-Tharad-Diyodar-Vijwada (Fig-56).

Two Underground Coal Gassification (UCG) wells were drilled near Mehsana Town in
1986-87. These wells generated a wealth of information on the physical and chemical
attributes of the deep seated lignites. Taking cue from the encouraging results of UCG
wells, 3 R&D wells were drilled near Mehsana town by Essar Oil Company funded by
USAID under PACER programe, which generated crucial data on reservoir parameters
of thick lignite horizons of Cambay basin.

In view of presence of thick column of Shale with hydrocarbon generation potential

particularly in Cambay Shale Formation & thick coal seams particularly in Northern part
of basin adjoining Barmer basin of Rajasthan and Ahmedabad –Mehsana tectonic block,
additional opportunities exists to explore and exploit Shale gas/oil and Coal bed
methane.

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 Cambay Basin

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 Cambay Basin

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DGH,2003, 2005 ; Information docket for Barmer Sanchor CBM blocks

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