CAUVERY BASIN

INTRODUCTION

Cauvery Basin, on the east coast of India, is a Mesozoic rift basin, formed as a result of
fragmentation of Gondwanaland. The basin evolved as a rift basin in Late Jurassic time
and later transformed into an interior sag basin during Late Cretaceous. The basin,
extending from Latitude 8N to 12N, along the East Coast of India (Fig.1), has been
under hydrocarbon exploration since late nineteen fifties. Application of CDP seismic in
1984 considerably increased the pace of exploration resulting in the discovery of several
small oil and gas fields. The first deep well for exploration was drilled in 1964.

The Cauvery Basin, including the Mannar Sub-basin, covers an area of 61,000 sq.km
comprising onland (25,000 sq.km) and shallow offshore areas (36,000 sq km). In
addition, there is about 95,000 sq km of deep-water offshore areas in the Cauvery Basin.
Most of the offshore and onland basinal area is covered by gravity, magnetic and CDP
Seismic surveys. Geological map (Fig.2) for the outcrop terrain shows the exposed
formations.

The Prognosticated resources of hydrocarbon are placed at 700 MMT (430 MMT for
onland areas and 270 MMT in the offshore). The basin is endowed with five to six
kilometers of sediments ranging in age from Late Jurassic to Recent. Oil and gas have
been discovered in more than 30 fields which are located mostly onland. Source rocks
for the hydrocarbons are in pre-Paleocene formations and the reservoirs are of Late
Cretaceous to Oligocene age. Some of these fields are known to have multiple reservoirs.

Important discoveries of oil and gas fields include Kuthalam, Perungulam-

Periyapattinam, Kamalapuram, Adiyakamanglam, Thiruvarur, Nannilam, Narimanam,
Kovilkalappal, Tulsapatnam, Bhuvanagiri, Madanam-3, Pandanallur-8, in the onland part
and PH-9, PY-1, PY-3, D-35 and D-53 in the offshore. Recently, gas and condensate
discovery (D-56) has been reported by RIL in the NELP block CY-DWN-2001/2.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

As on 01.04.2015, ONGC has exploration license for over 515 sq km , of area in the
onland part. In the offshore, a total of approximately 21693 sq km area is under
exploration license of ONGC, OIL and a few private companies like Reliance, CAIRN
etc.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND COMMUNICATION

General
The onland part of the Cauvery Basin comprises an area lying east of the NNE-SSW
trending linear highland belt of Eastern-Ghats. It forms the gently sloping alluvial plains,
about 50 to 100 km wide. The prominent rivers flowing through the basin are the Vaigi
and its tributaries in the south, the Cauvery in the middle and the Ponnaiyar in the north.
Chidambaram town is located near the mouth of the river Cauvery. Pondicherry,
Karaikal and Nagapattinum are the other important coastal cities.

The continental shelf is 25 to 30 km wide off Pondicherry. It increases to 30 to 45 km

further south. In the Mannar sub-basin, the shelf is relatively wider and is of the order of
30 to 50 km in width.

Climate
The coastal belt of Tamil Nadu State remains hot and humid during major part of the
year. Summer months extend from February to June with an average day temperature
around 38ºC, which may exceed 40ºC on occasions. December and January are winter
months during which night temperature remains around 20ºC. There are two rainy
seasons. South-west monsoon rains become active during June and stay on till September
as in other parts of the country. This SW monsoon is generally weak. The northeast
monsoon during October to January is, however, more active all along the East Coast of
India and causes widespread winter rains.

Communication
The area falls in the State of Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
Chennai is the capital city of Tamil Nadu. It is a premier metropolitan city with all
international class facilities including air services. Tamil Nadu ports handle major
portion of export-import trade of India. Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu have an excellent
network of rails and roads.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

STATUS OF EXPLORATION

Geological Surveys
The Geological Survey of India first mapped this area in 1862. In recent years, geologists
of ONGC surveyed the exposed sedimentary rocks in detail. Since 1958, 11,160 sq.km of
reconnoitary surveys, 5,640 sq.km of semi-detailed mapping and 2,860 sq.km of detailed
geological mapping have been carried out. The geological map (Fig.2) shows the details
of outcrop geology. This map also incorporates stratigraphic information from about 48
shallow holes, each drilled to about 200 m depth in alluvium covered areas. The basin
has also been covered by geomorphologic surveys which are thought to help in the
delineation of interesting areas for exploration.

Geophysical Surveys
Geophysical surveys in the basin were initiated with Gravity-Magnetic campaigns way
back in 1959. Data are collected from 14,094 observation ‘stations’, including micro-
gravity recordings at 4942 ‘stations’. Marine gravity readings made over 3,2899 LKM
are also available. The Bouguer Gravity anomaly map (Fig.3) broadly defines the horst-
graben morphology of the basement. The magnetic anomaly map is shown as Fig.4.
Based on interpretation of GM data, detailed seismic data acquisition was planned and
carried out by ONGC and other operators for generating drillable prospects. Seismic
coverage (Fig.5) is dense in Nagapattinam, Karaikal and Pondicherry sub-basins. As on
31.03.2015, approximately 2D seismic data of 41956 LKM (Onland) and 101168 LKM
(Offshore) and approximately 3D seismic data of 10,586 Sq. km(Onland) and 28,759
Sq. km(Offshore) has been acquired in the basin (Table-1) for exploration of
conventional hydrocarbon. Tables-2, Tables-3, Tables-4, Tables-5, Tables-6, Tables-7,
Tables-8 and Tables-9 show the acquisition and processing parameters for a few of the
seismic campaigns carried out in the Basin.

The exploration activities are continuing in the deep water areas since the last decade in
Cauvery basin. This includes the exploration block seismic surveys, speculative seismic
surveys and drilling of wells in some of

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 CAUVERY BASIN

the deep water areas. It has improved the geo-scientific understanding of the deep
Cauvery offshore.

Exploratory Drilling
Search for hydrocarbons in Cauvery Basin began in late fifties. Exploratory drilling for
hydrocarbons in the Cauvery Basin commenced in 1964 and the first well was drilled in
Pattukotai followed by other shallower prospects, where structural highs were mainly
targeted purely based on gravity and magnetic anomalies. The first exploratory success
came about in the same year.

As on 31.03.2015, 519 onland and more than 76 offshore exploratory wells have been
drilled for exploration of conventional hydrocarbon.
The details of exploratory wells drilled/discoveries in NELP and nomination blocks are
described as follows:

Details of Exploratory wells drilled in NELP Blocks:

Dhirubhai- 35
The exploratory well CYIII-D5-A1 drilled in the year 2007 by RIL in the block CY-
DWN-2001/2, vertically upto a depth of 4081m MDRT, with the objective of exploring
Early Eocene, Late Cretaceous and Syn-rift sandstone. The well was terminated within
Granitic Basement after penetrating total vertical sediment thickness of 2750.38m and
vertical basement thickness of 118.82m. Lithocolumn of the well is shown in Fig. 6.
Litho cuttings, Mudlogging, Petro-physical analysis report and MDT results confirmed
hydrocarbon presence in the Late Cretaceous sands. A brief of the testing results is given
below:

Results Interval (m) MDRT Choke (") Flow Rate FTHP (psi)

DST # 1 3496 - 3504 28/64 Oil - 552 STBPD l 563.67

3394.5 - 3418.5 88/64 Gas - 31.2 MMSCFD

DST # 2 1258
Condensate - 1187
3455 - 3463 88/64
STBPD

The well CYIII-D5-A1 was declared as Gas and condensate discovery well in the
block.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Dhirubhai-53
The exploratory well CYPRIIID6-SA1 was drilled in the year 2011, in the block CYPR-
DWN-2001/3 by Reliance Industries. The objective of the well was to explore
Hydrocarbon potential of Late Cretaceous sand reservoir. It was drilled down to 3815m
TVDRT and was terminated within quartzite basement after penetrating a total vertical
sediment thickness of 2576.7m and vertical basement thickness of 32m. Lithocolumn of
the well is shown in Fig. 7. Two different hydrocarbon bearing sandstone reservoirs were
encountered in the late Cretaceous sandstone interval.

Three (3) Hydrocarbon interesting zones were identified in Mesozoic sequence (Late
Cretaceous). DST was carried out in the interval 3681-3700m and 3704-3710m. A brief
of the testing results is given below:

Interval (m) Choke (") Flow Rate FTHP (psia)

MDRT
3681-3700 & Gas - 37 MMSCFD
56/64 2282
3704-3710 Condensate - 1100 STBD

The well CYPRIIID6-SA1 was declared a Gas & Condensate well.

Dhirubhai-56
Recently, the exploratory well CYIII-D5-S1 was drilled in the year 2013 by RIL in the
block CY-DWN-2001/2, upto a depth of 5731m MDRT, with the objective of exploring
early Cretaceous play extension and to test the new play in Syn-rift phase. Three (3)
zones were tested by MDT, and pressure data established gas column from 5164-5039m
MDRT. DST was carried out in the perforated intervals 5050-5037m, 5075-5058m and
5100-5090m MDRT and the well flowed gas and condensate (Fig-8).

The discovery D-56 was notified on 23.08.2013. A brief of the testing results is given
below:

Interval (m) Choke Flow Rate Fluid Properties

MDRT (")
5037-5050, 5058-
Gas – 35.6 MMSCFD Gas Gravity-0.63-0.65
5075 & 5090- 56/64
GCR – 11BBL/MMSCF Condensate API- 36-400
5100m

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Madanam-3
The exploratory well Madanam-3 was drilled in the year 2012 by ONGC in the NELP
block CY-ONN-2002/2 located in eastern part of Ariyalur-Pondicherry sub-basin of
Cauvery basin., upto a depth of 1505m with an objective to explore hydrocarbon in
Basement, Kamalapuram Formation and High Amplitude Reflection Package (HARP)
within Oligocene. The well encountered basement at a depth of 1430m. The well has
been drilled on a horst at the basement level. Lithocolumn of the well is shown in
(Fig.9). Six (6) objects were identified for testing. The Object-I (1505-1430m) in
weathered basement was tested barefoot and initial flow of 168 m3/d Oil and 12,000
m3/d gas through 6mm bean was recorded. Thereafter, multibean study was carried
out and the results are as follows:

Bean BHP FTHP(psi CHP(psi) Oil rate Gas rate Fluid

Size (psi) ) (m3/d) (m3/d) Properties
(mm)
4 2684.3 1375 1750 53 3000
5 2519.2 1275 1675 91 6000
Oil API 35.70
6 2446.5 1225 1750 115 11500

Pandanallur-8
The exploratory well Pandanallur-8 falling in NELP-VI block CY-ONN-2004/2 in the
southern part of the Ariyalur-Pondicherry sub-basin was drilled upto a depth of 2977m
(2982m logger’s depth) in the year 2013. Two (2) hydrocarbon interesting zones of Pre
Cambrian and Upper Cretaceous were identified for testing. Object-I (2982-2692m) in
Weathered Basement was tested barefoot and the same produced Oil and Gas. Details
of the testing results are given below:

Bean FTHP(psi CHP(psi) Oil rate Gas rate Fluid Properties

Size ) (m3/d) (m3/d)
(mm)
6 900-950 1550 30 18000
Oil API 48.10 to
5 1300 2000 22.4 10500
45.070
4 1275 1750 26.4 13000

STHP-1800 psi, SCHP-2125 psi (Max.); SBHP at 2650m-2996 psi, Temp - 900

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Madnam-5 (Thirunagari-1)
Appraisal well Madnam-5 was drilled to appraise the oil discovery in Madanam-3 in the
NELP –IV onland block CY-ONN-2002/2 by ONGC This is the second discovery well
(gas from Basement) after discovery well, MD-3 (oil from Basement) in the same NELP
block. Subsequently Object-II (1496-1492 m.) flowed gas & traces of condensate from
Kamalapuram Formation (Fig-10). Details of testing mentioned below

Zone/ Formation Interval Bean Gas rate condensate

(m) (mm) (m3/d) rate
(m3/d)

Obj-I
2175-1675 7 61,800 9.6
Basement

Obj-II
1496-1492 7 52,000 trace
Kamalapuram formation

Madnam-6
Appraisal well Madnam-6 was drilled to appraise the oil discovery in Madanam-3 in the
NELP –IV onland block CY-ONN-2002/2 by ONGC. new pool gas discovery in
Kamalapuram Formation(Early Eocene age) was made in this well (Fig-11) . Details of
testing mentioned below

Zone/ Formation Interval Bean Gas rate Oil rate

(m) (mm) (m3/d) (m3/d)

Kamlapuram formation (Early

1375.5 –
Eocene age) 6 35000 24
1374.5

Discoveries in Madanam #3 and Pandanallu #8 are very significant as these are

from a non- classical reservoir i.e. Basement.
Besides these discoveries, Cairn Lanka, a subsidiary of Cairn India, has struck gas in two
wells namely CLPL-Dorado-91H/1Z and CLPL-Barracuda-1G/1 in SL-2007-01-001
block located in offshore Gulf of Mannar Basin between Sri Lanka and the southern tip
of peninsular India. The area, is

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 CAUVERY BASIN

geologically part of Cauvery Basin, which contains Cretaceous-Quarternary sedimentary

rocks. While the pay zones are mainly natural gas, potential for liquid
hydrocarbons is also indicated.
Details of Exploratory wells drilled in Nomination Blocks

North Kovilkalappal-1
The well North Kovilakappal-1 in L-II Onland PEL block of Cauvery Basin was drilled
upto a depth of 2416m in year 2010. One hydrocarbon interesting zone was identified for
testing. On testing, Obj-II flowed oil @40m3/d through 6mm bean from Lower
Cretaceous Andimadam Formation. Details of the hydrocarbon bearing zone
(perforated and tested) is given below:

Zones/ Interval (m) Bean Flow rate Well Head Fluid

Formation (mm) (m3/d) Pressure Properties
FTHP-375 psi
4 14.4 API- 20.40
Obj II/ CHP-300 psi
2132-2130m
Andimadam FTHP- 325 psi
6 40 API- 20.840
CHP- 150 psi
2132-2130m
plus additional
Obj II/ FTHP- 425 psi
perforations in 4 20 API- 23.570
Andimadam CHP- 475 psi
the interval
2130- 2132m

Kuthanallur-12
Kuthanallur-12 is an exploratory well drilled in year 2010 and falling in L-II PEL
block, Cauvery Basin. The well was drilled upto a depth of 2984m. On testing, the
interval 1364-1372m in Karaikal Formation (Eocene) produced oil @18m3/d on
SRP with API 36.270. The Bottom Hole Pressure and temperature recorded were 77 Ksc
and 71.70C respectively.

North Kovilkalappal-03
North Kovilkalappal-03 is an exploratory well falling in L-II PEL block, Cauvery Basin.
The well is drilled upto a depth of 2671m. Hydrocarbon interesting zone was identified
in the interval 2111-2152m in Andimadam Formation (Cretaceous). Object-I (2135-
2145m) was perforated and tested. Details of hydrocarbon bearing zone
(perforated and tested) is given below:
Zone/ Interval Bean Gas Oil rate THP BHP Fluid
Formation (m) (mm) rate (m3/d) (Ksc) (Ksc) Properties
(m3/d)

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 CAUVERY BASIN

API- 37.67-
Obj-I/ 2135- 38.60
Andimadam 2145 6 10000 80 84.4 194. Gas Gravity-
8 0.8185-0.8433

Periyakuddi -1
Periyakuddi-1 is an exploratory well drilled in the year 2011 and falling in L-II PEL
block of Cauvery Basin. The well was drilled upto a depth of 5216m. Five (5)
Hydrocarbon interesting zones were identified in Andimadam Formation (Lower
Cretaceous). Obj. IIIA (4350-4273m) was perforated and tested. Details of the
hydrocarbon bearing zone (perforated and tested) is given below:

Zone/ Interval Bean Gas Oil THP BHP Fluid

Formation (m) (mm) rate rate (Ksc) (Ksc) Properties
(m3/d) (m3/d)

Obj-IIIA/ 4350-
6 5500 3.34 15.8 597.6 API- 41.20
Andimadam 4273

Oil and Gas occurrences are known from about twelve main prospects in the basin
(Table–10). The important discovered oil and gas fields are shown in (Fig.12). The total
prognosticated resources of the basin including Mannar sub-basin, stand at 700 MMT
(430 MMT onland and 270 MMT offshore). Based on the new data acquired, the
prognosticated resources are under review. In addition, a large amount of hydrocarbon
resources are expected to be present in shallow and deep offshore areas.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

TECTONICS AND STRATIGRAPHY

Tectonic Framework
The Cauvery Basin is an intra-cratonic rift basin, divided into a number of sub-parallel
horsts and grabens, trending in a general NE-SW direction. The basin came into being as
a result of fragmentation of the Gondwanaland during drifting of India-SriLanka
landmass system away from Antarctica/Australia continental plate in Late Jurassic /
Early Cretaceous. The initial rifting caused the formation of NE-SW horst-graben
features. Subsequent drifting and rotation caused the development of NW-SE cross
faults.
This basic tectonic style is present in other East Coast basins as well, notably in the KG
Basin, Palar Basin and Mahanadi basin.
The Cauvery Basin contains the following major tectonic elements (Fig.13):
 Ariyalur-Pondicherry Depression
 Kumbhkonam-Madnam-Portonovo High
 Tranquebar Depression
 Karaikal High
 Nagapattinam Depression
 Vedarniyam High
 Thanjavur Depression
 Pattukuttai-Manargudi Ridge
 Ramnad-Palk Bay Depression
 Mandapam Ridge
 Mannar Depression
 Vedarniyam – Tiruchirapally Fault

Ariyalur-Pondicherry Depression
It is located in the northern part of the Cauvery Basin. It is a linear trough extending
from onland into offshore. In the west, it is bounded by Archaean granites and gneisses,
and in the southeast, by the subsurface Kumbakonam-Madanam-Porto Novo High trend.
Two series of fault trends are observed in this basin, one NE-SW defining the basinal
axis and other NW-SE faults transects the earlier trend. A thick sequence of exposed
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks occupies the western fringe of the

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 CAUVERY BASIN

depression. Tertiary rocks are thin in the exposed sequence. However, these are better
developed in the subsurface. The maximum thickness of Mesozoics is about 4,500m, and
that of Tertiaries, upto 2,500m. The total basin fill is estimated to be of the order of 6-7
kilometers.

Kumbakonam -Madanam-Porto Novo High

This feature occurs to the east and south of Ariyalur Depression. It is a discontinuous
basement high feature; the overlying sediments are 1600 to 2000m thick. During
Cretaceous period, the high trend was a positive feature. Tertiaries are found to rest over
the basement rocks in the crestal part of the high.

Tranquebar Depression
It lies south of the Kumbakonam-Madanam High, and, in turn, is limited to its south by
the Karaikal High. The total sediments in the basin are upto 4500m thick, of which about
2500m is of Tertiary age.

Karaikal High
It is located SE of the Tranquebar Depression and limited to the south by the
Nagapattinum Depression. Basement depth varies from just over 1000m in the northeast
to about 2500m at its southwestern end. Cretaceous sediments are absent over most parts
of the high.

Nagapattinam Depression
It is located between the Karaikal High in the north and the Vedaranniyam High trend in
the south. The basin fill is over 4500 m. The Nagapattinam Depression is a prolific
hydrocarbon producer from many pools ranging in age from Early Cretaceous to
Oligocene and hence is densely sampled with more than 400 wells of which close to 90
exploratory wells have penetrated synrift sediments.

Vedarniyam High
It limits the Nagapattinam Depression on its southeastern end. The high is developed
along the Coromandel coast extending southwards to linkup with the SriLankan massif,
the subsurface continuation of which is quite obvious. A maximum of about 1500m thick
sediments are expected over this basement high.

Pattukottai-Mannargudi Ridge
It is a NE-SW trending long ridge and a pronounced positive structural feature, running
along the Palk Bay coast and separates the Thanjavur Depression from the Ramnad-Palk
Bay Depression. The ridge gradually plunges in the northeast where the depth of its top

35
 CAUVERY BASIN

may exceed 1000m. The sedimentary cover is thin and mostly consists of Tertiary
clastics.

Thanjavur Depression
This is another isolated depression, elongated and trending NE-SW. This depression is
limited by exposures of basement rocks towards west and the Kumbhkonam High and
Pattukottai-Mannargidi Ridge towards north and east respectively. This is mostly a
Cretaceous basin with a thin Tertiary cover. The basin fill is upto 4000m thick.

Ramnad-Palk Bay Depression

It is located between the Vedaranniyam High on its northeast end, the Pattukotai-
Mannargudi Ridge to its northwest, and the Mandapam-Delft Ridge to its south and
southeast. The basin fill is 4500 m thick, out of which, about 2000 m is of Tertiary age.
Envisaged play types are structural closures along hanging wall of Mandapam-Delft
ridge and fan deltas along footwall of Pattukottai- Mannargudi ridge.

Mandapam Ridge
The ridge separates the Ramnad Depression from the Mannar Depression (in south) and
the Pamban Depression (in Sri Lankan territorial waters).

Mannar Depression
It is located in the Gulf of Mannar and opens to the Indian Ocean towards south. In an
east-west cross section, it appears as a ‘closed bowl shaped’ trough confined between the
Devakottai-Pattukottai Ridge on one side and the SriLankan massif on the other. A few
basement highs have been mapped in the northern part of the Gulf of Mannar. Well
Mannar-1 is drilled on one such high. It encountered thick basaltic rocks in the
Cretaceous section.

Vedarniyam – Tiruchirapally Fault

This is a long cross fault in the Cauvery Basin which is very apparent on the tectonic
map (Fig.13). It is a high angle strike-slip fault, which has brought diverse tectonic
elements like Thanjavur Depression, Pattukotai-Mannargudi Ridge in the south against
Ariyalur-Pondicherry Depression, Kumbhkonam-Madanam Ridge, Tranquebar
Depression, Karaikal High etc towards north. This fault dies out near the Vedarniyam
High. It separates the peri-cratonic basin in the north from intra-cratonic part of the basin
towards south.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Basin Evolution
Evolution of the Cauvery Basin is understood to have taken place through three distinct
stages, i.e., the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Rift Stage, the Late Cretaceous Shelf Sag
stage and Post-Cretaceous basin tilt stage. Representative seismic cross sections and
geological profiles across and along the basin show the basin configuration.

Upper Jurassic/Early Cretaceous

Initiation of rifting is understood to have begun during the Late Jurassic/Early
Cretaceous. Rift stage sediments such as Shivganga and Therani formations of Upper
Gondwana affinity are known from exposures. These were deposited in fluvial
environments. Continued tectonic activity widened the basinal area. The
Kallakudi Limestone (Dalmiapuram Limestone), which is younger to the Shivganga
Formation, may represent an episode of basinal deepening and paucity of clastic supply,
beginning with marine inundation during Albian.
In the subsurface, the Andimadam Formation, overlain by the Sattapadi Shale, appears to
mark the peak of this transgressive episode during Cenomanian.

Late Cretaceous
Late Cretaceous has been an important period during which formation of the horsts and
grabens reached a level of maturation. Grabens formed over the shelf reached to the
maximum depth with the deposition of transgressive shales and the associated tectonic
sedimentary facies represented by coarse sands. In exposures, this is represented by the
Ariyalur Group of rocks.
Two transgressive events that took place during (i) Turonian–Santonian and (ii)
Santonian– Maastrichtian are recognized in the basin. The Kudavasal Shale and
Portonovo Shale may mark the transgressive maxima corresponding to the two cycles.
Cretaceous period ended up with a strong tectonic event, recognized in the shelf sag
stage, when the major parts of the tectonic lows were formed and filled up with
sediments. Profiles across the Palk Bay and those running E-W onland establish this
contention. Isopach map (Fig. 14) and paleogeography (Fig-15) of the end of Cretaceous
indicate the thickness of Cretaceous fill and its environment towards the close of this
period. By this time, the Tertiary delta had started forming.

Post Cretaceous
Towards the end of the Cretaceous, the basin experienced a phase of upliftment and
erosion and a gradual basinward tilt of the shelf. The Tertiary sequence, which is well
developed in the sub-surface, was deposited in a general prograding environment with

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 CAUVERY BASIN

gradual subsidence of the shelf. This sequence can be subdivided into two groups, the
Nagore and Narimanam. The Nagore Group, consisting of the Kamalapuram Formation,
Karaikal Shale and Pandanallur and Tiruppundi Limestone, is well developed in the
south, whereas the Narimanam Group, comprising the Niravi Sandstone and the
Madanam Limestone attains its full development north of Karaikal High. By this time,
Tertiary deltaic environment appears to have considerably progressed eastwards.

Frequent and rapid fluctuation of sea level, causing repeated transgression and
regression, has been experienced by the Cauvery basin during sediment deposition. This
is observed in rapid facies variation at several places in the stratigraphic column and in
the seismic records of the area. Biostratigraphic studies have also documented various
fluctuations in paleo sea level.

Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy (Venkatrangan et al. 1993) is worked out from outcrop geology and
sub-surface information gathered from seismic and drilling data. A generalized
stratigraphy is presented in Fig.16. Stratigraphic

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 CAUVERY BASIN

correlation of formations developed in different depressions is shown in Fig. 17

The Cretaceous stages (Blanford, 1865), redesignated as groups by Rao, 1971
(Venkatrangan, 1995) are correlated with the sub-surface Cretaceous sequence. The
Tertiary mega-sequence is thick, but mostly unexposed, except the Niniyur Formation of
Paleocene age and the Cuddalore Sandstone of Mio-Pliocene. This sequence in sub-
surface is divided into the Nagaur and Narimanam groups (Venkatrangan, 1995).

Precambrian
Precambrian cratonic rocks comprising granites and gneisses are exposed all along the
western margin of the basin.

Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous

Overlying the Cratonic basement along the margin of the basin are exposures of
sedimentary rocks of Gondwanic affinity identified as the Shivganga Beds and Therani
Formation. The Therani Formation (eqv. Uttatur Plant Beds) in Ariyalur area contains
index Gondwana plant fossils (Ptilophyllum acutifolium). These rocks are feldspathic,
gritty and kaolinitic and inferred to have been deposited as initial rift fill sediments. The
equivalent units in the lower Andimadam Formation (eqv Uttatur Group) are found to be
its sub-surface equivalent.

Early Cretaceous
The rocks of the Uttatur Group is made up of Kalakundi, Karai Shale and Maruvathur
Clay formations in the outcrops and the Andimadam, Sattapadi and Bhuvanagiri
formations in the sub-surface. These formations overlie the older Gondwana rocks and
basement granites and gneisses.

Andimadam Formation
In the subsurface, the formation is developed in grabens, namely, the Ramnad, Tanjore,
Tranquebar and Ariyalur Pondicherry grabens and has varying thicknesses. The lower
boundary of the formation is marked by Archaean Basement rocks, while the upper
boundary is defined by an argillaceous section belonging to the overlying Sattapadi
Shale.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

It comprises pale grey, fine to coarse grained, micaceous sandstone and micaceous silty
shale. The sediments were deposited in a shallow marine, high-energy environment. An
Albian to Pre-Albian age is assigned to this formation.

Sattapadi Shale
This formation is widely distributed in the basin. It is observed in Ariyalur-Pondicherry,
Tranquebar, Tanjore, Nagapattinam and Ramnad sub-basins, and is absent in the
southeastern part of the basin. The Andimadam Formation marks its lower boundary and
an arenaceous facies of the Bhuvanagiri Formation marks its upper contact.
It comprises mainly silty shale and thin calcareous sandstone. The environment of
deposition is inferred to be marine, deposited in middle to outer shelf setting with anoxic
conditions. The age assigned is Albian-Cenomanian. This is one of the important source
sequences for HC generation.

Bhuvanagiri Formation
The formation is developed mostly in the northern and central parts of the basin. The
lower contact of the formation is conformable with the Sattapadi Shale. The Upper
boundary is unconformable with the younger Komarakshi Shale.
The formation is predominantly sandstone with minor claystone and shale. A
Cenomanian-Turonian age can be assigned to this formation. It is inferred to have been
deposited in middle shelf to upper bathyal environment.

Palk Bay Formation

The occurrence of this formation is restricted to the Palk Bay. However, isolated
occurrences of the formation are also observed in the Nagapattinam Depression. The
lithology is dominantly calcareous sandstone with a few bands of sandy claystone. The
depositional environment is inferred to be shallow marine in a fan delta setting. The Pre-
Albian to Turonian is the age assigned to this formation.

Late Cretaceous
The sediments in the outcrops are classified under two groups, namely, the Trichinopoly
and Ariyalur groups. These are known to have equivalent units in the sub-surface
(Fig.2). Elsewhere, in sub-surface these groups are of Upper Cretaceous age and are
separated by a prominent underlying unconformity with Early Cretaceous at the base.
The Trichinopoly and Ariyalur groups (Fig.2) in outcrops consist of the Paravey,
Garudmangalam, Silakundi Sandstones, Kallankurichi Limestone and Kalamendu
Limestone formations. The sub-surface equivalents are the Kudavasal Shale, Nannilam
Formation, Portonovo Shale and Komarakshi Shale.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Kudavasal Shale Formation

The formation is observed only in the subsurface. It is present all along the eastern part
of the basin. The formation unconformably lies over the Bhuvanagiri Formation.
The formation consists of shale/calcareous silty shale with occasional calcareous
sandstone bands. The formation belongs to Coniacian - Santonian age. The shale is
deposited in a transgressive environment.

Nannilam Formation
The formation has wide areal distribution, except in Nagapattinam Sub-basin and
western margin of the basin. It is conformably overlain and underlain by the Porto-Novo
and Kudavasal formations respectively. The formation consists of alternations of shale,
calcareous silty shales and occasional calcareous sandstones.
The environment of deposition is inferred to vary from outer shelf to upper bathyal. The
formation age ranges from Santonian to Campanion.

Porto-Novo Shale
The formation has wide areal distribution. It is observed to be predominantly developed
in the northern part of the Ariyalur-Pondicherry Sub-basin, west of Karaikal Ridge and
Palk Bay Sub-basin. The formation conformably overlies the Nannilam Formation, and
unconformably underlies the Kamalapuram Formation.
It is predominantly argillaceous with minor siltstone. The age of the formation is
Campanion to Maastrichtian. It is deposited in outer shelf to upper bathyal environment.

Komarakshi Shale
The formation has developed towards the eastern part of the basin. It is observed to be
well developed in Nagapattinam Sub-basin and west of Madanam area. It unconformably
overlies the Bhuvanagiri/Palk Bay Formation and underlies the Karaikal/Kamalapuram
formations.
The formation consists mainly of calcareous silty shale. Shales are biotitic in nature and
also contain glauconite at places. It is inferred that the formation is deposited in outer
shelf to upper bathyal environment. The age of the formation is Coniacian to
Maastrichtian.

Tertiary
A complete sequence of Tertiary sediments is encountered in the sub-surface. The
exposed rocks are represented by the Niniyur Formation of Paleocene age and the
Cuddalore Sandstone of Mio-Pliocene age. The Niniyur Formation comprises grey
brown, calcareous sands and shales. In the subsurface, Cuddalore equivalent is identified
as the Tittacheri Formation.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

The sub-surface section of Tertiary rocks is considerably thick and has been classified
into two groups, the lower part is named as the Nagaur Group and the upper part as the
Narimanam Group (Fig.14).

The Nagaur Group comprises the Kamalapuram Formation at the base, successively
overlain by the Karaikal Shale, Pandnallur and Tiruppundi formations. The group is
bounded by unconformities, which represent regressive events. Overall shallowing of the
basin is indicated during this period.

Nagore Group
The formations of this group overlie the Ariyalur Group. The base and top of the group is
marked by pronounced unconformities. The four formations recognized in this group are
described below.

Kamalapuram Formation
The formation is observed to be present in most part of the basin.
The Porto-Novo---Komarakshi Shale unconformably underlies the formation, whereas
the overlying Karaikal Shale has conformable contact. It consists of alternations of shaly
sandstones and shales.
The age of the Kamalapuram Formation ranges from Maastrichtian to Lower Eocene.
The environment of deposition is inferred as outer shelf to upper bathyal.

Karaikal Shale
The formation is present to the north of Karaikal and, near Mandapam, it extends
towards Mannar Sub-basin. The formation conformably overlies the Kamalapuram
Formation and underlies younger formations like Pandanallur, Shiyali etc.
The formation comprises shales, which are occasionally calcareous/pyritic. It is
deposited in middle to upper shelf environment. The age of the formation ranges from
Paleocene to Eocene.

Pandanallur Formation
The formation has a restricted areal extension. In Bhuvanagiri area, it is underlain by the
Karaikal Shale and overlain by Tiruppundi Formation. The Niravi, Madanam Limestone,
and youngest Tittacheri formations are also observed to overlie the Pandanallur
Formation at some places.
It consists of claystone sandstone, deposited in middle shelf environment. Age of the
formation is Lower Eocene.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Tiruppundi Formation
The formation is present in Pondicherry offshore, Nagapattinam Sub-basin, and south of
Palk Bay Sub-basin. It is unconformably underlain by the Karaikal Shale and overlain by
the Niravi Formation/Tirutturaipundi Sandstone.
The formation comprises limestone, siltstone and sandstone, deposited in inner to middle
shelf condition. It is of Middle Eocene to Early Miocene age.

Narimanam Group
The youngest sedimentary sequence comprising sandstone, clay/claystone and limestone
which are well recognized with distinct character is designated as Narimanam Group in
present case. This group comprises eight formations.

Niravi Formation
The Niravi Formation appears to be confined to eastern part of Ariyalur-Pondicherry-
Tranquebar Sub-basin, Karaikal Ridge and western part of the Nagapattinam Sub-basin.
The formation unconformably overlies the Tiruppundi Formation/Karaikal Shale.
Occasionally, it is observed to overlie the Pandanallur Formation. It underlies the Shiyali
Claystone and, at places, the Kovilkalappal Formation.
The formation consists of grey coloured, fine to medium grained, calcareous sandstone
with occasional pyrite and garnet. Carbonaceous shale with pyrites is also present. The
shale also contains aragonite. It is inferred to have been deposited in outer shelf to upper
bathyal environment. The formation ranges in age from Late Eocene to Oligocene.

Kovilkalappal Formation
The Kovilkalappal Formation occurs in Tanjore and Nagapattinam Sub-basins. It
overlies the Niravi Formation, and underlies the Shiyali Claystone, and Vanjiyur
Sandstone formations at places.
It is argillaceous in nature with a dominant presence of limestone. The age of the
formation is Middle to Upper Eocene. It is deposited along the prograding shelf edge in
inner shelf conditions.

Shiyali Claystone Formation

It is observed to occur in Madanam and Karaikal area. The age of the formation ranges
from Oligocene to Lower Miocene. The environment of deposition is inferred to be inner
shelf.

Vanjiyur Sandstone Formation

The formation has limited areal extent. It is observed over Karaikal Ridge and parts of
Tranquebar Sub-basin. It is predominantly arenaceous in character and comprises dark

47
 CAUVERY BASIN

grey, calcareous, occasionally pyritic sandstone and siltstone with feebly calcareous
clays.
The age of the formation is Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene. The environment of
deposition is inferred to be inner to middle shelf.
Tirutaraipundi Sandstone Formation
The formation is present in the southern part of the Nagapattinam Sub-basin towards
Palk Bay. The Karaikal Shale, Tiruppundi and Kamalapuram formations underlie this
unconformably. The Madanam Limestone and Tittacheri formations are observed to
overlie the Tirutaraipundi Sandstone. It comprises mainly sandstones with minor
limestone.
The age of the formation is Oligocene to Early Miocene. It is inferred to have been
deposited in an inner to middle shelf environment.

Madanam Limestone Formation

The formation is observed in parts of the south Arcot basin, Kumbakonam-Madanam
Ridge, Karaikal Ridge, Nagapattinam sub-basin etc. The formation is unconformably
underlain by the Tirutaraipundi Sandstone and Vanjiyur Sandstone. The Tittacheri
Formation overlies it. It comprises mainly limestone with minor silty clays.
The age of the formation is Early Miocene. It is inferred to have been deposited in
shallow inner neritic conditions.

Vedaranniyam Limestone Formation

The formation occurs only in the southeastern part of the basin. The Tittacheri Formation
unconformably overlies it. It consists of predominantly coral limestone and minor
grainstone.
The age of the formation is Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene. It is deposited in shallow
inner shelf (carbonate bank origin) environment.

Tittacheri Formation
The formation is present in a large part of the basin. It grades into the Cuddalore
Sandstone Formation near the outcrops. The Madnam and/or Vedarniyam Limestone
unconformably underlies this formation. This consists of unconsolidated gravely
sandstone and earthy clays.
The age of the formation is Lower Miocene to Pliocene and it appears to be deposited
under shallow inner shelf conditions.
Stratigraphic columns of few key wells (Fig.18) drilled in different parts of the basin are
given in Fig-19, Fig-20, Fig-21, Fig-22, Fig-23¸ Fig-24, Fig-25, Fig-26, Fig-27, Fig-28,
Fig-29, Fig-30, Fig-31 and Fig-32.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Geological History
The Geological history of the Cauvery Basin began with the rejuvenation of rifting, i.e.,
creation of a new rift basin during Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous times (Fig. 33).
The Ramnad sub-basin and the Mannar sub-basin appears to have come into being in the
earliest stage of basin development. These grabens contain Gondwana sedimentary rocks
such as the Shivganga and Therani formations. These formations were deposited in a
non-marine environment. The earlier described ‘Uttatur beds’ (Blanford, 1865) contain
typical Gondwana flora, (Prabhakar et al. 1993). This stage of basin formation is called
the RIFT STAGE. During this phase, the northern grabens such as the Tranquebar,
Tanjavur, Nagapattinam, Ariyalur-Pondicherry (Fig. 34) went through the initial stage of
formation as a result of ‘shear couple’ and ‘rifting’ resulting in deepening, and initial
marine incursion. These sub-basins are likely to have started with the deposition of ill-
sorted Early Cretaceous sediments at the base. These sediments also make up fault slopes
or basin shoulders or part of the basin floor fill. This tectonic phase was followed by
continued deepening of the grabens mainly in response to the tensional forces and partly
to thermal subsidence (Narasimhan, 1995). This second tectonic phase is termed as the
SAG STAGE. Cretaceous sediments during this phase were deposited in two major sub-
stages, recognised as Early and Late Cretaceous stages. The Andimadam, Sattapadi and
Bhuvanagiri happen to represent the Lower Cretaceous sub-stage when the basin
received relatively higher volume of arenaceous sediments from the surrounding granitic
high lands.

A cumulative thickness of around 3km of Lower Cretaceous sediments suggests a long

period of basin deepening followed by a differentiated sedimentation history. This period
also witnessed minor intrusions of dolerite, probably, in consequence of rifting. These
intrusive bodies have been encountered in the Mannar sub-basin.

Late Cretaceous was a period of widespread sedimentation under marine conditions. The
basin sedimentation, differentiated by the ridges, resulted in the formation of graben
shoulders. During this period, sedimentation in the basin took place under local and
regional transgressive phases, represented by the Portonovo Shale and its

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 CAUVERY BASIN

equivalent, the Komarakshi Shale. Together, they reached a thickness of about 1,000m.
The Ariyalur-Pondicherry sub-basins in the northeastern part appear to have hosted the
deeper water sedimentary facies of Late Cretaceous, possibly extending into deep-
waters.

Towards the end of Cretaceous (Fig.33 and Fig. 34), a major tectonic change took place.
It began with the formation of an unconformity at the base followed by a tilt of the basin
towards east. This phase, therefore, is designated as tilt stage. It essentially marks the
development of the shelf-slope system with the outer shelf sinking or tilting relatively
faster. This tilt happened as a result of thermal subsidence (Narasimhan et al. 1995). The
deposition of Tertiary sediments in this setup resulted in the formation of sedimentary
prisms resting over the top of Cretaceous during Paleocene and later times.

The Tertiary sediments are represented by widespread shales with sands and limestone,
mainly towards the top of Oligocene. The sedimentary prisms is divided into the Nagaur
and Narimanam groups, which comprise Karaikal Shale, Niravi Sandstone,
Tirutturaipundi Sandstone, Vedarniyam Limestone, Madnam Limestone and Titacherry
Sandstone.

Tertiary sedimentation, thus, took place in a typical shelf-slope setup, which responded
actively to tectonics and sea level changes. Such changes are reflected in the sedimentary
succession as unconformities and rhythmic beddings due to sea level fluctuations (Raju
et al, 1999). The Cauvery Basin is, therefore, construed to be a typical poly-history basin,
which began to develop as a shear rift setting and ultimately changing over to a shelf-
slope basin during Tertiary period.

Stratigraphic relationships and development of the different tectonic elements of the

basin (Fig.13) are further clarified with reference to a number of geological (Fig. 35,
Fig.36 and Fig. 37) and seismo-geological sections (Fig. 38, Fig.39 and Fig. 40) along
variously oriented section lines. The well location of these lines is shown in Fig. 18.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

OIL AND GAS HABITAT

The basement configuration map (Fig. 41) of the Cauvery Basin shows a sediment
thickness of about 5 to 6 km comprising thick shale, sandstone and minor limestone,
deposited in a sheltered shelf setting and basin floor environment. Oil and gas occurrence
(Fig. 12) is known from several stratigraphic horizons including Early Cretaceous, Late
Cretaceous, and Tertiary sequences. Hydrocarbons are produced even from fractured
basement rocks. The fields are located over a large geographical area from
Ramanathapuram in the south to Pondicherry offshore in the north. The plays include a
variety of types from anticlinal closures to stratigraphic traps. The recent discoveries of
hydrocarbon from fractured basement/ weathered basement have shown that the syn-rift
sequences are rich in source facies and hold potential for future exploration and
exploitation in the basin (Table-10).

Fields with multiple reservoirs are Narimanam, Nannilam etc. High concentration of
discovered fields (Fig 12) is observed around the Karaikal High and on its northern and
southern flanks towards the Tranquebar and Nagapatinum depressions respectively.

Geochemical studies indicate that Tertiary sediments are thermally immature and all
hydrocarbons are generated from Pre-Tertiary sequence only. Top of oil window occurs
at depths varying from 3000m to 3400m.

Source Rock
Sattapadi shales and their equivalents of Albian-Cenomanian age are considered as the
main source rock in the basin. It occurs in Ramnad, Tanjore, Tranquebar, Ariyalur-
Pondicherry and parts of Nagapattinam sub-basins. With average geothermal gradient in
the range 2.5 to 3.0 degree Celsius per 100 meters, these sediments have attained thermal
maturity in most of the depressions.

The next event of organic rich sedimentation in the basin is recognized to be in the Late
Cenomanian-Early Turonian Kudavasal Formation and its equivalent which are
represented by dark grey shales. The total organic

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 CAUVERY BASIN

carbon content (TOC) varies between 0.7 to 2%. These shales are thermally mature to
have generated hydrocarbons. These formations are about 1000m thick.

The Late Upper Cretaceous/basal Paleocene section, forming the lower part of the
Kamlapuram Formation, is also observed to possess good source rocks. The areal extent
of this sequence is limited.

The Komarakshi Shale of Santonian age and Kudavasal Shale of Campanian age are also
identified as source rocks. The basin wise source rock data is given in Tables-11 &12.
The data indicate that Kerogen is generally of type II and type III.

Source rock maturity distribution map for the Albian sedimentary sequences is shown in
Fig. 42.

The source rock characterization has been done based on samples from wells that were
drilled largely on the highs. It is reasonable to expect that in the axial parts of the
depocentres, the quality of source and maturation could be even better.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Hydrocarbon Generation
The shale sequences described above have passed through various degrees of maturation
and hydrocarbon generation. In the Pondicherry Sub-basin, the Cretaceous sequence is
assessed to be having a fair generation potential. It is true for the Narimanam area,
Tanjore Sub-basin, Nagapattinam Sub-basin, Ramnad Sub-basin and Palk Bay
Depression. Tertiary shale sequences, in the Nagapattinam and Tranquebar sub-basins
are having a fair to excellent source rock characteristics. These shale sequences are seen
to be extending into the Mannar Sub - basin.
Isotopic studies carried out by ONGC (1990) show that oils of the Cauvery Basin have a
substantial marine source. The Cretaceous oils from Bhuvanagiri and PY-1-4 offshore
wells are known to have different genesis. In the Nagapattinam sub-basin, Tertiary oils
are well correlatable. Paleocene oils of Tirukullar (TKR) and Kovilkallappal (KVK) are
different from those of the younger sequences. Geochemical studies suggest that Tertiary
oils were generated from Cretaceous source rocks and that these may not fall in a single
petroleum system.

Adsorbed gas studies carried out along the western depressions of the Cauvery Basin in
Sirvathur, Bhuvanagiri, Pattukotai and Ramnad area show the presence of strong
methane halos. The Ramnad anomaly is significant in being closest to the Mannar sub-
basin.

Reservoir Facies
Brief description and stratigraphic positions of reservoir rocks are given in stratigraphic
columns of key wells given in Fig-19, Fig-20, Fig-21, Fig-22, Fig-23¸ Fig-24, Fig-25,
Fig-26, Fig-27, Fig-28, Fig-29, Fig-30, Fig-31 and Fig-32.

During the rift phase of the basin evolution, extensive deposition took place in all the
sub-basins and depressions. The Palk Bay Formation (Early Cretaceous) consists of
dominantly arkosic sandstone which is considered to constitute good reservoir facies.
The younger Bhuvanagiri Formation (Late Early Cretaceous) with coarse-grained sand
beds also displays good reservoir characteristics. Hydrocarbon accumulations have been
found in both these formations. The reservoir characteristics vary with depth of burial,
diagenesis and depositional environment. It is observed that, whereas the areal extent of
Palk Bay Formation is restricted only to Palk Bay, the Bhuvanagiri Formation has wide
occurrence in northern and central parts of the basin. Both the formations exhibit good
reservoir characteristics.

In the drift phase, prograding sediments were deposited in the northern sub-basins. The
continental shelf-slope system developed during this phase. The shelf areas witnessed the

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 CAUVERY BASIN

deposition of clastic and carbonate sediments, while the slope system witnessed
deposition of deep-water fans and hemipelagic sediments. The arenaceous Nannilam
Formation (Late Cretaceous) displays good reservoir characteristics. Moreover, the
Komarakshi Formation is also observed to possess good reservoir facies. The Nannilam
Formation has wide areal extent, whereas the Komarakshi formation is observed to be
present towards the eastern part only. The hydrocarbon accumulations in these
formations confirm the presence of good reservoir facies.

The Tertiary sequence contains a number of important reservoirs within the

Kamalapuram and the Niravi formation. These formations comprise alternating
sandstones and shales. Sands of the Kamalapuram are well sorted and somewhat
compact and sandstones of the Niravi Formation are hard, compact and medium to fine
grained, poorly sorted and quartzose. Multiple reservoirs are common in Tertiary
sequences.
The Precambrian fractured basement is also a potential reservoir rock as proved by the
occurrence of hydrocarbons in the Porto-Novo Horst.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Cap Rock and Entrapment

The cap rocks are the shale sequences overlying sandstone reservoirs like the Sattapadi
and Porto-Novo Shales & Post-unconformity shale sequences like the Kudavasal and
Kamalapuram shales serve as excellent seals. The Kovilkallappal limestone and
Madanam limestone are also expected to act as hydrocarbon seal.

A number of hydrocarbon plays have been recognized in this basin. Known

accumulations are, generally, in combination traps. Accumulations are also expected to
occur in structural closures within the major depressions. The Thanjavur and Tranquebar
depressions of the onshore and Ariyalur-Pondicherry, Palk Bay and Mannar depressions
in offshore areas hold interest for structural prospects. Presence of such structural highs
is quite common in the basin. Structures over the intrabasinal horsts and sedimentary
wedges/pinchouts on the flanks are the commonly observed hydrocarbon traps.

Porosity variations, stratigraphic disposition and structural relief have also controlled the
hydrocarbon entrapment in the basin. The low-stand coarse clastics, deposited in basin-
floor fans, basin-slope fans and low-stand wedges form attractive hydrocarbon plays.
Possibility of the existence of such traps is high all along the eastern part of the basin
where low-stand coarser clastics grade into finer clastics. Carbonate buildups constitute
the other important play type (K.Mohan, 1999) in this basin.

Paleo-geomorphic entrapment conditions where the younger sediments (i.e.. Paleocene

canyon) are deposited on the eroded surface of the older rock body can also be suitable
locales for HC accumulations.
Fractured basement rock in the offshore PY structure is found to be hydrocarbon bearing.
Similarly, Weathered Basement, which has structural entrapment, mapped as four-way
closure as well as fault closure, proved to be hydrocarbon bearing in Madanam and
Pandanallur areas. The discovery of commercial quantities of oil and gas in basement has
opened up new exploration targets in the basin which needs to be chased by fresh inputs.
In the offshore areas, the slope facies, fans, turbidites etc. are expected to have developed
strati-structural traps.

In summary, it can be stated that in the Cauvery Basin, based on analysis of geo-history
and thermal gradient and maturation history, the main contributors for hydrocarbon
generation are the Cretaceous sediments. The process of hydrocarbon generation is
believed to have started in Early Paleocene times in the Ariyalur and Tranquebar
Depressions, and around Mid-Eocene period, in the Nagapattinam and Palk Bay
Depressions. During Late Eocene-Early Oligocene period, hydrocarbon generation is
believed to have reached its peak. The Upper Cretaceous sediments participated in
hydrocarbon generation from Late Paleocene upto the end of Miocene period. At the end

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 CAUVERY BASIN

of Miocene, all depressions were in different stages of hydrocarbon generation (K.C.

Balan et.al., 1993). Therefore, the hydrocarbon potential in each of the tectonic elements
is to be viewed in the light of the time of hydrocarbon generation, preferred path-ways
and directions of primary and secondary migration and the availability of suitable
entrapment conditions falling in the pathways of hydrocarbon migration.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Hydrocarbon Potential
The Cauvery Basin is an established hydrocarbon province with a resource base of 700
MMt. About Thirty-three oil/gas fields are located in both offshore and onland areas of
the basin. The hydrocarbon pools occur in Early Cretaceous to Oligocene sediments,
mostly in sand reservoirs.

Fractured Archean basement complex in the offshore PY structure, occurring in the

Porto-Novo horst is the oldest hydrocarbon bearing rock in the basin. The recent
discoveries of hydrocarbon from fractured basement/ weathered basement from
Madanam and Pandanallur areas has opened up new exploration targets to chase ‘not yet
found’ oil in the basin.

The source, reservoir facies with cap rock are observed to be in good relationship in the
Early Cretaceous Sattapadi and Bhuvanagiri formations. Hydrocarbon accumulations in
the above mentioned formations of syn-rift stage occur in several fields like the
Bhuvanagiri of onland and PH-9 and PY-3 structures of offshore areas. In addition latest
gas discovery from well Fan-A in the block CY-OS/2 further substantiate these
observation.

The post-rift Late Cretaceous sediments also possess source and reservoir facies with
adequate cap rock. The Komarakshi and Nannilam formations are proved to be
hydrocarbon prone. Hydrocarbon entrapment in Narimanam, Kovilkalappal, Tirukallar,
Nannilam and Tiruvarur is in reservoirs of Late Cretaceous age. Several structural,
stratigraphic and combination entrapment conditions are expected to be found in the
basin. In view of the above, the hydrocarbon potential of Early and Late Cretaceous
sequences can be considered as fairly good. Moreover, the main mature source rock
facies, which are supposed to have contributed hydrocarbons in the overlying younger
formations, belong to this sequence.

Hydrocarbon accumulations in the Paleocene sequence are observed at several places

viz. Kamalapuram, Adiykkamangalam and Kovilkalappal. Kamalapuram shales and
older source rocks of the Sattapadi Formation are thought to have generated
hydrocarbons. The arenaceous facies along with argillaceous facies developed in
Paleocene sequence are good enough to act as reservoir and cap rocks. Several
combination and stratigraphic traps with suitable disposition for entrapment are also
observed to be present in the basin.

The occurrence of hydrocarbons in the Eocene sequence (Karaikal and Madanam fields)
is another positive aspect indicating the potential of the basin. The supply of
hydrocarbon is presumed to be from the older mature source belonging to Early

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 CAUVERY BASIN

Cretaceous to Paleocene. The basement faults, rejuvenated in geological times are

thought to have acted as conduit for hydrocarbon migration to Eocene and younger
sequences.

Accumulations of hydrocarbons are known in Oligocene sequence also. In the

Narimanam field, accumulations are observed in Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene
reservoirs. In this case also, reactivation of the faults played a dominant role in the
distribution of hydrocarbons in sequences ranging from Paleocene to Oligocene.

Proven play types in the basin are –

- Structural and combination traps in Early Cretaceous to Paleocene and Basement
fractures
- Stratigraphic traps such as pinch-out/ wedge-out and lenticular sand bodies in
Early to Late Cretaceous sequences.

Three levels of plays are expected/ proved in the Cauvery Offshore:

i) Thick Tertiary wedge & deep water fan play,
ii) Offshore Cretaceous shelf platform play,
iii) Plays associated with pro-grading margins, older than the break- up
unconformity(122Ma).
In view of the fact that the basin has good development of source, reservoir, cap rocks
and trapping mechanism and also established commercial oil/gas accumulations, the
hydrocarbon potential of the basin is judged to be quite promising.

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 CAUVERY BASIN

UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF HYDROCARBON

Apart from Conventional Oil and Gas resource the basin also possess Unconventional
hydrocarbon resources making this basin more interesting from investment point of
view. Details of the different Hydrocarbon resources are as follows

1. SHALE GAS:-
The organic rich source rock (mainly shale) on deep burial with geological time, results
in conversion of organic matter into oil and natural gas. The quantities, that are retained
in-situ within source rock, constitute the unconventional shale gas/oil. The important
features of shale Oil/Gas mentioned below
• In case of shale oil/gas, shale acts as source, reservoir as well as cap rock.
• Based on the type of organic matter and maturation level (either oil or gas window), the
unconventional hydrocarbons could be shale oil or shale gas or a combination of both.
• The gas in shale are held as free gas within natural fractures, pore spaces and some are
stored as adsorbed gas on the organic matter.
• The shale is characterized by low matrix permeability and it requires hydraulic
fracturing for shale gas / oil production.
• Shale gas and oil reservoir is characterized by moderate to high TOC, low clay, high
Gamma, high resistivity, low bulk density, low sonic velocity, low water saturation, high
Young’s Modulus and low Poisson’s Ratio generally termed as ‘Sweet Spots’.

The Government of India has carried out studies through various national and
international agencies for identification of shale gas and oil resources in the country.
Based on the geoscientific data available from conventional oil and gas exploration in the
country for so many decades, the country holds promising reserves of shale gas in
Cauvery basin along with four other basin (KG Basin, cambay Basin, Assam & Assam
Arakan Basin, Ganga Valley). The estimation by various agencies the regarding shale
gas resource potential is tabulated at (Table- 13) At present there are Nine blocks in
Cauvery basin are under exploration stage with ONGC. ONGC have taken several Cores
in Andimadam section Early Cretaceous in two wells ASAE and PDAB falling in L-II
PML. Average TOC value of Andimadam Formation is greater than 2.0% within the
depocenters of the

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sub basins and between 1-2% over most of the basin(Fig-43). Average VRo value of
Andimadam Formation (early Cretaceous) is greater than 0.75 within the depocenters of
the sub basins and between 0.5-0.75 towards the flanks. Highest values of Vro of around
1.0 are seen in the Bhuvanagiri area (Fig-44).

B. Coal Bed methane

The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called 'sweet
gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known
from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk.
Coalbed methane is distinct from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir,
as the methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption. The methane is in
a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called the matrix). The open
fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with
water.

Lignite Seams Deposition And Occurences

The Cauvery basin witnessed a number of transgressions and regressions of sea generally
along the continental margins right from the Lower Cretaceous to the Pleistocene period.
Some of the Tertiary palaeo-shorelines largely coincide with the known lignite prospects.

The detailed investigations for lignite carried out so far by various agencies in Tamil
Nadu and parts of Union Territory of Pondicherry have brought to light several detached
lignite prospects from north to south i.e. Bahur, Kudikadu, Kullanchavadi, Mine-I, Mine-
II, Mine-III of Neyveli, South of Vellar, Meensuruti, Veeranam, Jayamkondam,
Michaelpati and Mannargudi Blocks as shown earlier in Fig-45. The lignite in the upper
part of the Cuddalore Formation occurs as one major seam with some split sections. The
seam is encountered only at subsurface, at depths varying between 45 and 150 m below
ground level in Neyveli. It splits into 2 or 3 (or more) seams towards southern and
western periphery. The splits also tend to coalesce with the main seam. A few local
seams overlying the main seam have also been encountered in some places. The seam is
extensively mined at Neyveli.Around Mannargudi, the seam also occurs as a major
composite seam with thickness varying from 7 to 85 m. As in elsewhere the seam
exhibits splitting tendency.

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It is of interest to note that the trends of these lignite deposits are almost parallel/sub-
parallel to the trends of palaeo-shorelines (Fig.46).

The loci (central portion of basin) of lignite deposition indicate that (i) the lignite is
deposited in homotoxial sub-basins and (ii) they are aligned roughly N 100 E - S 100 W
direction, which is parallel/sub-parallel to the present configuration of east coast as well
as the crystalline/sedimentary contact in the west. It is postulated that the lignite was
deposited in the vicinity of the regressed palaeo-shore of a particular period and the
positions of the homotoxial sub-basins are controlled by transverse lineaments . The
Bahur prospect appears to constitute the northernmost extension of the alignment of sub-
basins, however, this needs confirmation. Intersection of lignite in Lalpettai (Veeranam)
area may have to be considered as deposition in a separate sub-basin which can be a part
of a parallel line of sub-basins which formed in the vicinity of either the same regressed
shoreline or the succeeding one.

Preliminary studies of the LANDSAT Imageries by Thematic Mapper (TM) and Multi
Spectral Scanning (MSS) of imageries of 1:250,000 scale of South Arcot (Standard FCC)
Sub-basin was made at Water Institute (Ground Water Division), PWD, Tamil Nadu by
MECL. In the coastal area, north of Coleroon, there are series of NNE-SSW trending
palaeo-shorelines extending from Coleroon river up to north of Gingee river. The oldest
palaeo-shoreline picked up from the satellite data coincides with the crystalline-
sedimentary contact. Another trend which is traversing the area east of the above oldest
trend corresponds with the Cretaceous/ Tertiary contact. It is interesting to note that two
more prominent series of trend lines are discernible, one east of Vridhanchalam and
Panrutti and the other east of Neyveli and West of Bahur. Further, numerous other
curvilinear palaeo-shoreline features could also be identified very close to the coast line,
through Chidambaram, Bhuvanagiri, and Lalpettai (After ONGC, 1993).

Due to lack of clarity, only a few palaeo-shorelines, lineaments and sand bars could be
traced in the Thanjavur sub-basin south of Coleroon fault. Correlation of Mannargudi
prospect with palaeo-shorelines in Thanjavur sub-basin could not be made in the
absence of requisite data.

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Based on exploration carried out for lignite in Cauvery basin the following potential blocks have
been identified:
Block Area Seam Thickness Reserves
Sq.km (m) MT
Bahur 49 0.80-21.60 580
Jayamkondam 130 0.30-20.40 1168
South of Vellar 66 0.45-18.70 604
Neyveli Mine-I 50 1.20-25.20 620
Neyveli Mine-II 51 2.00-27.80 782
Neyveli Mine-III 63 0.80-22.00 759
Veeranam 160 1.00-24.15 1491
Mannargudi 769 0.3-85.6 21931

The floor of the lignite prospects is generally defined by confined aquifers, while semi-
confined aquifers of varying thickness seem to have been formed after the lignite
followed by intercalated litho-units of clay, sandstone and sand in the transgressing and
regressing phases. The splitting of seams and interbands of clay and sand in the lignite
seams can be considered as due to eustatism of varying intensity.

Environment Of Deposition Of Lignite Seam

The Neogene sedimentation in Cauvery basin took place on a stable shelf environment.
All the palaeo- rivers of the Cauvery basin appear to have been accumulating sediments
during a regressive phase when basinal areas witnessed varied environments between
fluvial, lacustrine, brackish, lagoonal and even marine conditions in a prograding delta
system. The Cuddalore Formation with poorly sorted sediments, alternation of sandstone,
clayey sandstone, sandy clay together with thick lignite seams points to their deposition
in a fluvial to near shore environment. During deposition of lignite, the basinal areas
enjoyed a tectonic stability favouring extensive accumulation of peats in discrete sub-
basins. The floral and palynological record of lignite horizons indicate that the
depositional locales was inhabited by moist tropical forest along with inland/coastal
mangrove associate and beach plant communities.
The sparingly banded nature of the lignite seams (Fig-47) together with the
overwhelming dominance of huminite macerals and poor sporinite content is indicative
of their formation from forest vegetation. The predominance of humodetrinite and
frequent association of fungal

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remains as sclerotinite relate to humid tropical climate and peat accumulation under sub-
aqueous conditions under a high water table together with a high degree of bacterial
degradation. The Cuddalore sandstone underlying the lignite provided a platform on
which the peat swamp evolved in a favourable geohydrological regime. Pyrite framboids
and the common presence of Botryococcus indicate an anaerobic alkaline condition
during the peat formation

Gas Content of Lignite Seams

Of the different identified lignite blocks in the Cauvery basin, the Mannargudi block
holds considerable prospect for CBM exploitation. Lignite seam not only attains
considerable thickness (maximum 85m) in this block but also occurs at reasonable depth
of 145 to 550 m. Further this block holds sizeable resources of lignite because of the
regional persistence of the lignite seam in the entire stretch of the block with a resource
base of 20.89 billion tonnes of lignite.

These low rank lignites have attained rank (upto VRo 0.33%) well below the threshold
of thermogenic methane generation. However, recent researches have revealed that
secondary biogenic gases particularly in low rank coals are more abundant than
previously understood and represent an important component of coalbed gas resource.
Accordingly, a pilot borehole was drilled in Mannargudi and desorption data were
generated by Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH). Adsorption isotherms were
also obtained to ascertain the degree of gas sorption capacity. Despite drilling by
conventional straight line method and some attendant problems while drilling in lignite
in this hole, lignite samples show a maximum gas content of 0.84 m3 /t. The adsorption
isotherms show maximum sorption capacity of 3.9 to 4.9 m3 /t at 44.83– 44.99 kg
pressure (Fig.48 & Fig.49).

The above study though preliminary in nature, shows, a close similarity of the geological
setting of Mannargudi lignite basin with that of Powder River basin in USA. In Powder
River basin the lignite to sub-bituminous coals show low gas content of less than 1.5
m3 /t. (Av.0.85m3 /tonne) but the thickness of the seam (Average 30 m and above)
coupled with high permeability (upto 1 + Darcy) and shallow drilling depth favoured
CBM exploitation as an economically attractive endeavour. The Mannargudi

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 CAUVERY BASIN

block shows some analogy with Powder River basin in respect of large thickness of
lignite, significant resource base, shallow depth of occurrence, and low but notable gas
content of seams. The permeability of the Mannargudi lignite is yet to be quantified but
petrography of the lignite shows that it is likely to be permeable.

The methane in low rank lignite may actually be secondary biogenic methane associated
with meteoric recharge and metabolism by bacteria carried by circulating ground water.
In essence, the expected presence of biogenic gases in Mannargudi lignite is controlled
by basin hydrology.

Hydrogeology
Hydrogeological studies lead to reservoir characterisation, because hydraulic gradient,
pressure regime and hydrochemistry define an aquifer’s ability to accept and transmit
fluids and gas.

Thanjavur district which includes large part of lignite basin is drained by a number of
perennial rivers which are distributaries of the main Cauvery River. Except for small part
of the district occupied by rocks of Archaean age, the district is occupied by porous
sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Cretaceous to Recent and ground water occurs in
all the geological formations. The aquifers of relevance for CBM exploitation relate to
those in the Miocene sequence in which the lignite seam is developed. In this sequence a
lower aquifer of maximum thickness of 75m under confined conditions occur below the
lignite. There is an upper main aquifer of about 35m thick where ground water occurs
under semi-confined conditions above the lignite. The main feature of these aquifers is
that the ground water from the lower aquifer flows upwards for the overlying aquifer
zone which in turn recharge shallow aquifer system by upward leakage through semi-
confined upper and middle Miocene formations. This shows that the lignite in
Mannargudi area is overlain by thick aquifer and underlain by another aquifer. As
reported, there is high degree of systematic connectivity between the large aquifers and
the lignite seams. Thus CBM potentiality will be controlled by leakage of water from
overlying and underlying aquifers. In fact in some part of the basin, aquifer leakage will
maintain considerable reservoir pressure.
Present CBM exploration status
One CBM block was offered to GEECL during CBM round 4. Exploration activity yet to
be started.

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DGH 2008
Information docket for CBM bock Mannargudi

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