IAL BIOLOGY REVISION

unit 1
N. Ali
 1A

Water

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins
 1A
Summary
Water
Water has a dipole nature as the hydrogen atoms are more positive than oxygen atom- this
causes ions to be able to dissolve in water.
Hydrolysis: using water to break down molecule
Carbohydrates(C,H,O)
Monosaccharides are the soluble carbohydrate monomers made of one single sugar unit
2 monosaccharides can join in a condensation rxn to form disaccharide by glycosidic bond
(maltose 2 glucose, sucrose glucose and fructose, lactose glucose and galactose)
Polysaccharides-several monosaccharides joined together (glycogen in animals starch in plants)
Lipids - Nonpolar- insoluble in water. Long term energy reserve
Can be saturated with no C=C or unsaturated with C=C
Eg triglyceride made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol joined by ester bond. Fatty acids differ in
chain length, presence and no. of double bonds.
Proteins
Amino acid monomer joined by peptide bond. Primary structure is aa sequence secondary is
folding tertiary is 3D folding quaternary involves more than 1 polypeptide chain.
 1A
Explain how water is involved in the transport of molecules in living organisms.
Polar solvent that dissolves ions to transport them

Why is glucose more soluble in water

Has more polar OH groups so can form more h bonds with water
Fatty acids insoluble
Have non polar tails can't form h bonds with water

Explain how the properties of water molecules result in surface tension. (3)
Water molecules are dipolar therefore form hydrogen bonds with each other resulting in
cohesion between them which results in an inward force at its surface

Water has high specific heat capacity as there are many hydrogen bonds that would
need a lot of energy to increase temp of water this ensures aquatic life as temp is
constant for enzymatic activity
 1A
Describe the structure of starch
Compact insoluble molecule
Made of the polysaccharides amylose and
amylopectin, both are made of α glucose
monomers joined by glycosidic bonds
Amylose: linear, coiled, only has 1,4 glycosidic
bonds
Amylopectin: branched, has 1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds

Since amylopectin/ glycogen branched rapidly

hydrolysed into glucose for energy
Compact stores more energy in less space
Insoluble no osmotic effect
Polysac energy store
 1A
Describe structure of triglyceride
3 Fatty acid and 1 glycerol joined by ester bond through condensation rxn.

Broken down by hydrolysis

Unsaturated have C=C, kinks in fatty acid R hydrocarbon chain,

Has lower H:C ratio
Saturated is straight

Triglycerides transported in blood by forming lipoproteins by binding to proteins as they are

insoluble

Why do fatty acids have different melting points

As the number of double bonds increases melting point decreases as the fatty acid has more
kinks so fatty acids have weaker intermolecular forces since they are packed less closely
 1A.
Explain how the primary structure of an enzyme determines its three-dimensional (tertiary) structure and its properties
1. The primary structure of the polypeptide involves the linear sequence of amino acids in the chain
2. Where the amino acids are joined together by peptide bond between carboxyl group of one amino acid
and amine group of another amino acid .
3. This determine the arrangement and type of R groups of amino acids
4. In turn , determine the type of bonds and interactions formed between R groups
Example : as hydrogen bonds between polar R groups , ionic bond between ionised R groups
5. These bonds hold / determine the overall folding and coiling of the polypeptide chain into tertiary structure
....with a specific shape of active site .
Explain how this primary structure produces this soluble protein
In primary structure
Which involves linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bond ( between carboxyl
group of one amino acid and amine group of another amino acid )
Which is formed by condensation reaction , involves the removal of water
Secondary structure
Folding of the polypeptide forming secondary structure , forming beta pleated sheets ( flat sheets) and
aplha helix , held by hydrogen bonds ( between the O of the carbonyl group of one amino acid and H of
amine group of another amino acid ) with no R group involvement .
Tertiary structure
Over all folding and coiling of polypeptide chain into a specific 3D shape to form tertiary
structure which is maintained by R group interaction and bonding such as hydrogen bonds
between polar R groups , ionic bond between ionised R groups , disulfide between cysteine amino
Acids
 1B

Principle of circulation

Blood and Blood vessels

Heart

Atherosclerosis
 1B.
Why do mammals need circulatory system? Diffusion alone= too slow to supply
cells w nutrients
- level of metabolic activity = more active so more oxygen and glucose required
for aerobic respiration so more oxygen needed
- sa: volume ratio = they are large so they have a small : sa:v ratio cannot rely on
diffusion
-large in size = high diffusion distance, blood wouldn't be able to supply all tissues

Advantages of double circulation

-Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- Because the blood passes through the heart twice, so it can travel rapidly to the
body's cells delivering the oxygen that the cells need
- pumps at 2 different pressures: low pressure to protect thin walls capillary
+ high pressure circuit supplying blood quickly to rest of body
 1B
Blood clotting takes place to reduce blood loss and
prevent pathogens from entering through injury.
thrombosis= if this happens in an artery causing a
blockage
1) Platelets come in contact with damaged blood
vessel and change shape to spherical shapes.
Clump together to form temporary plug
2) Platelets release thromboplastin, a double
enzyme that catalyses conversion of
prothrombin to thrombin
3) Thrombin catalyses fibrinogen into insoluble
fibrin fibres that form a mesh that trap more
blood cells to form a clot.
 1B
Gas exchange
Haemoglobin is a soluble globular protein found in rbcs with 4
haem groups each has fe ion to which 1 oxygen molecule can bind
Oxygen binds to hb and unbinds in respiring tissue
Oxygen affinity (how easily oxygen loads onto Hb)
Varies depending on oxygen partial pressure/ conc
In lungs high PP O2 so loads more readily
In tissue PP O2 decreases affinity decreases unloads.

Explain S shape of curve

Haemoglobin consists of 4 haem subunits each bind to an O2
After difficulty binding to first oxygen molecule Hb undergoes
conformational change so other molecules bind more easily and
quickly. Curse flattens out as Hb becomes saturated and no more
oxygen can bind .
 1B.
Explain shift shape of curve fetus
Fetus depends on its mother form oxygen supply
So fetal haemoglobin has higher affinity to oxygen
Than adult / mother Hbg
So can remove oxygen from mother’s blood at low PO2
High altitude
Lower PO2 in atmosphere so lower PO2 in lungs
Lower PO2 in alveoli
Lower concentration gradient between alveoli and blood
So slower rate of diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into blood
So haemoglobin is less well saturated with oxygen
Less oxyhaemoglobin ...Hb at low PO2 has lower affinity to
oxygen
So less oxygen in blood ..so less respiration ....altitude sickness
and hypoxia
 1B

Tunica externa with collagen fibres

Tunica media w muscles,elastic fibres
lumen Tunica intima
Endothelial lining cells
Folded inner lining to avoid damage
allowing to stretch

Made of one layer of endothelial cells

 1B.
Explain how arteries are adapted to its function :
1. Thick outer wall contain collagen ...+ withstand pressure
2. Tunica media with many smooth muscles and elastic
A) smooth muscles : accommodate the volume of blood Being transported to
different body parts by
contraction and relaxation
B) elastic fibres : to stretch and recoil to maintain high blood pressure
3. Inner folded endothelium ( single layer of squamous epithelial cells ) expand
upon ventricular systole
To prevent bursting and with stand high blood pressure without damaging
endothelium
Aorta:
4. Higher % of elastic fibres
5. Semilunar valves to prevent back flow pf blood during diastole ( relaxation )
6. Branches to supply blood to different body parts
1B
 1B
Cardiac cycle
AV open SL closed: atrial systole and
cardiac diastole, blood enters
AV closed SL open: ventricular systole
blood leaves heart
 1B
Atherosclerosis: the hardening of arteries caused by build of
plaque/ atheroma.
Atheroma formation in coronary artery is the cause of CVD
1) Damage to endothelial lining due to high blood
pressure/ cholesterol/ smoking
2) Leads to inflammatory response causing WBCs to
move into artery
3) Cholesterol buildup on artery wall into atheroma,
calcium ions and fibrous tissue build up around
atheroma hardens into plaque
4) Leads to narrowing of artery restricting blood flow
increasing bp damaging endothelial lining
5) reducing blood supply to heart muscle so deprive heart
muscle from oxygen
 1C.
Risk:the probability of an unwanted outcome or event
Correlation :When a change in one variable is reflected by a change in another variable
Causation : When two variables are causally linked:when a change in one is responsible
for another.
Antioxidants: reduce free radicals that damage endothelial lining -> atheroma
Age:Reduced Elasticity and width of Arteries as a person ages genetics: Genetic
conditions that can alter blood pressure, cholesterol metabolism, arteries strength,
relative HDL:LDL levels in blood.
Gender :Women have a lower risk due to oestrogen produced by their bodies before
menopause helps to get reduce levels of LDLs.
Diet : More saturated fats and higher salt levels mean there is more LDL cholestrol in the
blood that can cause atheromas.
Smoking :Chemicals in tobacco contain free radicals. These oxidide the endothelial cells
as they have a free electron that needs to be paired with another electron, therefore
causing damage to the endothelium .Smoking also causes arteries to constrict.
 1C.
Why do people underestimate the risk of (diet/smoking) on cvd?
1. Long term effect- takes a long time to develop
2. Risk is applied on groups rather than individuals.
3. Own Experience contradicts with research, example if they see people smoking,
eating high fat, high salt diet, never exercising and yet appearing well
4. So people then underestimate the risk factors of CVD associated with smoking,
obesity,lack of exercise or a high salt diet.
5. Mistakes when people asses risk, example sometimes people will continue smoking
because they don’t want to gain weight as smoking speed up metabolism and reduces
appetite.
6. Calculating personal risk/benefit situation, so easy to think that the immediate
benefit( pleasure in eating high fat food, smoking, not wanting to make effort to exercise)
is more important than the apparently low risk of heart disease.
 1C Treatments

Experiment : effect of --(eg vit c) on CVD

1) Get a large sample of healthy
volunteers
2) Of matched age / gender / mass /
lifestyle / diet
3) Divide into groups – one group given
no vitamin C supplement, just a
placebo one given supplement vit c
4) Monitor incidence of heart disease
over groups over a long period of time

Why study might be unreliable

-not all factors can be controlled
- unreliable estimate - no clear definition of
high salt diet, cigs smoked differ,
 1C
Experiment : compare vit c conc of 3 fruits
1) Collect fruit extracts from all 3 fruits
2) get beakers with certain volume of DCPIP
3) Titrate drops of fruit extract 1 till color changed
from blue to colorless, record drops needed,
repeat for other fruits on new dcpip of same
volume
4) Repeat whole experiment 3+ times
5) Use calibration curve to get concentration
Control : storage time and age of fruit

Why risk decreased over years: better healthcare,

people more aware of risks and lifestyle
 2A

Cell membrane

Diffusion

Osmosis

Active transport
 2A
The cell membrane controls movement of substances into and out of cells,
has proteins and glycoproteins embedded into membrane. has surface
receptors to bind to things like hormones.
Structure is a Phospholipid bilayer membrane has phosphate heads
outside as they are hydrophilic and interact with polar aqueous
environment while fatty acid tails are nonpolar/ hydrophobic orientate
themselves away from aqueous environment.
Fluid mosaic model:
Fluid due to fluidity of phospholipid bilayer that allows molecules to flow
within it. Mosaic of transport proteins, receptor proteins of various shapes
and sizes embedded. Cholesterol found in membrane to give it stability
and reduce fluidity. Non polar part within fatty acid tails OH group attached
to phosphate heads.
 2A
Transport

Passive Active

Active transport
Osmosis Endo,exocytosis -needs energy from
Simple Transport large
Facilitated Water can pass hydrolysis of ATP,
diffusion molecules into
through transport polar
-small diffusion cell endocytosis
aquaporin molecules or ions that
nonpolar -polar ions like Out of cell
channels or have a complementary
molecules NA+ CL- or larger exocytosis shape to the binding site
like co2, o2 molecules like through
membrane as it Using vesicles. on protein
glucose carriers in the cell
Polar channel or is dipole and membrane, they change
carrier protein very small shape to transport ion
against conc gradient
 2A

● Gas exchange surface adaptations:

Thin alveoli wall - reduces diffusion distance
Many alveoli - increase SA for diffusion
Capillary network- maintain conc gradient

● Explain factors affecting permeability.

Temp as temp increases rate of diff increases as permeability
increases as KE of particles increases
Cholesterol reduces movement of phospholipids as it combines
with fatty acids holding fatty acid chains together.
● Fatty acid chains are nonpolar and allow non polar
substances to diffuse into cell, polar ions need polar channel
 2B
Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase rate of reaction by
lowering activation energy of reactions they catalyse either
intracellular (in cells) extracellular (outside of cells)
Enzymes have specific 3d shape duo to bonding in their tertiary
structure. Active site specific and complementary to substrates
they bind to to form enzyme substrate complex.
 2B
Nucleotides- the monomers of RNA and DNA
Adenine and guanine have a double C double ring structure
Classified as purine bases
Thymine uracil and cytosine all have single ring structure-
pyrimidine bases

Nucleotides join by phosphodiester bonds by condensation

reaction between phosphate group and a carbon on adjacent
nucleotides.
Complementary base pairs on 2 polynucleotide chains running
antiparallel to each other join by hydrogen bonds
3 hydrogen bonds form between cytosine and guanine.
 2B
DNA vs RNA
-double stranded -single stranded
-has thymine -has uracil
-deoxyribose sugar -ribose sugar
Both have pentose sugars
And phosphate group
And phosphodiester bonds b/w
nucleotides
Adenine, guanine
 2B
DNA replication is semi conservative so 2 dna molecules are
created from one, each has an old paternal strand and a new
strand.
1) Double helix unwinds as DNA helicase breaks H bonds
2) Both DNA strands used as a template strand and
complementary base pairing occurs attaching free
nucleotides to template strand
3) DNA polymerase moves along strand joining adjacent
nucleotides by phosphodiester bonds phosphate of one
nucleotide and carbon 3 in deoxyribose sugar of another
nucleotide in condensation reaction.

Proved by meselson and stahl by growing bacteria in N15 heavy

nitrogen isotope then transferring it to N14 culture to find out
each dna molecule has 1 strand with N15 and one with N14
 2B.
Nature of genetic code
Order of bases in dna make up genetic code. Introns are coding parts of DNA
exons are non coding parts.
● Triplet code: three nucleotide bases make up a codon, which code for a
particular amino acid.
● Non-overlapping code: the codons do not overlap. Once the ribosome has
‘read’ one codon and the appropriate amino acid has been recruited, the
ribosome moves onto a new codon.
● Degenerate code: different codons can code for the same amino acid. For
example, the codons CUU and CUC both code for the amino acid leucine.
This means that some mutations will have no effect on the organism since
the same protein will still be produced.
● Universal code: all organisms use the same genetic code. Bacteria,
bonobos and bananas all contain DNA made up of the four nitrogenous
bases that are found in humans.
Transcription
 2B
Protein synthesis: transcription in nucleus translation at ribosome
 2B.
TRANSCRIPTION
1) RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter region of the DNA and
then unzips the gene
2) RNA polymerase moves along the gene and unwinds the gene by
breaking the H-bonds between the nitrogenous bases
3) The free ribonucleotides in the nucleus bind with complementary
base pairs on the antisense strand of the gene A on dna with U, C
with G, and T with A
4) The free nucleotides are joined by condensation reaction to form
phosphodiester bonds
5) The new mRNA formed peels away from the coding strand and the
DNA rewinds which happens when the stop codon is reached
 2B.
TRANSLATION
1. mRNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm and attaches to the
ribosome
2. tRNA carries an amino acid and attaches to the same ribosome 3.
Anticodon from the tRNA binds with complementary pair of codon on the
mRNA and the adjacent amino acid bind together
4. Peptide bonds form by condensation reaction between amino acids .
5. tRNA releases from mRNA and moves to cytoplasm to carry another amino
acid.
Ribosome moves along the length of mRNA to form a polypeptide chain that
when stop codon is reached, stops elongation and peels away from the
Ribosome.
 2C
● Mutation: random change in dna sequence coding for a polypeptide
● point mutation: mutations that involve a change in the DNA base sequence at a
single location.
● Examples: Substitution Insertion Deletion

★ Insertion- extra base inserted into dna sequence often results in non functional
protein as all codons after insertion affected (frame shift) as code is non
overlapping.
★ Deletion - base removed from sequence resulting in frame shift and a likely non
functional protein as all codons after deletion are changed
 2C.
Substitution mutations include
Silent mutations : The mutation does not alter the amino acid sequence of the
polypeptide; this is due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code
Missense mutations : The mutation alters a single amino acid in the polypeptide chain,
e.g. sickle cell anaemia is caused by a single substitution mutation changing a single
amino acid in the haemoglobin protein
Nonsense mutations : base sequence replaced by stop codon, causing the polypeptide
chain produced to be incomplete and therefore affecting the final protein structure and
function, e.g. cystic fibrosis can be caused by a nonsense mutation
A stop codon provides a signal for the cell to stop translation of the mRNA molecule into
an amino acid sequence as there are no tRNA molecules with complementary
anticodons.
 2C
Inheritance
Every cell contains two copies of each gene, one from each parent.We have
23 pairs of chromosomes and the chromosomes in each pair are called
homologous chromosomes. In each pair one comes from the mother and one
from the father.

Genotypes: combination of genes

Phenotypes: characteristics expressed caused by a mix of genes and
environmental factors
Alleles: different forms of a gene
Dominant allele: always expressed when present
Recessive allele: only expressed when homozygous (2 alleles)
 2C.
CF problems:
CF is caused by a faulty transport protein in the surface membranes of
epithelial cells
CF creates a sticky mucus layer that lines the tubes and ducts in the gas
exchange, digestive and reproductive
systems.
The sticky mucus increases the chances of lung infection and makes gas
exchange less efficient.
microorganisms become trapped in the sticky mucus causing illness
cilia cannot move the mucus because it is too sticky
low levels of oxygen in the mucus so harmful bacteria can live in these
conditions
gasses such as oxygen cross the walls of the alveoli into the blood system by
diffusion, the sticky mucus makes it
harder for diffusion to take place
 2C.
Digestive system
In a person with CF the pancreatic duct becomes blocked by sticky mucus,
impairing the release of digestive
enzymes.
The lower concentration of enzymes within the small intestine reduces the rate
of digestion.
Because of this the food is not fully digested and not all the nutrients can be
absorbed
The pancreatic enzymes can also become trapped behind the mucus blocking
the pancreatic duct.
The enzymes damage the pancreas.
Damage to the cell walls in the pancreas that produce insulin, insulin is
involved in the control of blood sugar
levels, a form of diabetes can be the result.
 2C.
reproductive system
Females with CF:
have a reduced chance of becoming pregnant because a mucus plug develops
in the cervix this stops sperm from
reaching the egg
Males with CF:
commonly lack the vas deferens (sperm duct) on both sides which means
sperm cannot leave the testes.
When the vas deferens is present it can become blocked by a thick sticky
mucus layer, which means fewer sperm
are present in each ejaculate
 2C.
Genetic testing:
The DNA is tested to see whether it contains the known base sequences for the most
common mutations that cause genetic disease
● Can be used for for testing embryos - amniocentesis involves inserting a needle into
the amniotic fluid to collect cells that have fallen of the placenta and foetus
● chorionic villus sampling - a small sample of placental tissue is removed, either
through the wall of the abdomen or through the vagina.
● testing before implantation - when carrying out in vitro fertilisation it is possible to
test an embryo before it has implanted in the uterus. a cell can be removed from an
embryo, the cells can then be analysed and used to decide whether to place the
embryo into the womb.
● To identify carriers - they can choose to adopt or not have kids
 2C
Problems with Genetic testing:
● Ethics : religions against abortions as life is a sacred gift from god, the baby has a
right to live- view discarding ivf embryos as murder, sick babies less worthy of life-
social stigma around illness
● May cause miscarriage of fetus
● False positive results loss of healthy baby
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