AEG 302 (1+1)

Renewable Energy and Green Technology

Course notes

Prepared by :
Dr. Satish R. Desai Ph.D.
Professor
Department of Agricultural Engineering
College of Agriculture,
Dharwad
 CONTENTS
1 Introduction to Energy and Energy Sources
2. Renewable energy sources
3. Conventional energy Sources
4. Biomass and it’s utilization
5. Biogas and biogas plant
6. Energy plantations
7. Biomass Briquetting – A Value Adding Technology for Agro Residues
8. Thermal Gasification of Biomass
9. Solar energy and it’s utilization
10. Wind energy and it’s utilization
11. Bio fuels and bio diesel
12. Ethanol fuel
 1. Introduction to Energy and Energy Sources
Energy is the primary and the most universal measure of all kinds of work by human beings
and nature. Everything what happens in the world is expression of flow of energy in one of its forms.
Most of the people use the word energy for input to their body or machine and thus think about crude
fuel and electric power.
Energy : We know that when a force is applied to a body, it moves in the direction of applied force as
shown in the figure.

Then, Work done = Force × Distance

= F × x……… N-m.

Work done F×x

Power = ----------------- = --------- ……. N-m/s (Joules oe watts)
Time taken t

Energy : Energy is nothing but the power which represents ability to do the work. It is expressed in
terms of Watts (W) or Kilo Watts (Kw) or horsepower.
Horse Power:- It is that amount of force which is capable or displacing 75 kg force through a distance
of one meter in one second.
Conversion factors :
 One Horse power (HP) = 746 Watts or 0.746 KW.
One Watt = 1 Joule / sec. One joule = 0.2389 Calories.
One kW = 102 Kg-m/sec.
Energy sources :
About 70% of India's energy generation capacity is from fossil fuels, with coal accounting
for 40% of India's total energy consumption followed by crude oil and natural gas at 24% and 6%
respectively. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands — by
2030, India's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's total
energy consumption. In 2009-10, the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which
amount to 80% of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31% of the country's total imports are
oil imports. The growth of electricity generation in India has been hindered by domestic coal
shortages and as a consequence, India's coal imports for electricity generation increased by 18% in
2010.
Due to rapid economic expansion, India has one of the world's fastest growing energy
markets and is expected to be the second-largest contributor to the increase in global energy
demand by 2035, accounting for 18% of the rise in global energy consumption. Given India's
growing energy demands and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves, the country has ambitious plans
to expand its renewable and nuclear power industries. India has the world's fifth largest wind
power market and plans to add about 20GW of solar power capacity by 2022. India also envisages
increasing the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2% to
9% within 25 years. The country has five nuclear reactors under construction (third highest in the
world) and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors (second highest in the world) by 2025.
Nuclear Energy : It is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that holds the
nucleus together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of nuclear energy.
Stored Mechanical Energy : It is the energy stored in objects by the application of a force.
Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
Gravitational Energy : It is the energy of place or position. Water in a reservoir behind a
hydropower dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin
turbines, it becomes rotational energy.
Radiant Energy : It is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant
energy.
Thermal Energy ( or heat) : It is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and movement
of atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
 Electrical Energy : It is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of
electrical energy.
Motion : The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and
hydropower are Types of Energy : Basically energy can be classified into two types:
Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy : Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It
exists in various forms.
Kinetic Energy : Kinetic energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms,
molecules and substances. It exists in various forms.

Various Forms of Energy

Chemical Energy : It is the energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
examples of motion.
Sound : Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Light Energy : Light energy is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by
light waves. It enables us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect light into our eyes
Nuclear Energy : Nuclear energy is a controversial energy source. It is not a renewable energy
source, but because it is a technology not based on fossil fuels many people think nuclear power
plants could play an important role in reducing carbon emissions and battling climate change.
However, many others feel the risk of accidents and the issues of storing nuclear waste for
thousands of years are too significant to warrant the development of this energy source.
Classification of energy resources :
The various sources of energy can be conveniently grouped as
Commercial primary energy resources: Non-renewable sources of energy or conventional sources
of energy are being accumulated in nature for a very long time and can’t be replaced if exhausted.
Nature gifted resources which are consumed can’t be replaced. Eg: coal, petroleum, natural gas,
thermal power, hydro power and nuclear power are the main conventional sources of energy.
Renewable sources of energy: Energy sources, which are continuously and freely produced in the
nature and are not exhaustible are known as the renewable sources of energy. Eg: solar energy,
biomass and wood energy, geo thermal energy, wind energy, tidal energy and ocean energy. But
main attention has to be directed to the following sources of renewable namely, a) solar
photovoltaic, b) wind, and c) hydrogen fuel cell.
New sources of energy: The new sources of energy are available for local exploitation. In many
cases, autonomous and small power plants can be built to avoid transmission losses. Most prominent
new sources of energy are tidal energy, ocean waves, OTEC, peat, tar sand, oil shales, coal tar, geo
thermal energy, draught animals, agricultural residues etc., The total energy production in India is
14559×1015 joules. 93% of India’s requirement of commercial energy is being met by fossil fuels,
with coal contributing 56%, and oil and natural gas contributing 37%. Waterpower and nuclear
power contributing only 7% of total energy production. Comparing the total energy production in
India from commercial sources with that of world, it is only 3.5% of total world production.

The advantages and disadvantages of different energy sources are given below :
Energy resource Advantages Disadvantages
Fossil fuels Provide a large amount of thermal Non renewable Burning produces
energy per unit of mass, Easy to smog or smoke, Burning coal releases
get and easy to transport, Can be substances that can cause acid
used to generate electrical energy precipitation, Risk of oil spills
and make products, such as plastic
Nuclear Very concentrated form of energy, Produces radioactive waste,
Power plants do not produce smog, Radioactive elements are non
renewable
Solar Almost limitless source of energy, Expensive to use for large scale
Does not produce air pollution energy production Only practical in
sunny areas
Water Renewable, Does not produce air Dams disrupt a river’s ecosystem
pollution, available only in areas that have
rivers
Wind Renewable, Relatively inexpensive Only practical in windy areas
to generate, Does not produce air
pollution,
Geothermal Almost limitless source of energy, Only practical areas near hot spots,
Power plant require little land, Waste water can damage soil

Biomass Renewable Requires large area of farmland,

Produces smoke

*****
 2. Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources derive their energy from existing flows of energy from ongoing natural
processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. A
general definition of renewable energy sources is that renewable energy is captured from an energy
resource that is replaced rapidly by a natural process such as power generated from the sun or from the
wind. Currently, the most promising alternative energy sources include wind power, solar power, and
hydroelectric power. Other renewable sources include geothermal and ocean energies, as well as biomass
and ethanol as renewable fuels.
Solar energy

The recent disasters in the southeastern United States highlighted the decline in the world’s oil
supply, forcing us to begin considering other energy options. One promising technology, solar power is
worth considering for its sustainable, renewable and emissions reducing qualities. Modern residential
solar power systems use photovoltaic (PV) to collect the sun’s energy. “Photo” means “produced by
light,” and “voltaic” is “electricity produced by a chemical reaction.” PV cells use solar energy to
generate a chemical reaction that produces electricity. Each cell contains a semiconductor; most
commonly silicon in one of several forms (single-crystalline, multi-crystalline, or thin-layer), with
impurities (either boron or phosphorus) diffused throughout, and is covered with a silk screen. Cells are
joined together by a circuit and frame into a module. Semiconductors allow the electrons freed from
impurities by the sun’s rays to move rapidly and into the circuit, generating electricity. Commercial
residential PV modules range in power output from 10 watts to 300 watts, in a direct current. A PV
module must have an inverter to change the DC electricity into alternating current energy in order to be
usable by electrical devices and compatible with the electric grid. PV modules can also be used en masse
to create large-scale power plants.
 Using PV modules to generate electricity can significantly reduce pollution. The most energy used
in creating solar panels is used to purify and crystallize the semiconductor material.

Wind energy

Wind energy is one of the most promising alternative energy technologies of the future. Throughout
recent years, the amount of energy produced by wind-driven turbines has increased exponentially due to
significant breakthroughs in turbine technologies, making wind power economically compatible with
conventional sources of energy. Wind energy is a clean and renewable source of power. The use of
windmills to generate energy has been utilized as early as 5000 B.C., but the development of wind energy
to produce electricity was sparked by the industrialization. The new windmills, also known as wind
turbines, appeared in Denmark as early as 1890. The popularity of wind energy however has always
depended on the price of fossil fuels. For example, after World War II, when oil prices were low, there
was hardly any interest in wind power. However, when the oil prices increased dramatically in the 1970s,
so did worldwide interest in the development of commercial use of electrical wind turbines. Today, the
wind-generated electricity is very close in cost to the power from conventional utility generation in some
locations. Where does wind come from? Wind is a form of solar energy and is caused by the uneven
heating of the atmosphere by the Sun, the irregularities of the Earth’s surface, and rotation of the Earth.
The amount and speed of wind depends on the Earth’s terrain and other factors. The wind turbines use the
kinetic energy of the wind and convert that energy into mechanical energy, which in turn can be
converted into electricity by means of a generator. There are essentially two types of wind turbines: The
horizontal-axis variety, and the vertical axis design. The horizontal-axis design is used more commonly
and looks like an Old Dutch windmill, whereas the vertical-axis design looks like and eggbeater. These
wind turbines generally have either two or three blades, called rotors, which are angled at a pitch to
maximize the rotation of the rotors. The horizontal-axis design is slightly more efficient and dependable
than the vertical-axis windmill. Most of the windmill models that are currently in production are thus
horizontal-axis windmills.
 Utility scale turbines can produce anywhere from 50 kilowatts to several megawatts of energy.
These large windmills are generally grouped together in a windy area in what is called a wind farm. The
proximity of the windmills in a wind farm makes it easier to feed the produced electricity into the power
grid. Wind energy offers many advantages compared to fossil based power and even some other types of
alternative energy, which explains why it is the fastest growing energy source in the world. The two main
reasons are cleanliness and abundance. The fact that wind is a renewable resource gives it a major
advantage over oil and the non-renewable resources. Considering that environmental pollution is being
linked to several global problems that might eventually threaten the existence or at the very least worsen
human living conditions, the fact that windmills do not produce any emissions whatsoever is another
reason to increase the use of wind turbines. Increasing the percentage of wind power used by the United
States would not be unreasonable, seeing that the price of wind power is between 4 and 6 cents. Even
though wind energy has many environmental and supply advantages, there are several disadvantages that
limit the usability of wind power. The main disadvantage to wind power is that it is unreliable. Wind does
not blow at a constant rate, and it does not always blow when energy is needed. Furthermore, the windiest
locations are often in remote locations, far away from big cities where the electricity is needed. Just like
with any other energy plant, people oppose it because of aesthetic reasons. The rotor noise produced by
the rotor blades is another reason for opposition. Wind seems to be a very good source of alternative
energy. Its biggest setback is its unreliability, but in combination with other, more reliable sources, wind
energy should be used extensively to supplement the demand for energy.

Hydroelectric Power
Hydropower is America’s leading renewable energy resource. This notable success can be
attributed to the fact that out of all the renewable power sources, hydropower the most reliable, efficient,
and economical. Furthermore, the concept behind hydroelectric power is fairly simple and has been in use
for a significant span of time.
 The earliest reference to the use of the energy of falling water is found in the work of the Greek
poet Antipater in the 4th century BC. Indeed, the word “hydro” comes from the Greek language meaning
“water.” Several centuries later, the Romans were the first to utilize the water wheel. Due to the Romans’
conquest
powerful influence on Europe through , the waterwheel was soon commonly found throughout that
continent, and by 1800, tens of thousands of waterwheels had been built. These early waterwheels were of
course not used for power generation, but mostly for grinding crops.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is one of the only renewable energy sources not dependent on the Sun. Instead,
it relies on heat produced under the surface of the Earth. Geothermal energy already has several
applications and could potentially provide a significant source of renewable power for the United States.
However, it is limited by a multitude of factors revolving around the issues of sustainability and
economics. There are two main applications of geothermal energy, which include producing electricity at
specialized power plants, and direct-heating, which puts to direct use the temperature of water piped
under the earth’s surface.

Biomass energy
 As a pending global energy crisis appears more and more imminent, it is important to consider
many different options for new energy sources. Renewable energy sources are idealbecause they are more
efficient, environmentally friendly and, ultimately, better for consumers. Biomass can be converted into
fuels through a number of different processes, including solid fuel combustion, digestion, pyrolysis, and
fermentation and catalyzed reactions. Electricity is generated in many places through solid fuel
combustion. This process still releases a lot of carbon dioxide and other polluting gases into the
environment, but helps eliminate waste efficiently.

Digestion is another process that makes use of existing waste. Digestion is the naturally occurring
process of bacteria feeding on decaying matter and making it decompose. It is that which releases gases
like methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, etc. In many landfills, owners are experimenting with set-ups
to best collect the gases produced by such bacteria. The standard system includes pipelines running through
the waste to collect the gases.
A third process, pyrolysis, creates a product much like charcoal, with double the energy density of
the original biomass, making the fuel highly transportable and more efficient. Anhydrous pyrolysis heats
the biomass at intense temperatures in the absence of oxygen or water. Scientists assume that this is the
process that originally produced fossil fuels (under different conditions). Most industrial processes of
pyrolysis convert the biomass under pressure and at temperatures above 800° F (430° C). A liquid fuel can
also be produced using this process.
The most widely used alternative fuel, ethanol, is produced through fermentation of organic
materials. Such as starch crops like corn, sugar beat and sugarcane. Again, the fuel conversion process
takes advantage of a natural process. icroorganisms, especially bacteria and yeasts, ferment starchy, sugary
biomass products (like corn), yielding products like ethanol, which can be used as fuels in a variety of
applications.
Biodiesel is an increasingly popular fuel, especially in the transportation sector. This monoalkyl
ester is formed by combining fuel-grade oil, processed from sources like vegetable oil, animal fats, algae
using a catalyst. It shows great promise as both a neat fuel (used alone) and as an additive to petroleum
diesel.
Using biomass could be the answer to the energy questions made more imminent by the recent
crises that have further threatened our oil supply. The current technologies take advantage of many natural,
long-utilized processes in order to create “new” kinds of fuel. Upon further observation, one realizes that
these fuels are very basic, using the most readily available energy sources with very simple, standardized
processes that greatly reduce pollution and offer hope for the future.
Fuel-quality ethanol is beneficial for car-owners, the economy and the environment. This growing
technology is looking to be an immediate part of the solution to the forthcoming energy crisis. Ethanol,
also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is a colorless, clear liquid. The chemical formula is
CH3CH2OH. Fuel-quality ethanol goes through more processes than do alcoholic beverages, in order to
make it unfit for human consumption and to increase the purity so as to avoid separation when mixed with
gasoline.
Ethanol is not used by itself to fuel cars. Instead, it’s mixed with gasoline. The two most common
blends are E10 and E85. The number refers to the percentage of ethanol in the blend. E10 is a blend of ten
percent ethanol and ninety percent gasoline. E85, the most mainstream alternative fuel, is eighty-five
percent ethanol and fifteen percent gasoline. Using ethanol increases the octane rating and decreases the
amount of damaging emissions associated with fuel consumption. It is for this second reason that ethanol
use is so strongly recommended and endorsed by state and federal governments. Oxygenates (compounds
with structures similar to that of gasoline, but with the addition of oxygen) dilute the noxious, dangerous
gases emitted by
gasoline consumption, including nitrogenous oxides, volatile organic compounds and other toxic like
carbon monoxide. Increase in use of ethanol as fuel will benefit farmers economically. The majority of
ethanol used today comes from corn, and it is the farmer-owned ethanol plants that are driving the
industry’s growth. Half of the operating plants are owned by farmers and local investors.
Ocean Energy
Nearly seventy percent of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, which have the potential to
supply humans with an enormous amount of renewable energy. Humans have exploited the vast energy
potential of Earth’s oceans by taking advantage of wave movement, tides, ocean currents, and ocean
thermal energy.

*****
 3. Conventional energy Sources

Energy is one of the major building blocks of modern society. Energy is needed to create goods
from natural resources. Economic development and improved standards of energy are complex processes
that share a common denominator: the availability of an adequate and reliable supply of energy. Energy
might best be described in terms of what it can do. We cannot see energy, only its effects; we cannot
make it, only use it; and we cannot destroy it, only waste it through inefficient use. Unlike food and
housing, energy is not valued in it but for what can be done with it. Energy is a basic concept in all the
science and engineering discipline. A very important principle is that energy is a conserved quantity, i.e.,
the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy is not created or destroyed but just
converted or redistributed from one form to another, such as from wind energy into electrical energy or
from chemical energy into heat etc.

Classification of energy on the basis of source : On the basis of source, the energy can be classified as
direct and indirect energy.
1. Direct source of energy
The direct sources of energy are those, which release the energy directly-like human labour,
bullocks, stationary and mobile mechanical or electric power units, such as diesel engines, electric motor,
power tiller and tractors. The direct energy may be further classified as renewable and non-renewable
sources of energy depending upon their replenishment.
1.1. Renewable direct sources of energy
In this category, the energy sources, which are direct in nature but can be subsequently replenished,
are grouped. The energies, which may fall in this group, are human beings, animals, solar and wind energy,
fuel wood, agricultural wastes, etc.
1.2. Non-Renewable direct sources of energy
In this category, direct energy sources that are not renewable (at least in near future say next 100
years) are classified. Coal and fossil fuels exemplify non-renewable direct sources of energy.
2. Indirect sources of energy
The indirect sources of energy are those, which do not release energy directly but release it by
conversion process. Some energy is invested in producing indirect sources of energy. Seeds, manures (farm
yard and poultry), chemicals, fertilizers and machinery can be classified under indirect sources of energy.
Again, on the basis of their replenishment, these can be further classified into renewable and non-
renewable indirect source of energy.

2.1. Renewable indirect source of energy

Seed and manure can be termed as renewable indirect source of energy as they can be
replenished in due course of time.
2.2. Non-renewable indirect source of energy
The energy sources, which are not replenished, come under non-renewable indirect sources of
energy. Chemicals, fertilizers and machinery manufacturing are the non-renewable indirect sources of
energy.
Classification of energy on the basis of comparative economic value
On the basis of comparative economic value the energy may be classified as commercial and non-
commercial.
1. Non-commercial energy
Each and every energy source has some economic value. Some energy sources are available
comparatively at low cost whereas others are capital intensive. The energy sources, which are available
cheaply, are called non-commercial sources of energy whereas the ones which are capital intensive are
called commercial energy sources. Human labour and bullocks exemplify the category of non-commercial
source of energy. One may argue that the unit energy available from animate sources is costlier than the
mechanical energy. Therefore, animal sources of energy should be classified under the non commercial.
However, one should also bear in mind that human labour and animals are readily available and
can be used as a sources of power directly, whereas in case of mechanical sources of energy, the
machines (tractors, stationary engines, electric motors, etc. are very costly in terms of their purchase price
and also often require a skilled operator. The commonly available and less expensive materials like fuel
wood, twigs, leaves agro-wastes and animal dung, etc. are also classified as non-commercial sources of
energy.
2. Commercial energy
The energy sources like petroleum products (diesel, petrol and kerosene oil) and electricity, which
are capital intensive exemplify / commercial sources of energy. Considering the fact that most of the
commercial sources are also non-renewable and to some extent are imported in India, efforts are made to
conserve such sources of energy.
 Comparison of renewable and non renewable energy systems

Features of comparison Renewable energy supplies Non renewable energy supplies

Examples Wind, solar, biomass, tidal etc. Coal, oil, gas etc.
Source Natural local environment Concentrated stock
Normal state A current of energy Static store of energy
Life time of supply Infinite Finite
Cost at source Free Increasingly expensive
Location for use Site and society specific General and international use
Scale Small scale, economic, large scale Increased scale often improves
may present difficulties supply costs, large scale
frequently favoured
Skills Interdisciplinary and varied wide Strong links with electrical and
range of skills mechanical engineering.
Narrow range of skill
Context industry Rural, decentralized Urban, centralized industry
Dependence Self-sufficient system encouraged Systems dependent on outside
Inputs
Pollution and Usually little environmental harm, Environmental pollution
environmental especially at moderate scale. common, and especially of air
damage Hazards and water Deforestation and
Wind, solar, biomass, tidal etc. from ecological sterilization from
excessive wood burning, soil excessive air pollution
erosion
from excessive biofuel use, large
hydro reservoirs disruptive
Safety Local hazards possible in operation, May be shielded and enclosed
usually safe when out of action to lessen great potential danger

*****
 4. Biomass and it’s utilization
Biomass: Biomass is any organic matter produced by plants, both terrestrial (those grown on land) and
aquatic (those grown in water) and their derivates. It includes forest crops and residues, crops grown.
Especially for their energy content on ‘energy farms’ and animal manure. Biomass is one of the
renewable energy sources which is renewed every year. Hence it can be considered as a farm of solar
energy as the latter is used indirectly to grow there plants by photosynthesis. The solar energy is stored
in the biomass in the form of chemical energy.
Solar energy – Photosynthesis of biomass- energy generation.
Biomass means organic matter and photo chemical approach to harness solar energy means.
Harnessing solar energy is done by photosynthesis. Solar energy is stored in the form of chemical
energy.
Biomass is defined as the organic matter derived from biological materials such as
plants, animals, microorganisms and municipal wastes. It is a renewable form of energy as it can be
replenished within a short period. It can be used as a solid fuel, or converted into liquid or gaseous
forms for the production of electric power, heat, chemicals, or fuels.
As per the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, the term “renewable biomass”
means each of the following:
(i) Planted crops and crop residue harvested from agricultural land cleared or cultivated at any time
prior to the enactment of this sentence that is either actively managed or fallow, and non-forested.
(ii) Planted trees and tree residue from actively managed tree plantations on land. (iii) Animal waste
material and animal byproducts.
(iv) Biomass obtained from the immediate vicinity of buildings and other areas regularly occupied
by people, or of public infrastructure, at risk from wildfire.
(v) Algae.
(vi) Separated yard waste or food waste, including recycled cooking and trap grease.
Reasons for utilizing biomass
1. Readily available and renewable
2. Non-fossil forms of fixed carbon are not depletable, in contrast to fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and natural gas.
3. Biomass is available in large quantities and provides a raw material for conversion to major
supplies of synthetic fuels
4. Combining waste disposal and energy recovery processes offers recycling opportunities as well
as improved disposal technology, often at low cost.
5. Clean and nearly pollution free combustion
6. Energy and capital requirement for production is low
Biomass conversion technologies : The biomass is converted into useful form of energy (fuel) which
are highly combustible and easy to use by using the following technologies :
Biomass conversion - Direct conversion – wood burning
- Bio chemical technology
- Thermo chemical conversion technology
Bio chemical technology includes anaerobic fermentation of biomass, where a gas called biogas
is produced from biomass and Fermentation process during which ethanol
(ethyl alcohol) is produced using the sugar solution by natural yeast.
Thermo chemical conversion technology includes the production of pyrolitic oils and charcoal by
pyrolysis process from the biomass and Gasification technology where a gas called producer gas is
produced from biomass which is combustible.
Bio mass mainly consists of mainly cellulose and lignin. The biomass which is rich in cellulose
matter is feasible for biogas production. The biomass which has more sugar is feasible for ethanol
production. The biomass which contains is most suited for thermo chemical conversion technology.
Biomass conversion chart

*****
 5. Biogas and biogas plant
Biogas can be captured from marshes, from landfill or wastes such as sewage, and
burned to produce electricity. It can also be generated intentionally through anaerobic composting.
When refined it can be used to power vehicles directly. Biogas, a mixture containing 55-65 percent
methane, 30-40 percent carbon dioxide and the rest being the impurities (H2, H2S, and some N2),
can be produced from the decomposition (fermentation or digestion ) of animal, plant and human
waste. It is a clean but slow burning gas and has calorific value of in the range of 5000-5600
kcal/kg (20935-23028, kJ/kg) or 38131 kJ/m3. The gas can directly and for cooking reducing
demand for fire wood. The gas can be used for lighting and running IC engines. Moreover, the
material from which the biogas is produced retains its value as a fertilizer and can be returned to
the soil. Biogas has been popular on the name, "Gobar Gas" mainly because cow dung has been
the material for its production. At 15°C, 1 kg of dry dung gives 0.186 m3 of gas and 1 Kg of cow
dung produces 0.04 m3 of gas. It is not only the excreta of the cattle, but also the piggery waste as
well as poultry droppings are very effectively used for biogas generation. A few other materials
through which biogas can be generated are algae, crop residues (agro-wastes), garbage kitchen
wastes, paper wastes,. sea wood, human waste, waste from sugarcane refinery, water hyacinth etc.,
apart from the abovementioned animal wastes. Any cellulosic organic material of animal or
plant origin, which is easily biodegradable, is a potential raw material suitable for biogas
production.
Biogas is produced by digestion, Digestion is biological process that occurs in the absence
of, oxygen and in the presence of anaerobic organisms at ambient pressures and temperatures of
35-70°C. The container in which this digestion takes place is know as the digester
Anaerobic digestion (fermentation)
Anaerobic digestion involves the microbial digestion of biomass by anaerobes. Anaerobe is a micro
organism that can live and grow without air or oxygen, it gets its oxygen by the decomposition of
matter containing oxygen. It has already been used on animal manure, bit it is also possible with other
biomass. The process takes place at low temperature up to 650c and requires a moisture content of at
least 80 percent. It generates a gas consisting of mostly methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
with minimum impurities such as hydrogen sulphide. The gas can be directly burnt or upgraded to
synthetic natural by removing the CO2 and impurities.
The anaerobic digestion of biomass takes place in 3 different phases
1 Enzymatic hydrolysis : During this process the fat, starch and proteins contained in the cellulosic
biomass are broken down into simple compounds. In this stage, a group of facultative microorganisms
acts upon the organic matter and convert insoluble, complex, high molecular compounds of biomass into
simple, soluble, low molecular compounds. The organic substances such as polysaccharide, protein and
lipid are converted into mono-saccharide, peptide, amino acids, and fatty acids. Then they are further
converted into acetate, propionate and butyrate.
2. Acid formation : Here the micro organisms of facultative and anaerobic group, collectively called
acid farmers hydrolyze and ferment and the biomass is broken to simple compounds into acids and
volatile acids. As a result complex organic compounds are broken down to short chemical simple
organic acids like acetic, butyric acid and proionic acids are formed.
In some cases these acids may be produced in such large quantities that the pH may be
lowered to a level when biological activity is arrested. The initial acid phase of digestion may lost for
about two weeks and during their period a large amount of CO2 is given off.
3. Methane production : Here the organic acids so formed are then converted in to CH4 and CO2 after
digestion by bacteria which are strictly anaerobic. These bacteria are called methane fermentors. These
bacteria’s are sensitive to pH. A pH of 6.5 to 7.5 is best for fermentation and normal gas production.
Digestion is biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of anaerobic
organisms at temperatures (35-70ºc) and atmospheric pressure. The container in which, this process
takes place is known as digester.
 Biogas Plants
Most organic materials undergo a natural anaerobic digestion in the presence of moisture and
absence of oxygen and produce biogas. The biogas so obtained is a mixture of methane (CH4) : 55-
65% and Carbon dioxide (CO2) : 30-40%. The biogas contains traces of H2, H2S and N2. The calorific
value of biogas ranges from 5000 to 5500 Kcal/Kg (18.8 to 26.4 MJ /m3). The biogas can be upgraded
to synthetic natural gas (SNG) by removing CO2 and H2S. The production of biogas is of particular
significance in India because of its large scale cattle production. The biogas is used for cooking,
domestic lighting and heating, run I.C. Engines and generation of electricity for use in agriculture and
rural industry.
 Cow Power

Biogas

Slurry
Digester

Feed

Biogas plant is a device where the biogas is produced. There are numerous models of a biogas
plan plant, but they can be grouped under two broad heads as :
1 Floating dome type : Eg. KVIC-type (KVIC- Khadi Village Industries Commission)
2 Fixed dome type Eg. Janata model and Deenabandu model
In floating gas holder biogas plant, the gas holder is separate from the digester. But in the fixed
dome digester, the gas holder and the digester are combined.
Floating dome type (KVIC) model
In this type of biogas plant, basic there two parts viz : digester and gas holder. The digester is
cylindrical in shape and is constructed below the ground level similar to well using brick masonry. Two
holes are provided diametrically opposite direction to insert a inlet and outlet pipe as shown in figure.
A central wall is constructed to divide the digester into two halves, so that the fresh and digested slurry
does not mix and come out through outlet. The digester is below the ground level so that sufficient
temperate is maintained in the digester for anaerobic fermentation of the biomass. The fresh cow dung
and water in the ratio of 1 : 1 is mixed properly in the mixing tank and fed into the inlet pipe every day
spent slurry comes out through the outlet every day. Usually the inlet is higher elevation than the outlet.
The gas holder is also cylindrical in shape and is placed inverted position above the digester and
is made up of mild steel sheet. When the gas is produced in the digester, it is collected in the gas holder
and hence the gas holder moves up. A outlet pipe with a valve is provided at the top, through which
the gas can be taken out for consumption. When the gas is consumed, the drum moves down indicating
that the quantity of gas is reduced in the gas holder. A supporting frame called guide is provided for
easy movement of the digester in vertical plane i.e., up and down. The guide is nothing but a frame
made of angle iron. A floating drum type biogas plant is shown in Fig . A water seal is provided for the
gas holder so that the gas does not leak to the atmosphere.
 Floating drum type biogas plant (KVIC model).

Fixed dome type biogas plant ( Janata model and deenbhandu model)
In fixed dome type biogas plant there are two types viz : Janata model and deenabhandu model.
Janata model Fixed dome type biogas plant :
The Janata model or fixed dome digester (also called Chinese plant) is a drum less type similar
in construction to the KVIC model except that the steel drum is replaced by a fixed dome roof of
masonry construction. The drum and gas holder are integral. It has inlet similar to floating drum type
biogas plant and the out is little bit different. The outlet has the small tank of storage capacity of 1/3 rd
the volume of the digester.

Janata model biogas plant

Deenabhandu Fixed dome type biogas plant :

This is similar to janata model but the bottom of the digester is elliptical in shape. The main
advantage of this type of biogas plant is that it has slurry pressure distributed uniformly along the inner
surface of the digester. Here inlet and outlet are similar to that of janata model.
 Deenabhandu Fixed dome type biogas plant

Deenabhandu Fixed dome type biogas plant

In case of Fixed dome type biogas plant, when the gas is filled in the gas holder, it pushes
the slurry downwards and hence digested slurry comes out from the outlet. Because of this the outlet
pressure of the gas is not uniform. The dome roof in the Fixed dome type biogas plant requires
specialised design and skilled masonry construction. A poorly constructed roof generally leads to
leakage from top and junction of the roof with the digester wall, thereby causing drop in gas yield.
 In addition to the aforesaid cost and construction material problems, there are constructional
problems which the farmers or beneficiaries face. The construction of biogas plants especially in fixed
dome type biogas plant needs the services of skilled masons who are becoming rather scarce in rural
areas. It is observed that plants constructed by unskilled masons or untrained workers have structurally
failed or unable to retain dung slurry, gas or even both while the failure of such plants adversely affects
plants owners. The prospective plant owners are seldom sure about the correct choice of the plant.
Besides the construction of the plant, there are some operational and maintenance problems which
almost hinder progress of biomass development.
Biogas plant and its components: A physical structure designed to carry out anaerobic digestion
of organic materials is called “Biogas plant”. Following are the components of biogas plants:
Mixing tank : Cow dung is collected from the shed and mixed with the water in equal proportion
(1:1) to make a homogenous mixture (slurry) in the mixing tank
Feed inlet pipe/tank : The homogenous slurry is let into the digester through this inlet pipe
(KVIC biogas plants)/tank (Janatha biogas plants)
Digester : The fed slurry is subjected to anaerobic fermentation with the help of microorganisms
inside the digester.
Gas holder : As a result of anaerobic fermentation, gas produced is stored in gas holder (Drum in
the case of KVIC and in dome in the case of fixed dome biogas plants)
Slurry outlet tank/pipe : The digested slurry is let out from the digester through slurry outlet
pipe (KVIC biogas plants)/tank (Janatha biogas plants)
Gas outlet pipe : Stored gas is released and conveyed through the gas outlet pipe present at the top
of gas holder.
Partition wall : To avoid the mixing of the fresh and digested slurry
Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating Drum Plant
Advantages:
1) It has less scum troubles because solids are constantly submerged.
2) No separate pressure equalizing device needed when fresh waste is added to the tank or digested
slurry is withdrawn.
3) In this type of biogas plant, the danger of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture
is minimized.
4) Higher gas production per cu m of the digester volume is achieved.
5) Floating drum has welded braces, which help in breaking to scum (floating matter) by rotation.
6) No problem of gas leakage.
7) Constant gas pressure.
Disadvantages:
1) It has higher cost, as cost is dependent on steel and cement.
2) Heat is lost through the metal gas holder, hence it troubles in colder regions and periods.
3) Gas holder requires painting once or twice a year, depending on the humidity of the location.
4) Flexible pipe joining the gas holder to the main gas pipe requires maintenance, as it is damaged by
ultraviolet rays in the sun. It may be twisted also, with the rotation of the drum for mixing or scum
removal.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fixed Dome Type Plant
Advantages:
1) It has low cost compare to floating drum type, as it uses only cement and no steel.
2) It has no corrosion trouble.
3) In this type heat insulation is better as construction is beneath the ground and temperature will be
constant.
4) Cattle and human excreta and long fibrous stalks can be fed.
5) No maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1) This type of plant needs the services of skilled masons, who are rather scarce in rural areas.
2) Gas production per cum of the digester volume is also less.
3) Scum formation is a problem as no stirring arrangement.
4) It has variable gas pressure.
Factors Affecting Biodigestion or Generation of biogas
The following are the factors that affect generation of biogas:
a) pH or the hydrogen-ion concentration
b) Temperature
c) Total solid content of the feed material
d) Loading rate
e) Seeding
f) Uniform feeding
g) Diameter to depth ratio
h) Carbon to Nitrogen ratio
i) Nutrients
j) Mixing or stirring or agitation of the content of the digester
k) Retention time or rate of feeding
l) Type of feed stocks
m) Toxicity due end product
n) Pressure
o) Acid accumulation inside the digester.
a. pH or hydrogen ion concentration : pH of the slurry changes at various stages of the digestion. In
the initial acid formation stage in the fermentation process, the pH is around 6 or less and much of CO2
is given off. In the latter 2-3 weeks time, the pH increases as the volatile acid and N2 compounds are
digested and CH4 is produced. To maintain a constant supply of gas, it is necessary to maintain a
suitable pH range in the digester.
The digester is usually buffered to maintain between 6.5 to 7.5. In this pH range, the micro-organisms
will be very active and bio digestion will be very efficient. If the pH range is between 4 and 6 it is
called acidic. If it is between 9 and 10 it is called alkaline. Both these are detrimental to the
methanogenic (Methane production) organisms. It should always be remembered that there should not
be any sudden upset in the pH by the addition of any material which is likely to cause an imbalance in
the bacterial population.
Ideal pH valves for digestion of sewage solids are reported to be in the range 7 to 7.5. But a slightly
higher value of 8.2 has been reported to be optimum for digestion of raw animal or plant wastes.
b. Temperature : Methane bacteria work best at a temperature of between 35° to 38°C. The fall in gas
production starts at 20°C and stops at a temperature of 10°C. At one experiment 2.25 cu. m. of gas was
produced from 4.25 m3 of cattle dung everyday when the digester temperature was 25°C. When the
temperature was raised to 28.3°C, the gas production increased by 50% to 3.75 cu. m. per day. There
are two types of micro organisms, mesophilic and thermophilic, which are responsible for digestion at
the two temperature ranges. The optimum mesophiic temperature lies at about 35°C, while the
optimum thermophilic temperature is around 55°C. Heating of tanks designed mainly for collection of
biogas may not be practicable, but it must be understood that temperature is a very important factor
since it affects the bacterial activity directly. Any deviation from a normal operating temperature may
result in the unsatisfactory performance of the digester.
 mesophilic and thermophilic temperature ranges.
Effect of temperature on digestion
The gas production starts falling very steeply when the temperature goes below 20°C and
almost stops at 10°C. Generally it is easier to maintain the temperature of the digester at the mesophilic
range rather than at the thermophilic range.
In addition to ambient temperature, other weather conditions also influence the gas generation viz :
Wind velocity (chill factor), Sun shine directly available to keep the dome at the optimum temperature
and the type of food given to cattle (in case of Gobar gas generation).
c. Total Solid Content : The cow dung is mixed usually in the proportion of 1 : 1 (by weight)
in order to bring the total solid content to 8-10%. The raw cowdung contains 80-82% of moisture. The
balance 18-20% is termed as total solids. The adjustment of total solid content helps in bio digesting
the material at the faster rate, and also in deciding the mixing of the various crop residues weeds plants
etc. as feed stocks in biogas digester.
d. Loading Rate : Loading rate is defined as the amount of raw material (usually kg of volatile solids)
fed to the digester per day per unit volume. Most municipal sewage treatment plants operate at a
loading rate of 0.5 to 1.6 kg of volatile solids per m3 per day. Much higher rates are possible, but as
with most aspects of digesters, the optimum situation is a compromise. If a digester is loaded with too
much raw material at a time, acids will accumulate and fermentation will stop. The main advantage of
higher loading rate is that by stuffing a lot into a little space, the size and therefore the cost of the
digester can be reduced. The results of a particular investigation for the loading range 1.2 to 5.3 kg
volatile solids/m3/day are given in the Table below.
 Table : Effect of Dung Loading on Gas Production
Sl. Dung Volatile Detention Gas Gas production % reduction
No. loading solids time, days production/uni /unit/vol. of in volatile
kg/m3day loading t volume of matter added matter
kg/m3day digester m3/m3
m3/day
1. 8.0 1.17 50 0.022 0.20 22.8
2. 16.0 2.40 25 0.42 0.16 19.5
3. 24.0 3.76 17 0.52 0.14 14.3
4. 32.0 5.29 12 0.47 0.09 14.2

e. Seeding : Although the bacteria required for acid fermentation and methane fermentation are present
in the cow dung, their numbers are not large. While the acid formers proliferate fast and increase in
numbers, the methane formers reproduce and multiply slowly. It would be advantageous to increase the
number of methane formers by artificial seeding with a digested sludge that is rich in methane formers.
But beyond a certain seed concentration, the gas production will decrease, due to reduction of raw cow
dung solids fed to the digester.
f. Uniform Feeding : One of the prerequisites of good digestion is the uniform feeding of the digester
so that the micro-organisms are kept in a relatively constant organic solids concentration at all times.
Therefore the digester must be fed at the same time everyday with a balanced feed of the same quality
and quantity.
g. Carbon Nitrogen ratio of the input material : Besides carbon the quantity of N2 present in the
wastes is a crucial factor in the production of biogas. All living organisms require nitrogen to form their
cell proteins from a biological view point, a digester is a culture of bacteria feeding upon and
converting organic wastes. The elements of carbon (in the form of carbon hydrates) and nitrogen (as
protein, ammonia nitrates, etc.) are the main food of anaerobic bacteria. Carbon is used for energy and
nitrogen for building the cell structure. The bacteria use up carbon about 30 times faster than they use
up nitrogen. Carbon and nitrogen should be present in the proper proportion. Other conditions
(temperature, pH etc.) being favorable, a carbon, nitrogen (C/N) ratio of 30 (i.e. 30 times more carbon
than nitrogen) will permit digestion to proceed at an optimum rate. When there is too much carbon in
the raw wastes, nitrogen will be used up first and carbon left over. This will make the digester slow
down and come to a stop. In this case the bacteria will not be able to use all the carbon present and the
breaking down of the organic matter will be inefficient. On the other hand if there is too much nitrogen,
the carbon soon becomes exhausted and fermentation stops. The nitrogen left over will combine with
hydrogen to form ammonia. This can kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria specially the methane
producers. The optimum C : N ratio that best suits for maximum microbiological activity is 30: 1.
h. Diameter to Depth Ratio : It is observed that the gas production per unit volume of digester
capacity was maximum when the diameter to depth ratio was in the range of 0.66 to 1.00.
i. Nutrients : The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are, C, H2, 02, N2, P and S, of
these nutrients N2 and P are always in short supply and therefore to maintain proper balance of
nutrients an extra raw material rich in phosphorus (night soil) and N2 (chopped leguminous plants)
should be added along with the cow dung to obtain maximum production of gas.
j. Mixing or stirring or agitation of the content of the digester : Since bacteria in the digester have
very limited reach to their food, it is necessary that the slurry is properly mixed and bacteria get their
food supply. It is found that slight mixing improvers the fermentation, however a violent slurry
agitation retards the digestion.
k. Retention time or rate of feeding : The period of retention of the material for biogas generation,
inside the digester is known as the retention period. It is the time period for which the slurry is retained
in the digester. This period will depend on the type of feed stocks and the temperature. Normal value of
the retention period is between 30 and 45 days and in some cases 60 days. By regulating the daily feed
volume, the retention time can be controlled.
Periods for different materials to get well fermentation are:
(i) Cow and buffalo dung : 50 days (ii) Pig-dung : 20 days
(iii) Poultry droppings : 20 days (iv) Night soil : 30 days
As mentioned this period also depends on the ambient temperature, in tropical regions it can be even 30
days. Actually in India, 30, 40 and 50 days, retention is adopted depending on the region.
The retention period of a digester is calculated by dividing total capacity of the digester by the rate at
which organic matter is fed into the digester.
l. Type of feed stocks : As already stated, all plant and animal wastes may be used as the feed
materials for a digester. When feedstock is woody or contains more of lignin, then biodigestion
becomes difficult. This cow and buffalo dung, human excreta, poultry droppings, pig dung., waste
materials of plants, cobs, etc. can all be used as feed stocks. To obtain an efficient biodigestion, these
feed stocks are combined in proportions. Predigest ion and finely chopping will be helpful in the case
of some materials. Animal wastes are predigested. Plant wastes do not need predigest ion. Excessive
plant material may choke the digester.
m. Toxicity : The digested slurry, if allowed to remain in the digester beyond a certain time, becomes
toxic to the micro organisms and might cause fall in the fermentation rate. Biological systems needs
some trace elements like calcium, magnesium, potassium etc. Production of biogas is reduced when
these elements are present in higher concentrations. Synthetic materials are toxic to methanogenic
bacteria. Pesticides and disinfectants from farms can kill bacteria.
n. Pressure : The pressure on the surface of slurry also affects the fermentation. It has been reported to
be better at lower pressures.
o. Acid accumulation inside the digester. Intermediate products such as acetic propionic butyric acids
are produced, during the process of biodigestion. This causes in a decrease of the pH, especially when
fresh feed material is added in large amount. These acids may be converted into methane by addition of
neem cake. However the buffering nature of the digester should not be upset. Cow dung operated plants
remain well buffered and the problem of acid accumulation does not arise in the continuous fermenting
systems. Acid accumulation is usually occurred in batch digestion systems.
Classification of Biogas Plants
Biogas plants are mainly classified as:
(1) Continuous and batch types (as per the process). (2) The dome and the drum types.
(3) Different variations in the drum type.
Digester Design Considerations
Digestion tanks may be of any convenient shape and provided with a cover to retain the gas. The cover
may be a fixed one or floating. A number of factors are to be taken into account to arrive an optimum
size of a biogas plant. These are
1. The volume of waste to be digested daily,
2. The type and amount of waste available for digestion consis where
3. Period of digestion,
4. Methods of stirring, the contents if any,
5. Method of adding the raw waste and removing digested slurry,
6. Efficiency of the collection of the raw waste,
7. The climate condition of the region,
8. The availability of other cellulosic fermentable waste in that
9. Information about sub-soil condition and water table, and
10. Type of the cover.
Generally no separate heating and stirring of the contents are provided for digesting cattle waste
(Gobar Gas digester), Stirring arrangement is provided for farmyard waste and plant wastes.

Design of a community biogas plant for a village. Biogas is largely used for cooking, Biogas for
lighting, driving the engine, etc. has still to become popular. Hence the requirement of a family will
have to be determined on the basis of cooking needs. The energy required for cooking will vary
according to the eating habits, type of cooking (boiling, frying or baking), type of food, number of
meals, number of persons, the type of vessels etc. However the average gas consumption for cooking
purposes per day can be between 0.28 to 0.42 cu m. For lighting the mantle lamp of 100 candle power,
it will need 0.11 to 0.15 cu m of gas per hour. Similarly for engine it will be 0.45 to 0.54 cu m per
horsepower per hour.
 The following table gives the amount of dung required to produce 1 cu m of gas per day under
average conditions calculated on the basis
of 40 to 60 days retention period:
Cattle dung ………………32 kg/day
Pig manure ……………….20 kg/day
Poultry manure …………...12 kg/day
In the case of human excreta, the thumb rule may be that one adult will provide enough material
for the production of 0.03 cu in of
gas per day i.e. about 35 adult will provide about 1 cu m of gas.
Exact quantity of excreta from different animals and human beings, is difficult to calculate. The
quantity will depend on the age of the animal, its feed etc., but the following average value may be
taken for estimating the total feed available
Design calculations. A village consisting of 98 families, each family consisting of 5 persons
(adults). Two children are equivalent to one person. Village survey report gives the following
information’s about cattles. Cows :102, Oxen : 124, Buffaloes : 52, Pigs : 3, Total : 281.
A community biogas plant is to be designed only for cooking and house lighting.
Assumptions :
Gas required for cooking/person/day = 0.227 m3
Gas required for lighting 100 C.P. lamp per hour = 0.126 m3
Each family is allotted 2 lamps, which would burn 2 hours daily.
Quantity of dung : Cow-10kg/day, Oxen -12kg/day, Buffaloes-15kg/day, Pigs-2kg/day,
Retention period =30days
Calculation of total quantity of dung available
Total cow dung from cows =10 x 102 kg/day/
Total dung from oxen = 12 x 124 = 1488 kg/day
Total dung from Buffaloes 15 x 52 = 780 kg/day
Total dung Pig = 2 x 3 = 6 kg/day
Total quantity of dung available = 1020 + 1488 + 280 + 6 = 3298 kg/day = 3300 kg/day
We can approximately assume that
Gas produced from 1 kg of gobar in winter (Nov. to Feb.) = 42 litres
and gas produced from 1 kg of gobar in summer (March to October) = 55 litres.
Calorific value of the biogas/cu m = 4713 kcal (With burning efficiency of 60%)
Density of slurry = 1090 kg/ m3
Total gas produced per day in winter = 42 x 3300 = 138600 lit/day = 138.6 m3/day
Total gas produced per day in summer = 55 x 3300 = 181500 lit/day = 181.5 m3/day.
 It is advisable to design on minimum gas generating capacity i.e., 138.6 m3/day.
Total gas required in village (there are 490 people) for cooking =0.227x490 = 111.23 m3
Gas required for lighting/day (100 C.P. lamp two hours daily burning per connection)
= 2 x 0.126 m3
Total gas requirement for 98 families/day for lighting = 2 x 0.126 x 98 =24.69 m3
Total gas required for cooking and lighting = 112.23 ÷ 24.69 = 136.92 m3
The gas produced is 138.60 m3/day (Assuming all the cattle dung is available)
Surplus gas = 138.60 — 136.92 = 1.68 m3
Out of which we can use for 5 street lamps.
Gas required = 5 x 0.252 1.16 m3.
Rest (1.68— 1.16) = 0.52 m3, can be accounted for leakage etc.
For the sake of convenience in distribution, we can have 4 digesters.
The quantity of dung for each digester = 825 kg.
When unit weight of dung is mixed with unit weight of water (to get optimum solid concentration for
digestion) to make the slurry (the density of the slurry = 1090 kg/ m3).
Weight of (dung + water)
Volume of the daily charge = ------------------------------------
Density of slurry
825 + 825
= ------------- = 1.51 m3.
1090
Digester volume = volume of the daily charge x Retention time = 1.51 x 30 = 45.3 m3
This is the minimum working volume. The actual volume should be about 10% more to provide some
empty space at the top for proper disengagement of the gas.
Actual digester volume = 1.1 x 45.3 = 49.83 m3
A cylindrical shape for the digester may be chosen.
The hydrostatic pressure due to slurry (hydrostatic pressure = depth of slurry x density of slurry) acting
on the inner surface exerts tensile load on the digester wall. The part of the digester below the ground
level is subjected to heavy compressive load due to the earth pressure, which increases with depth. A
circular shape has a better load bearing capacity. The height (H) to diameter (D) ratio is taken as unity
for any large capacity plant;
π D2 x H
Volume = -------------
4
3
H = volume = 49.83/0.785 = 63.47
There fore, H=3.99m.
Height of the digester = 3.99 m = 4 m
Diameter of the digester = 3.99 m = 4 m.
Gas holder calculation.
Since the gas will be used only for 4 hours in a day the volume of the gas holder must be at least
70% of the daily gas production. Production of gas/kg of fresh dung = 0.06 m3 for a retention period of
30 days (Standard data)
Volume. of the gas to be retained by the gas holder: 825 x 0.06 / 2 = 24.75 m3
Assume a diameter of 4 m
volume = 0.785 d2h. h =1.970 m.
Total slurry volume = volume fed in
= Total dung + water
= 3300 + 3300
= 6600 kg.
Conclusions : The plant will meet the cooking and lighting requirement of 98 families. It is simple in
design. If other requirements like street lighting; power for water pumping are to be met, then total
weight of the dung is to be increased by other means i.e. by increasing number of cattles or it can be
met by plant wastes, and accordingly 4esign of biogas plant is done.

Methods for Maintaining Biogas Production

The techniques usually suggested for maintaining the biogas production are briefly summarized as
follows
(1) Insulating the gas plant. For reducing heat losses from the digester, the external surface of the
digester is adequately insulated using different materials like mineral wool, aluminum cladding, fire
glass, straw etc. For this reason, the Janata type of plants are usually constructed below the ground
level. Conversely, in the floating dome design, almost 54% of the total heat losses occurs from the top
of the gas holder, therefore simple insulation like readily available dry agriculture residues (paddy
straw mat) on the top of the gas holder could reduce this loss considerably.
(2) Composting. The heat released in aerobic composting of agriculture residues around the annular
ring in the upper part of the digester could be utilized to raise the digester operating temperatures. From
experiments performed on biogas plants, it is reported that a temperature rise of 8-10°C above ambient
temperature even during the coldest season, as a result of heat released from composting manure and
straw. Under optimum conditions of moisture, composting is complete in 3-4 weeks and the released
heat varies with time remarkably. Small quantity of water in the straw around the digester is added later
when the drop in temperature occurs and therefore the temperature of the composting material and
digester contents can be kept relatively at constant temperature.
In this method the whole digester slurry is heated from the exothermic reaction of the compost
and the escape of heat of radiation from the top of the digester is prevented by providing thick paddy
straw mat on the top of the gas holder. In the plant as shown in figure a composed pit 1 m x 1. m all
round the digester is excavated. it is lined with 13 cm thick wall. Then it is filled with alternate layers
of paddy straw and dung. The thickness of each layer is about 15 cm and 5 cm respectively. Each layer
must be thoroughly

Compost heating of biogas plant

moisturized by sprinkling water. The decomposition of the organic matter and paddy straw will start
within 2-3 days and sufficient heat would be produced which will raise the temperature of the digested
slurry. In one experiment temperature of the compost was observed be about 70°C in the beginning,
which after .15-20 day came down to 63°C, and further after two it was about 51°C. It was further
observed that the temperature of the digester slurry remained always 40°C.
winter.
(3) Hot water circulation. This system has been reported to be efficient for maintaining temperatures of
the fermented slurry at the desired level. The cost of system, however comes higher.
(4) Use of chemicals. Use of chemicals such as urea and urine have been suggested by some workers to
increase the digester temperature. The actual heat gains and the corresponding economics in raising the
temperature have not been worked out yet. Addition of urine of animals was also observed to enhance
the gas production.
(5) Solar energy systems. The solar heat to the biogas digester could be provided in two distinct ways
namely (i) the active and (ii) the passive means. The active systems involve heating of the digester feed
or direct of the digester contents. In the first method, the incoming feed (or water which is used to
dilute the slurry) is preheated using solar energy during the day and is fed to the digester when it attains
the desired temperature.
Attempts have also been made to construct a shallow solar pond water heater over the gas
holder with an idea to have a solar water heater so that hot water could be used for hot charging. The
production rate is increased by 10-11% from this method. In another method the hot water from the
solar pond is circulated through the coils in the digester by a biogas powered pump. In general water is
heated in flat-plate collectors and is thermo siphoned through the digester.
The passive method involves the construction of a “green house” around the digester to capture
the radiant heat energy. In an experiment, a passive green house built over an under ground digester
raised the temperature by 10°C.
In another method a solar canopy is used to enhance the biogas production for the low
temperature in winter, polythene or plastic sheet is used for canopy. This method is not effective at
higher hills, because of snow and low temperature, where the polythene or plastic sheet used for
canopy could not last long. The only way to effectively insulate the biogas plant in the hilly areas to
enhance the biogas production is it construct a house or cattle shed on the biogas plant. Very favorable
results have been obtained in China, Turky and in the Kulu hills of Himachal Pradesh.
Problems Related to Bio-gas Plants
Some problems are natural and some are created by the persons biogas plant owners but all are
controllable.
1. Handling of effluent slurry is major problem if the person is not having sufficient open space or
compost pits to get the slurry dry. Use of press filters and transportation is expensive and out of reach
of poor farmers. For a domestic plant, 200 litres capacity oil drums can be used to carry this effluent to
the fields but this will require some human-animal labour or consumption of diesel if a auto vehicle is
used.
2. The gas forming-methanogenic bacteria are very sensitive towards the temperature compared to
those of non-methanogenic. During winter as the temperature falls, there is decrease in the activity of
methanogenic bacteria and subsequently fall in gas production rate. Many methods have been
suggested to overcome this temperature problem as described earlier, e.g.,
(a) Use of solar heated hot water to make a slurry of influent but the temperature of water should not
exceed 60°C otherwise the mesophilic bacteria will die.
(b) Circulation of hot water obtained either from solar heater or I.C. engine heat exchanger, through
pipes inside the digester.
(c) Green house effect also give good results but it is costlier and after few years the polythene sheet
used in it becomes opaque.
(d) Manual or auto stirring of digester slurry and bubbling of generated gas from the bottom of the
digester also helps in gas production rate in winter as well as in summer.
(e) Addition of various nutrients for bacteria.
(f) Covering the biogas plant by straw bags during night hours.
3. Due to lack of proper training to the bio-gas plant owners for the operation of plant, a lot of
problems arises. It has been noticed that many persons increase the loading rate and some also do not
try to mix the cattle dung with water, keeping in mind more gas production. Due to this, the flow of
slurry from inlet towards outlet is very slow or even stops. This may cause accumulation of volatile
fatty acids and drop in pH and then failure of digester. Also it is not possible to stir the digester content
of high solid concentration.
4. Some persons add urea-fertilizer in large quantities due to which toxicity of ammonia nitrogen may
cause a decrease in gas production.
5. pH and volatile fatty acids play an important role in anaerobic digestion and should remain under
optimum range otherwise this may cause upsetting of digester and even its failure. pH can be checked
from time to time by the use of cheep and easily available pH paper but volatile fatty acids can only be
determined in a laboratory having its testing facilities. For controlling pH in optimum range, it tends to
fall below 7.0, lime has been suggested, as it is easily available cheap material and does not harm the
activity of bacteria.
6. Leakage of gas from gas holder especially in case of Janata type biogas plants is a major and very
common problem. When there is quite enough gas in a gas holder, the leakage should be checked by
using water and the points marked and then get repaired. During repairing there should be no gas inside
the gas holder and the step cock remains open till repaired points get dry. Quality of constructing
material such as cement is important.

Starting a Biogas Plant

Starting any type of newly constructed biogas plant or starting a digestion in biogas plant is
common to all types of biogas plants. When the construction is over then it is necessary to decide
whether the digester is to run on agricultural/forest residue or on animal/human waste. If the digester is
to be fed with animal/human waste then it is not necessary to be inoculated because it contains
necessary bacteria although not in proper number as required. These bacteria get activated under
favorable environment and start working. It has been found experimentally that if wet cattle dung is
kept for anaerobic digestion mixing with water in 1: 1 ratio (W/V) at 37°C, the usual gas production
starts on 20th day, but if the influent is mixed with effluent slurry obtained from another biogas plant
operating on some feedstock then the gas production starts earlier. The gas production rate increases
with increase in effluent slurry mixed in with-influent slurry.
If the digester is to be operated on agricultural/forest residues then inoculation in necessary
otherwise there will be no is gas formation. Some experiments has been done using agro-residues and it
was found that the burnable gas having more than 50% of methane could be obtained only within 2
days of starting the digester when the influent was mixed effluent slurry in 1: 1 ratio (V/V), obtained
from a cattle dung fed domestic biogas plant.

Filling a Digester for Starting

For starting a digester its air should be taken out by filling it with influent up to its over flow in every
type of biogas plant. However in case of fixed dome (Janata model) there are some chances that the
slurry may enter the gas outlet pipe whereas in floating dome type biogas plant there will be some
oxygen (air), at zero level of gas holder and there may be explosion due to the mixture of evolved gas
and air. To overcome this problem, the space above digester slurry should be filled with some inert gas
such as nitrogen or with biogas. The later can be obtained from another biogas plant by using taken. In
animal/human waste bacterial metabolism will tend to use the oxygen in the digester head-space and so
leave the atmosphere of nitrogen. In the digester, in which influent has been inoculated with effluent
slurry, the gas production will be soon and the percentage of oxygen in digester over head- space will
become very less, thus minimising the chances of explosion. Water can also be used to take out the
oxygen of digester and then new material can be fed slowly.

Fuel Properties of Bio-gas

Biogas generated by anaerobic fermentation of organic wastes, essentially contains Methane and
carbon dioxide in large proportion and has traces of other gases. The importance properties are as
follows:

Composition (% volume)
Methane 50 - 60
Carbon dioxide 30 - 45
Hydrogen 5 - 10
Nitrogen 0.5 - 0.7
Hydrogen Sulphide and oxygen Traces.

Calorific value : 60% Methane - 22.350 to 24.22 MJ/m3,

without C02: 33.525 to 35.390 MJ/m3
Octane rating without C02: 130 and with C02: 110
Ignition temperature : 650°C

Utilization of Bio-gas
 The main products of the bio-gas plant are fuel gas and organic manure. Biogas is a
flammable gas. Methane is the only combustible portion in the gas and hence around 60 percent by
volume is only usable for combustion.
• Cooking: Biogas can be used in a specialls y designed burner for cooking purpose. A biogas plant
of 2 cubic metres capacity is sufficient for providing cooking fuel needs of a family of about five
persons.
• Lighting: Biogas is used in silk mantle lamps for lighting purpose. The requirement of gas for
powering a 100 candle lamp (60 W) is 0.13 cubic metre per hour.
• Power Generation: Biogas can be used to operate a dual fuel engine to replace up to 80 % of
diesel-oil. Diesel engines have been modified to run 100 per cent on biogas. Petrol and CNG
engines can also be modified easily to use biogas.
• Transport Fuel: After removal of CO2, H2S and water vapor, biogas can be converted to natural
gas quality for use in vehicles.
Uses of biodigested slurry
The slurry after the digestion will be washed out of the digester which is rich in various plant
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. Well-fermented biogas slurry improves the
physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil resulting qualitative as well as quantitative yield
of food crops. Slurry from the biogas plant is more than a soil conditioner, which builds good soil
texture, provides and releases plant nutrients. Since there are no more parasites and pathogens in the
slurry, it is highly recommended for use in farming. The economic value of the slurry shows that
investment can be gained back in three to four year's time if slurry is properly used. The cow dung
slurry after digestion inside the digester comes out with following characteristics and has following
advantages:
When fully digested, effluent is odourless and does not attract insects or flies in the open condition.
The effluent repels termites whereas raw dung attracts them and they can harm plants fertilised with
farmyard manure (FYM). Effluent used as fertiliser reduces weed growth with about 50%. When FYM
is used the undigested weed seeds cause an increased weed growth. It has a greater fertilising value
than FYM or fresh dung. The form in which nitrogen available can be easily assimilated by the crops.
Biogas design parameters
Gas required for cooking/person/day = 0.227 m3
Gas required for lighting 100 Candle power lamp per hour = 0.126 m3
Gas required for engine 0.45 – 0.54 m3per horse power per hour
Dung per cow per day = 10 Kg
Dung per ox per day = 12 Kg
Dung per buffalo per day = 15 Kg
Dung per pig per day = 2 Kg
Dung per horse per day = 10 Kg
Dung per Calves per day = 5 Kg
Dung per chicken per day = 0.18 Kg
Human excreta per person per day = 0.4 Kg
1 kg of fresh dung produces 0.04 m3of gas
Total solids of fresh dung – 18-20 %
Selection of site for construction of biogas plant
Following factors must be considered while selecting the site for a biogas plant.
(i) Distance : The distance between the plant and the site of gas consumption should be less in order to
achieve economy in pumping of gas and minimizing gas leakage. For a plant of capacity 2 m 3, the
optimum distance is 10 m.
(ii) Minimum gradient: For conveying the gas a minimum gradient of 1% must be made available for
the line.
(iii) Open Space : The sunlight should fall on the plant as temperature between 15°C to 30°C is
essential for gas generation at good rate.
(iv) Water table : The plant is normally constructed underground for ease of charging the feed and
unloading slurry requires less labour. in such cases care should be taken to prevent the seepage of water
and plant should not be constructed if the water table is more than 10 ft. (3m).
(v) Seasonal run off : Proper care has to be taken to prevent the interference of run off water during
the monsoon. Intercepting ditches or bunds may be constructed.
(vi) Distance from wells : The seepage of fermented slurry may pollute the well water. Hence a
minimum of 15 m should be maintained from the wells.
(vii) Space requirements : Sufficient space must be available for day to day operation and
maintenance. As a guideline 10 to 12 m2 area is needed per m3 of the gas.
(viii) Availability of water : Plenty of water must be available as the cow dung slurry with a solid
concentration of 7% to 9% is used.
(ix) Source of cow dung/materials for biogas generation : The distance between the material for
biogas generation and the gas plant site should be minimum to economies the transportation cost.

*****
 6. Energy plantations
Growth of plant material for their fuel value offers a renewable source of liquid fuel and
organic chemicals. Energy plantations can be considered as long term alternatives to fossil and nuclear
energy sources. When land plants are grown purposely for their fuel value,. by capturing solar radiation
in, is called “Energy plantation”. it is worth considering this possibility seriously because, plants as
they grow, serve as a convenient single service disposal solar energy storage devices, from which the
accumulated energy can be released, at will, at temperatures comparable with those achievable from
fossil fuels. More energy is derived from materials of forest origin than from all the thermal power
plants in the country. Yet little consideration is given to harvesting plants as fuels. it is necessary to
think in terms of “calorie plants” not of trees grasses or farm crops as such ; this way of thinking will
permit us to define the character and culture of plants for optimising the fuel harvest in, the so called
“Energy plantation”.
“Energy plantations” by design are managed and operated to provide substantial amounts of useable
fuel continuously throughout the year at the costs competitive with other fuels. Annual plants, typical
of the important farm crops, are unsuitable for providing a year-round supply of fuel. Mature trees, as
used by the forest products industry, grow too slowly to provide the high yields desirable for ‘Energy
plantations’. Wild or unmanaged vegetations vary greatly in form and quantity between widely
separated sites to be a reliable and manageable source of fuel. The form of the “Energy plantation” fuel
must be acceptable to its intended users.
Soil Conditions and Species of Vegetations
Choosing ‘calorie plants’ depend on the climate and soils, where the energy plantations are to be
located. Lands that are primarily suitable for agricultural crops will not be devoted for growing fuels on
large scale. However the ‘calorie crops’ will still required land and climate suitable for their growth
like adequate moisture, a moderate growing season, a few cms. of top soil capable of retaining moisture
and being fertilised. Large hectares of land do exist in our country with climate and soil conditions
(favorable) for such plantations. To identify such areas for a particular species of ‘calorie crops’ it may
be necessary to do a survey. There are areas in our country where soils and climates are suitable for
intensive culture of variety of soft and hard woods.
Whatever be the candidate for the calorie crop chosen for a particular zone, they must effectively
capture solar energy on a small scale and also be manageable on a large scale. Depending upon the type
of candidate, tree and trees life cycles, intensive forest practices allow a greater number of trees to be
planted per unit area, thus reducing the space between them. The geometry of leaf-bearing branch
should be such that maximum surface area faces the sun.
Design and Management of Energy Plantation
 Management of large scale energy plantation may require complete mechanisation or semi-
mechanisation. In India, where large labour force exists, and also to give meaningful livelihood to the
large number of labourers, it is essential that mechanisation is kept a minimum. High yields of energy
plantation fuels from trees are possible, where candidate trees are planted with denser that conventional
spaces and harvested on shorter than conventional cycles.
A computer model has to developed with the existing data of the candidate tree and particular site to
predict combinations of harvest cycles and planting densities, which will optimize the harvest of fuel
and the operating cost. Typical calorie crops includes 12,000 to 24,000 trees/hectare. The plantation is
harvested initially after one to three years and subsequently on two or four years cycle for five or six
harvested. In some experimental area bio-mass of 17 to 25 dry tons/ha/yr has been achieved. This
means plantation of 50 million hectares can yield fuel equivalent to 3,000 trillion kilo calories,
scheduling all operations, from site preparation to plantation regeneration, ultimately depends on the
harvested cycle selected to optimise plantation yields.
In India the annual average solar insolation is over 400 cal/cm2/day ordinary vegetation
grow in the country is collecting and storing, fuel equivalent to 0.5 to 0.77% of the annual solar
radiation on the land. This sunshine conversion rate is equivalent to collecting and storing between 100
to 175 trillion kcal/ha/yr. It seems therefore that, a solar energy conversion rate of about 0.9% can be
achieved widely by optimizing plant material production, for fuel value by methods like, double
cropping, mix species planting or crop rotation. The technology for all these operations in general are
available in the various sectors of our agricultural economy. A rough estimate of the cost of the heat
equivalent of the crop from energy plantation indicates, that it is lower than the current cost of
hydrocarbon fuels and slightly more than the cost of coal in areas close to the coal mines.
Advantages of Energy Plantation
Storage. Fuels produced by plant growth will have two main advantages over directly
harnessing the solar energy at the surface of the earth either by thermal or photovoltaic means, i.e.
neither of these two means can be counted upon for a continuous supply of energy unless it is equipped
with elaborate storage units. Whereas plants, as they grow they serve as their own energy accumulator.
There are practically no storage losses. This feature allows a considerable amount of flexibility in the
reaping schedule for fuel crop. The flexibility is particularly wide if the crop maturity cycle extends
over years. On the contrary similar flexibility is not available if crop matures in a few months.
Perennial crops are always preferred for this purpose due to their continuous growth with minimum of
efforts.
*****
 7. Biomass Briquetting – A Value Adding Technology for Agro Residues

Biomass plays a major part in fulfilling the energy needs of the developing countries.
According to the world’s energy topics, it is widely accepted that fossil fuel shortage, fuel
increasing price, global warming including other environmental problems are critical issues.
Therefore, biomass energy has been attracting attention as an energy source since zero net carbon
dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere from biomass production and utilization can be achieved.
The carbon dioxide released during combustion process is compensated by the carbon dioxide
consumption in photosynthesis. Among several kinds of biomass, agro residues have become one of
most promising choices. They are available as a free or almost free, indigenous and abundant energy
source. But it is generally difficult to handle them because of its bulky nature, low combustion
characteristics and copious liberation of smoke. The direct burning of these agro residues in
domestic and industrial applications is inefficient and associated with wide scale air pollution. In
order to achieve more efficient usage of agro residues, it is essential to densify them to compact
pieces of definite shape and high thermal value. Briquetting is one of the several compaction
technologies in the category of densification. The process of briquetting consists of applying
pressure to a mass of particles with or without a binder and converting it into a compact product of
high bulk density, low moisture content, uniform size and shape and good burning characteristics.
Briquettes can be produced with the density of 1.2 to 1.4 g/cm3 from loose agro residues with a bulk
density of 0.1 to 0.2 g/cm3.
In the past, the principal form of biomass burned for energy was wood because of its relatively
high density and availability. One of the major limitations of using biomass such as straw and woody
resources like sawdust is its low bulk density, which typically ranges from 80–100 kg/m3, cause major
problem during storage, handling and transportation. Briquettes have high specific density (1200 Kg/m3)
and bulk density (800 Kg/m3) compared to 60 to 180 Kg/m3 of loose biomass. One of the strategies to
overcome this problem is to increase its density through densification. The process of densification, in
which biomass residues such as saw dust, straw etc are compressed into pellets or briquettes promises to
make other biomass forms, now wasted, equally attractive. These processes produce a fuel that has
approximately three fourths of the energy of coal, both on a mass and volume basis and thus densified
biomass could be called ‘instant coal”.
Densification enables several advantages including (i) improved handling and conveyance
efficiencies throughout the supply system and biorefinery in feed, (ii) controlled particle size
distribution for improved feedstock uniformity and density (iii) fractionated structural components for
improved compositional quality and (iv) conformance to pre-determined conversion technology and
supply system specifications.
 Densification of paddy straw makes it available for commercial usage by increasing the energy
content and reducing the transportation cost and storage space. The quality of the densified materials
and energy required to densify them are influenced totally by the compaction process, physical
characteristics and chemical composition of the biomass and process conditions. Hence, it is essential to
know the physical and chemical properties of straw to understand the suitability of feed for
densification.
Raw materials for briquetting
Almost all agro residues can be briquetted. Agro residues such as saw dust, rice husk, tapioca
waste, groundnut shell, cotton stalks, pigeon pea stalks, soybean stalks, coir pith, mustard stalks,
sugar cane bagasse, wood chips, tamarind pod, castor husk, coffee husk, dried tapioca stick, coconut
shell powder are the commonly used raw materials for briquetting in India. All these residues can be
briquetted individually and in combination with or without using binders. The factors that mainly
influence on the selection of raw materials are moisture content, ash content, flow characteristics,
flow characteristics, particle size and availability in the locality. Moisture content in the range of 10-
15% is preferred because high moisture content will pose problems in grinding and more energy is
required for drying. The ash content of biomass affects its slagging behaviour together with the
operating conditions and mineral composition of ash. Biomass feedstock having up to 4% of ash
content is preferred for briquetting. The granular homogeneous materials which can flow easily in
conveyers, bunkers and storage silos are suitable for briquetting.

Briquetting Process
The series of steps involved in the briquetting process are :1. Collection of raw materials
2. Preparation of raw materials 3. Compaction and 4. Cooling and Storage.
Collection of raw materials
In general, any material that will burn, but is not in a convenient shape, size or form to be
readily usable as fuel is a good candidate for briquetting.
 Preparation of raw materials
The preparation of raw materials includes drying, size reduction, mixing of raw materials in
correct proportion, mixing of raw materials with binder etc.
Drying
The raw materials are available in higher moisture contents than what required for briquetting.
Drying can be done in open air (sun), in solar driers, with a heater or with hot air.

Size reduction
The raw material is first reduced in size by shredding, chopping, crushing, breaking, rolling,
hammering, milling, grinding, cutting etc. until it reaches a suitably small and uniform size (1 to 10
mm). For some materials which are available in the size range of 1 to 10mm need not be size reduced.
Since the size reduction process consumes a good deal of energy, this should be as short as possible.

Shredding machine
Raw material mixing
It is desirable to make briquettes of more than one raw material. Mixing will be done in proper
proportion in such a way that the product should have good compaction and high calorific value.
Compaction
Compaction process takes place inside the briquetting machine. The process depends on the
briquetting technology adopted.
 Briquetting Technologies
Briquetting technologies used in the briquetting of the agro residues are divided into three categories.
(i) high pressure or high compaction technology : In this machines, the pressure reaches the value
of 100 MPa. This type is suitable for the residues of high lignin content. At this high pressure the
temperature rises to about 200 – 250 oC, which is sufficient to use the lignin content of the residue,
which acts as a binder and so, no need of any additional binding material.
(ii) Medium pressure technology : In medium pressure type of machines, the pressure developed
will be in the range of 5 MPa and 100MPa which results in lower heat generation. This type of
machines requires additional heating to melt the lignin content of the agro residues which eliminates
the use of an additional binder material.
(iii) low pressure technology : These low pressure machines works at a pressure less than 5 MPa
and room temperature. This type of machines requires addition of binding materials. This type of
machines is applicable for the carbonized materials due to the lack of the lignin material.

The high pressure compaction technology for briquetting of agro residues can be differentiated
in to two types (i) hydraulic piston press type and (ii) screw press type. Among these two
technologies hydraulic piston press type was predominantly used to produce briquettes in India
Mostly cylindrical shaped briquettes with 30 mm to 90 mm diameter were produced. All the
commercial firms involved in briquette making produces 60 mm and 90 mm diameter briquettes.
Extruder

Pellets die

Cubes
 Cylindrical briquettes
Cooling and Storage of briquettes
Briquettes extruding out of the machines are hot with temperatures exceeding 100oC. They have
to be cooled and stored in dry place.
Uses for Briquettes
The most frequent applications for this type of fuel are of both a domestic and industrial nature;
from fireplaces or stoves to boilers generating hot water and steam. Tea industries, wine distilleries,
textile industries, and farms are the major sectors using briquettes. Briquettes are also used in
gasification process for electricity production.

Advantages of agro residual briquettes:

The process increase the net calorific value of material per unit volume
End product is easy to transport and store
The fuel produced is uniform in size and quality
Helps solve the problem of residue disposal
Helps to reduce deforestation by providing a substitute for fuel wood.
The process reduce/eliminates the possibility of spontaneous combustion waste
The process reduces biodegradation of residues
 Necessary requirements to start a briquette production unit
1. Land requirement: Land area of minimum 1 acre is required for starting a briquette
production unit to store the raw materials for briquetting and produced briquettes.
2. Raw materials: Continuous availability of raw materials is a major factor for profitable
briquette production.
3. Drying facility to dry raw materials: The raw materials which are commonly
available are with higher moisture content. So, any of the drying technologies such as solar
driers/ heater/ hot air generator system is required to bring down the moisture content to an
desirable level for briquetting.
4. Shredding machine: A shredding machine with minimum of 5 hp motor is required to
powder the agro residues for briquetting.
5. Briquetting machine: A high pressure hydraulic piston press type briquetting machine
powered by minimum of 50 hp motor is required to produce binderless briquettes from agro
residues.
*****
 8. Thermal Gasification of Biomass
Combustion : Biomass combustion is a complex process that consists of consecutive heterogeneous
and homogeneous reactions. The main process steps are drying, devolatilization, gasification, char
combustion, and gas-phase oxidation. The time used for each reaction depends on the fuel size and
properties, on temperature, and on combustion conditions. The carbon present in the biomass combines
with oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and heat energy.
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
Pyrolysis : Pyrolysis is the one of the most common methods in thermal conversion technology of
biomass. In pyrolysis, biomass is heated to moderate temperatures, 400-6000C, In the absence of
stoichiometric oxygen to produce oil that can be used as a feed stock in existing petroleum refineries
or charcoal In pyrolysis, oxygen-containing compounds (aldehydes, ketones, phenolics and organic
acids) make the oil too unstable and acidic for introduction into existing pipelines, tankers and
refineries.
C6H10O5 CxHz + CO
C6H10O5 CnHmOy
Gasification : The thermo-chemical decomposition of hydrocarbons from biomass in a reducing
(oxygen deficient) atmosphere is called gasification. The resulting gas product contains combustible
gases – hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO) as the main constituents. Byproducts are liquids
and tars, charcoal and mineral matter (ash or slag). Biomass gasification is basically the conversion
of solid biomass such as wood, agricultural residues etc., into a combustible gas mixture normally
called “producer gas”or Low Btu gas). The solid biomass is partially burnt in the presence of air or
oxygen to produce a low or medium calorific value gas. Partial combustion produces carbon
monoxide as well as hydrogen which are both combustible gases. Solid biomass fuels are usually
inconvenient, have low efficiency of utilisation and can only be used for certain limited applications.
Combustion is the normal conversion process used in cooking, heating space and water, or
generation of steam usually with low efficiencies, generation of power, for example, requires
high/medium pressure steam boiler along with steam engine or turbine with accessories. For small
power needs (a few kilowatts to few hundred kilowatts), this conversion technology is not only
capital intensive and complex, but also very inefficient. Conversion of the same biomass to a
combustible gas mixture called producer gas removes most of these problems associated with the
use of solid biomass fuels. While conversion to gas results in loss of energy of upto 25 percent, use
of gas can be highly efficient and hence overall efficiency could be very high. Also it can be
employed at any scale and hence is ideally suited for decentralised application whether for
shaftpower, electricity or thermal energy.
The word gasification implies converting a solid or liquid into a gaseous fuel without leaving
any solid carbonaceous residue. The gas from the gasifier burns completely; it is clean, odourless and
colourless. The fuel gas can be directly mixed with cold air to generate hot air at desired temperature for
purpose of drying. Furthermore the producer gas can also be used to replace diesel (upto 70-75 percent) in
standard diesel engine for shaft power generation comparable to conventional electricity at substantially
lower cost than for diesel based generation. The asifier is also environment friendly equipment without any
harmful emission.

Gasifier. It is an equipment which can gasify a variety of biomass such as wood waste, agricultural waste
like stalks, and roots of various crops, maize cobs etc. The gasifier is essentially a chemical reactor where
various complex physical and chemical processes take place. Biomass gets dried, heated, pyrolysed,
partially oxidised and reduced, as it flows through it.
The gas produced in the gasifier is a clean burning fuel having heating value of about 950-1200
kcal/m3. Hydrogen (18-20%), and carbon-monoxide (18-24%) are the main constituents of the gas.
Gasification process
In what is known as a gasifier, a solid fuel is converted by a series of thermo chemical processes
like drying, pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction to a gaseous fuel called producer gas If atmospheric air is
normally used as the gasification agent, the producer gas consists mainly of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
oxygen. A typical composition of the gas obtained from wood gasification on volumetric basis is as follows:
Carbon monoxide : 18—22%
Hydrogen : 13—19%
Methane : 1—5%
Heavier hydrocarbons : 0.2—0.4%
Carbon dioxide : 9—12%
Nitrogen : 45—55%
Water vapour : 4%

The gas can be used for generation of motive power either in dual fuel engines or in diesel
engines with some modifications. Engines operating on a spark ignition system (e.g. petrol engines)
can be made to run entirely on producer gas, whereas those using compression ignition systems (e.g.
diesel engines) can be made to operate with about 60 to 80% fuel oil replacement by the gas. In larger
systems, the gas can be burnt directly using burners as in industries and hotels. Depending upon the
positions of air inlet and gas withdrawal with reference to the fuel bed movement, the gasifiers are
classified as updraft, downdraft and cross draft gasifiers
The advantages of a gasifier are:
(i) it is very easy to operate the gasifier.
(ii) Its maintenance is easy.
(iii) it is sturdy in construction and,
(iv) reliable in operation.
Gasification—The conversion alternative
A diverse range of routes are available for conversion of biomass to various forms of
energy. Most of these processes or technologies are suitable for either one or few of the biomass
resources and have limitations in terms of total available energy and the form of energy.
The direct use as fuel, densification and subsequently use as fuel, digestion to generate biogas,
gasification, incineration and steam generation are some of the available processes/technologies for
conversion of biomass to energy, especially electrical and/or heat energy.
However, among all these alternatives, gasification is the best suitable alternative in view of the
following:
(i) Gasification offers high flexibility in terms of various biomass materials as the feedstock.
(ii) Gasification has thermo-chemical conversion efficiencies in the range of 70% to 90% which is
highest among various alternative.
(iii) Gasification output capacity, especially in the high output ranges, is controlled only by availability
of adequate feed materials rather than other technical consideration.
(iv) The area requirement for gasification equipment is lowest per unit output of energy in the form of
heat and/or electricity.
(v) The gasification equipment has high turn down ratios comparable to biogas and higher than steam
turbine systems.
(vi) Gasification outputs are suitable as a fuel to all types of internal combustion engines with capacity
de-rating in the range of 15% to 30%.

Classification of Biomass Gasifiers

Gasifiers are classified based on (i) the direction of the gas flow, and (ii) output or capacity of the
gasifiers.
(1) Gasifier is a vertical flow packed bed reactor through which oxygen or air for combustion is passed
through it. It may pass downward or upward or across the bed. The direction of the gas flow defines it
as a down draft, up draft, or cross-draft producer gas generator.
(2) As per the output power, gasifiers are classified as
(i) Small size gasifiers with output up to 10 kW.
(ii) Medium size gasifiers with outputs in the range of 10 kW to 50kW.
(iii) Large size gasifiers with output in the range of 50 kW to 300kW.
(iv) Very large gasifiers with outputs of 300 kW and above.
(v) Gasification for direct thermal energy applications.
(3) Gasifiers may also be classified as per the type of the bed as Fixed bed and Fluidised bed.
(1) Fixed Bed Gasifiers. The three main designs of fixed bed gasifiers are Up draft, Down draft and
Cross draft.
(i) Up Draft Gasifiers : In updraft gasifier air enters below the combustion zone and the producer gas
leaves near the top of the gasifier. This type of gasifier is easy to build and operate. The gas produced
has practically no ash but contains tar and water vapour because of passing of gas through the unburnt
fuel. Hence the up draft gasifiers are suitable for tar free fuels like char-coal, especially in stationary
engines.

(ii) Down-draft Gasifier : In down draft gasifier air enters at the combustion zone and the gas
produced leaves near the bottom of the gasifier. In this type of gasifiers, the volatiles and the tars
produced from the descending fixed bed have to pass through the reaction zone where mostly they are
racked and gasified. Also a constriction provided in the hearth, i.e. the throat ensures that the gaseous
products pass through the hottest zone, the gas produced contains less of tar and more of ash. These
gasifiers are suitable for fuels like wood and agricultural wastes. They maybe used for power
generation up to above 150 kW, and beyond that there may be geometrical limitations upon gas quality.
They are cheap and easy to make (Figure).
In the downdraft gasifier. air enters through radial tuyers near the top of the fire box. The partial
combustion takes place in the zone in front of the tuyere openings. The heat generated pyrolyzes the fuel
immediately above and the hot gases proceed downward through the firebox constriction, and exit
through the grate. The throat (constriction) forces the raw gases to pass through a high temperature
zone so that most of the unburnt pyrolysis products (tars) can be cracked into gaseous hydrocarbons,
thus producing a relatively clean gas.
The downdraft gasifier, also called the cocurrent moving bed gasifier, is most commonly used for
engine, applications because of its ability to produce a relatively clean gas. However, the presence of
the throat poses problems of fuel movement. In the recent years, so called throatless gasiliers have been
developed at Solar Energy Research Institute, Colorado, USA, Indian Institute of Science Banglore
Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, Phaltan ; and Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. For
large sizes, fluidized bed gasifiers and entrained bed gasifiers have also been considered.
(iii) Cross Draft Gasifiers. In this type of gasifiers, the gas produced passes upwards in the annular
space around the gasifier that is filled with charcoal. The charcoal acts as an insulator and a dust filter.
They are usually suitable for power generation up to 50 kW.

Schematic diagram of a crossdraft gasifier.

Air enters the cross draft gasifier through a water cooled nozzle mounted on one side of the firebox.
The gas is produced in the horizontal zone in front of the nozzle and passes through a vertical grate into
the hot gas port on the opposite side. Because of the short path-length for the gasification reactions, this
type of gas producer responds most rapidly for changes in gas production. However, the cross draft
gasifier is not commnonly used.
Understanding of the various complex reactions occurring in a gasifier has so far been incomplete.
However, the following reactions explain fairly well the process of gasification.
C +02 —. CO2 + 393800 kJ/kg mol (Combustion)
C + H20 —‘ CO + H2 — 131400 kJ/kg mol (Water gas)
CO + H20 w CO2 + H2 + 41200 kJ/kg mol (Water shift reaction)
C + CO2 —‘ 2C0 — 172600 kJ/kg mol (Boudouard reaction)
 C + 2H2O —‘ CO2 + 2H2 — 78700 kJ/kg mol
C + 2H2 —‘ CH4 + 75000 kJ/kg mol (Methane reaction)
The sequence of these reactions in a downdraft gasifier is shown in Figure.

Sequence of reactions in a downdraft gasifier.

With the help of the above reaction scheme and also with the knowledge of the equilibrium
constants, it is possible to predict the equilibrium composition of the gaseous composition of the
gaseous products. The equilibrium composition for a given solid fuel depends upon the air supply per
unit weight of the biomass. A dimensionless parameter known as the equivalence ratio (ER) is usually
defined to characterize the air supply conditions as follows
(Weight of oxygen/weight of dry fuel)
ER= -----------------------------------------------
(Weight of oxygen/weight of dry fuel)
The denominator in above equation is the oxygen stoichiometric required for complete
combustion of the fuel and varies from fuel to fuel. It is generally observed that for effective
gasification, ER should be in the range of 0.2—0.4. Below an ER value of 0.2 pyrolysis predominates
the process and above an ER value of 0.4, combustion predominates.
In a real gasifier, however, the composition of the gas is far from equilibrium value and Is
generally dependent on the gasifier design. Factors that affect the gas composition are temperature
distribution in the fuel bed, average gas residence time, and the residence time distribution. These are in
turn dependent upon the mode of air entry, dimensions of the gasifier, and heat losses to surroundings.
Modeling of the various processes occurring in the gasifier requires not only a knowledge of kinetics
but also an understanding of the heat and mass transfer processes occurring in the various zones of the
gasifier.
In all the existing gasifier designs, the raw producer gas generated contains varying amounts of
moisture, dust char particles, and tar ; the gases are also at a high temperature. Admission of hot gases
into an engine results in loss of power and, hence, the gas has to be cooled. Also, the impurities present
in the gas are detrimental to the operation of IC engines and hence the gas has to be cleaned before
admitting into the engine. No standard has yet been evolved to determine the degree of purity required
for engine operation, but a tar, content of less than 100 mg/m3 is generally acceptable. The conditioning
of raw producer gas for use in IC engines usually consists of: (i) removal of larger char particles, (ii)
scrubbing of gas to remove tar, (iii) cooling the gas, (iv) removal of moisture, and (v) removal of fine
dust particles. These processes are accomplished in a gas cooling/cleaning train such as the one shown
in Figure.
Any carbonaseous matter can be gasified in principle. But from the point of view of operational
reliability, some fuels are better than others. In general, fuels with low ash content such as charcoal,
wood and coconut shells are extremely suitable for continuous and reliable operation. Commercial
gasifiers have generally avoided the use of high ash or so-called slagging fuels. However, successful
operation of rice husk gasifiers for years in Italy and China, for example, show that it is technically
feasible to utilize even problematic biomass residues for gasification.

(2) Fluidised Bed Gasifier. The selection of the design of the gasifier either fix bed or fluidised bed
will depend on the actual application. However at this stage it is worth noting that the performance of a
fixed bed gasifier will depend on the fuel properties, such as chemical analysis, volatile contents,
calorific value, size distribution and ash characteristics. On the contrast, a fluidized bed gasifier is most
versatile and any biomass (including sewage sludge ; pulping effluents etc.) can be gasified using this
type of gasifier. It provides a means of burning any combustible material from wet sewage sludge to
refuse, with high efficiency and with minimal pollution. At the heart of a fluidised bed combustor is a
hot bed of inert particles which are held in suspension fluidised’-by an upward current of air. The
calorific value of biomass is not a constraint. Besides being highly efficient
because of high heat release rates as well as effective heat transfer resulting from rapid mixing and
turbulence within the fluidised bed, fluidised bed gasifier can handle biomass with high ash content (for
example rice husk).
Fluidised bed generally contain either inert material (sand) or reactive material (limestone or catalyst).
These aid heat transfer and provide catalytic or gas clearing action. The bed material is kept in fluid
state by the rising column of the gas. Normally the operating temperature of the bed is maintained
within the range of 750—950°C, so that the ash zones do not get heated to its initial deformation
temperature and this prevents clinkering or slagging.
Advantages of fluidised bed gasifier are:
(i) Fuel flexibility and type of fuel with calorific value ranging from 800 to 8000 kcal/kg can be used.
(ii) Good heat storage capacity. The bed has a very high heat storage capacity to always ensure
combustion. In fact, when due to power failure if the gasifier had to cutoff, it would be possible to
restart the gasifier even after 5 hrs time without going through the initial starting procedure. Such a
high heat storage capacity helps in elimination of flame sensing device and the associated problems
connected with
the same.
(iii) Quick start up.
(iv) High combustion efficiency.
(v) High output rate.
(vi) Consistent rate of combustion.
(vii) Usage of fuel with high moisture content.
(viii) Rapid response to fuel input changes.
(ix) Because of the low temperature combustion, corrosion caused by alkali compounds in ash
significantly reduced.
(x) Require much less boiler plan area than a stoker.
(xi) Uniform temperature throughout the furnace volume.
(xii) Reduced emission of harmful nitrous oxide.
(xiii) Sulphur dioxide emission can be reduced to acceptable level with less expense.
(xiv) Operation is as simple as that of an oil fired boiler.
 8. Solar energy and it’s utilization

The solar energy is one of the major source of energy which is responsible for all the other
source of energy available on the earth. The solar energy consists of both heat and light energy. The
energy is in the form of electro magnetic radiations In general, the energy produced and radiated by the
sun, more specifically the term refers to the sun’s energy that reaches the earth. Solar energy, received
in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy, such as heat
and electricity, which can be utilized by man. Since the sun is expected to radiate at an essentially
constant rate for a few billion years, it may be regarded as an in-exhaustible source of useful energy.
The major drawbacks to the extensive application of solar energy are:
1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface and
2. The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.
Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99 per cent have wave
lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micrometers (1 micrometer = 1O meter). Solar energy reaching the
top of the earth’s atmosphere consists of about 8 per cent ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less
than 0.39 micrometer), 46 per cent visible light (0.39 to 0.78 micrometer), and 46 per cent infrared
radiation (long wave length more than 0.78 micrometer).
Solar Constant
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 x 106 km, while that of the earth is 1.27 x 104 Km. The mean
distance between the two is 1.50 x 108 km. Although the sun is large, it subtends an angle of only 32
minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also at a very large distance. Thus the beam radiation
received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from its centre to
the edge. However for engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that the brightness all over
the solar disc is uniform. As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears to be
essentially equivalent to that coming from a black surface at 5762°K.
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar constant I. This is
the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the
mean distance of the earth from the sun. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s
(NASA) standard value for the solar constant, expressed in three common units, is as follows:
- 1.353 kilowatts per square metre or 1353 watt per square metre.
- 116.5 langleys (calories per sq. cm) per hour, or 1165 kcal per sq. m per hour
(1 langley being equal to 1 cal/cm2 of solar radiation received in one day).
- 429.2 Btu per sq. ft. per hour
 The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little through the year. Because of this
variation, the extra-terrestrial (out side the earth’s atmosphere) flux also varies. The earth is closest to
the sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter.
Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface
From the point of view of utilisation of solar energy we are more interested in the energy
received at the earth’s surface than in the extra-terrestrial energy. Solar radiation received at the surface
of the earth is entirely different due to the various reasons. Before studying this it is important to know
the following terms:
Beam and Diffuse Solar Radiation - The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and
reaches the surface differs in both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
In the first place, part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds. Further
more, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and
ozone (O3), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and
carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is
scattered (i.e., its direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules, and by
dust particles.
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed/ or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called “direct radiation” or Beam radiation. It is the radiation which produces a shadow when
interrupted by an opaque object. Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the solar
radiation is scattered in all directions in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all
parts of the sky (Fig. 2.3.1). The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth’s surface is the
sum of the direct and diffuse radiation. This is referred to in a general sense as the insolation at that
point. More specifically, the insolation is defined as the total solar radiation energy received on a
horizontal surface of unit area (e.g., 1 sq. m) on the ground in unit time (e.g., 1 day).
 The insolation at a given location on the earth’s surface depends, among other factors, on
the altitude of the sun in the sky. (The altitude the angle between the sun’s direction and the
horizontal). Since the sun’s altitude changes with the date and time of the day and with the geographic
latitude at which the observations are made, the rate of arrival of solar radiation on the round is a
variable quantity even in the time.
There are, nevertheless, some general points that can be made. The smaller the sun’s
altitude, the greater the thickness of atmosphere through which the solar radiation must pass the reach
the ground Fig. 2.3.1.. As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less when the sun is
low in the sky than when it is higher. However, when scattering occurs, diffuse radiation constitutes a
larger fraction of the total received.
On a clear, cloudless day, about 10 to 20 per cent of the insolation is from diffuse radiation,
the proportion increases upto 100 per cent when the sun is completely obscured by clouds. When the
humidity is high, the insolation on a cloudy day, consisting entirely of diffuse radiation, may be as high
as 50 per cent of the insolation on a clear day at the same time and place.
Solar Energy Availability in India
Total area of land in India = 3.28 x 1011 m2
Total number of sun shine days in a year = 300 (assumed)
Average solar isolation in India = 500 W / m2
No. of sunshine hours in a day = 5 hours
Total solar radiation received in a day = 3.28 x 10'' x 500 x 5 x 3600 J = 2.952 x 1015 J
= 2.952 x 109 MJ / day
Total solar isolation received in a year in India = 2.952 x 109 x 300 = 8.856 x 10'' MJ
If 1% of land area is used to harness solar energy with thermal efficiency of 10%
Solar energy available for use in a year = 8.856 x 10'' x 0.01 x 0.1
Solar energy available for use in India = 8.856 x 108 MJ

Solar collector
A solar collector is a device designed to absorb incident solar radiation and to transfer the energy to a
fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. There are two
general types - the flat-plate collector and the concentrating (focusing) collector. Solar collectors may
be classified according to their collecting characteristics, the way in which they are mounted and the
type of transfer fluid they employ.
Collecting characteristics: A non-concentrating or ‘flat-plate’ collector is one in which the absorbing
surface for solar radiation is essentially flat with no means for concentrating the incoming solar
radiation. A concentrating or ‘focusing’ collector is one, which usually contains reflectors or employs
other optical means to concentrate the energy falling on the aperture on to a heat exchanger of surface
area smaller than the aperture.
Mounting: A collector can be mounted to remain stationary, be adjustable as to tilt angle (measured
from the horizontal) to follow the change in solar declination or be designed to track the sun.
Employing either an equatorial mounting or an altazimuth mounting, for the purpose of increasing the
absorption of the daily solar irradiation does tracking.
Types of fluid: A collector will usually use either a liquid or a gas as the transfer fluid. The most
common liquids are water or a water-ethylene glycol solution. The most common gas is air.
General Description of Flat-plate Collectors Flat-plate solar collectors may be divided into
two main classifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.
Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non-freezing aqueous solutions and
occasionally for non-aqueous heat transfer fluids. Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar
air heaters. The principal difference between the two types is the design of the passages for the heat
transfer fluid.
The majority of the flat-plate collectors have five main components as follows:
i) A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting plastic film
or sheet.
ii) Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integral with the collector absorber plate or connected to it,
which carry the water, air or other fluid.
iii) The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black surface, although a wide variety of other
materials can be used, particularly with air heaters.
iv) Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat losses.
v) The casting or container, which encloses the other components and protects them from the weather.

A Typical Liquid Collector (plate and tube type).

 It basically consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation, called the
absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate, usually of copper, steel or aluminum material with tubing of
copper in thermal contact with the plates, is the most commonly used material. The absorber plate is
usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2mm in thickness, while the tubes, which are also of metal, range in
diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom (in some cases, to the top)
of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 15cm. In some designs, the tubes are also in line and
integral with the absorber plate. For the absorber plate, corrugated galvanized sheet is a material widely
available throughout the world

The different applications of solar energy using different gadgets are discussed below :

Solar drying

Drying implies the partial removal of water from the material. But when fuel fired
equipment is used in the process then the term dehydration is often applied. Condition essential to
both drying and dehydration include a supply of heat energy to evaporate the water and a supply of
air to carry away the water vapor produced. Solar dryers are the devices that use solar energy for
drying of food products, species and grains
Drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar dryers are appropriate
food preservation technology for sustainable development. Drying was probably the first ever food pres
erving method used by man, even before cooking. It involves the removalof moisture from agricultural
produce so as to provide a product that can be safely stored for longer period of time
Open sum drying :
In open air Solar drying the heat is supplied by direct absorption of solar radiation by
material being dried. The vapor produced is carried away by air moving past the material, the air
motion being due either to natural convection resulting from contact with the heated material or to
winds. In dehydration using fuel heat, the material being dried is placed in an enclosure and heated
air is blown past the surface of the surface of the material to remove moisture. Solar dryer make
use of solar radiation, ambient temperature, relative humidity. Heated air is passed naturally or
mechanically circulated to remove moisture from material placed in side the enclosure. Many variation
of solar dryers offer the processor a wide range of opportunity to select various type of
solar dryers depending on degree of control over the drying process and handling of the material.
The main disadvantages of open sun drying are :
1. Accumulation of dust and harms due to insects
2. Wastage of material due to birds
3. Non uniform drying due to varying intensity of sun
4. Larger area required for drying
Solar Cabinet Dryer : There are two types of solar cabinet dryers viz : Natural convection dryers and
forced convection dryers
Natural convection solar dryers : Natural air-drying is an in bin drying system with the following
typical characteristics:
1. Drying process is slow,generally requiring 4 to 8 weeks.
2. Initial moisture content is normally limited to 22 to 24%.
3. Drying results from forcing unheated air through grain at very slow airflow rates.
4. Drying and storage occur in the same bin, minimizing grain handling.
5. Bin is equipped with a full-perforated floor, one or more high capacity fans, a grain
distributor and stairs.
6. Cleaning equipment is used to remove broken kernels and fines.
Solar Cabinet dryer mainly consist of a drying cabinet. One side of the cabinet is glazed to
admit solar radiation, which is converted in to low grade thermal heat thus raising the temperature of
the air, the drying chamber, and the produce. Usually the sun light shines directly on the material
being dried. The moisture evaporated by solar heat is removed by air circulation. This is accomplished
either by designing to encourage natural convective air flow or by forcing circulation with fans or
blowers. The material to be dried is placed in shallow layers on trays inside the drying cabinet. Proper
air vents are provided for displacement of hot air.
 It is required to spend considerable amount of manual labour and time in sun-drying and
processing marine products and farm products. This economical solar drier is a boon in this regard as it
not only saves time but also reduces the human drudgery involved in the conventional process.

Forced convection solar dryer (Hot air system):

In these, the collectors are provided with duct. Generally, a duct of 2.5 cm depth is provided. It is
made out of two plates welded together lengthwise. Cold air is blown through a blower into the
collectors, which gets heated during the passage through it. The hot air thus available is then used for
drying the products kept on the shelves of driers. This hot air takes away the moisture of the products
and is let out through a properly located outlet.The different parts of the dryer are : 1. Absorber with
ducting 2. Blower with motor and 3. Drying bin.
This drier has three main components viz., flat plate collector, blower and drying bin. The area of
the collector is 8m2. It is divided into 4 bays each having 2m x 1 m absorber area. The absorber is made
out of 20 g. corrugated G.I. sheet and is painted with dull black colour. Another plain G.I. sheet placed 5
cm below the absorber plate creates air space for heating. This sheet is insulated at the bottom with glass
wool and is supported at the bottom with another plain G.I. sheet. The absorber is covered at the top
with two layers of 3 mm thick plain glass. The unit is supported on all sides with wooden scantling and
is placed at 110 to the horizontal facing south. Baffle plates are provided in the air space. The air space is
open at the bottom to suck atmospheric air and at the top it is connected to a duct leading to suction side
of the blower. The blower is of 80 m3/ min, capacity run by 3HP electric motor. The delivery side of the
blower is connected to the plenum chamber of a circular grain holding bin.
Solar drier consists of air heater, blower drying chamber, air distribution system and thermal storage
system. The heated air is blown to drying chamber by blowers of the centrifugal type to handle large
quantity of air. Batch type or continuous flow type drying chamber artificially creates the necessary
radiation to reduce moisture. Hot air from the collector is sucked by a blower through the inlet pipe and
is being forced into the drying chamber. An auxiliary heating system to supplement heat requirement
may be arranged. This type of auxiliary systems and thermal storage systems for collecting extra energy
during daytime, take care of the night operations.
Indirect Solar Dryer :
In this type of dryer, the produce is placed on trays inside an opaque drying chamber to which is
attached an air type solar collector. The sun does not shine directly on the material to be dried,
instead the air heated in solar collector is ducted to the drying chamber for dehydration. Air
circulation can be by natural convection, however it is often forced by blowers. These dryers result
in higher temperature than the cabinet dryers or sun drying, and can produce higher quality product.
In many large scale commercial drying operations, air type solar collectors are being combined
with fuel fired dehydrators in order to reduce the fuel consumption and yet maintained fine control
of the drying conditions. The solar heated air is used directly if it is hot enough, otherwise, the fossil
fuel system boost the air temperature to the required level Thus the effect of fluctuations in energy
out put from the collector is less serious since the fuel fired system is automatically controlled to
provide specific optimum temperature. Design and specifications of different type of dryers vary
from case to case and it should be worked out.
working : To operate it, the drier is kept in an open space with its longitudinal axis in the east-west
direction, the tilted cover facing the south. The material to be dried is closely spread over the 4 trays
provided for the purpose. The side doors are then closed. Once every morning, the drier is opened; the
material remixed; and the position of the trays interchanged. The main advantages are :
1. It takes just 2 days instead of the 9 days (of conventional open-air drying) to dry coconuts by this
technology
2. Red chillies and grapes could be dried in just three days.
Solar green house dryers :
Solar green house dryers are characterized by having extensive glazing on their south
facing side while the other sides are well insulated. Inside the enclosed area, some means are
provided to store the day time excess heat. Vents are strategically sized and positioned to control air
flow. A well designed greenhouse dryer permits a greater degree of control over the drying process
than the solar cabinet dryers and should be used where relatively large quantity of product is to be
dried.
Solar water heater
The solar water heater is a device used to heat the water using the heat energy present in the
solar energy. There are three types of solar water heaters namely : Flat plate collector type, Evacuvated
tube solar collector and Heat exchanger type solar collector
Flat plate collector type solar water heater :
The solar water heating systems come with a solar collector of 25 sq. m area for solar tank of
100 litre capacity. It occupies an area of 35 sq. ft on the roof top. The water is loaded in the daytime
and is stored in the storage tank for a period of 48 hours. This system can be connected to bathrooms
and kitchen. Generally, the life of the system isabout 15 years and it requires no maintenance. The
collector is having 20 gauge G.I. corrugated sheet as absorber with 12 mm.G.I. pipes as heat exchanger
laid in the corrugations of the sheet in serpent fashion. The absorber and the pipes are painted black and
embedded in a wooden box insulated at the bottom and sides. The ends of the pipe are connected to the
insulated storage drum which is kept just above the collector. The collector is kept on an angle iron
stand such that the flat plate is at 11° slope facing south. Hot water temperature is 55 - 63° C on a
typical sunny day and heat loss due to over night storage is about 4 to 8°C.
The different parts of solar water heater are 1. Insulated water tank 2. Water inlet 3. Water
outlet 4. Tank support 5. Frame 6. Liquid pipe 7. Absorber 8. Water line
 The solar water heater works on the principle of Thermo syphon system Thermo syphon
systems in their typical configuration do not have pumps and other controls. They are based on the
natural convection principle: hot water rises and cold water sinks. In the case of thermosyphon systems:
as the potable water (or a antifreeze fluid, in colder climates) entered into the collector warms, it rises
to the top of the individually.

Evacuated Tube Collector type Solar water heaters (ETC based SWH)
Here the collector is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes evacuated for providing
insulation. The outer wall of the inner tube is coated with selective absorbing material. This helps
absorption of solar radiation and transfers the heat to the water which flows through the inner tube.

Evacuated Tube Collector based Solar Water Heater

Heat exchanger type solar water heater : Solar water heating systems use heat exchangers to transfer
solar energy absorbed in solar collectors to the liquid or air used to heat water or a space. Heat
exchangers can be made of steel, copper, bronze, stainless steel, aluminum, or cast iron. Solar heating
systems usually use copper, because it is a good thermal conductor and has greater resistance to
corrosion.

The main advantages of solar heaters are :

Fuel Savings: A 100 litres capacity SWH can replace an electric geyser for residential use and saves
1500 units of electricity annually
Avoided utility cost on generation : The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 litres capacity each can contribute
to a peak load shaving of 1 MW
Environmental benefits : A SWH of 100 litres capacity can prevent emission of 1.5 tons of carbon-
dioxide per year
Life : 15-20 years
 Though the initial investment for a solar water heater is high compared to available
conventional alternatives, the return on investment has become increasingly attractive with the
increase in prices of conventional energy. The pay back period depends on the site of installation,
utilization pattern and fuel replaced.

Solar Cooking
In our country energy consumed for cooking shares a major portion of the total energy
consumed in a year . In villages 95% of the consumption goes only to cooking. Variety of fuel like
coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, LPG, dung cakes and agricultural waste are used. The energy
crisis is affecting everyone. It is affecting the fuel bills for those who use it for heating the houses and
cooking their food. The poor of the developing countries who have been using dry wood, picked up
from the fields and forests as domestics fuel, have been affected in their own way, due to scarcity of
domestic fuel in the rural areas. At present, firewood and cow dung cakes are the most important
sources of fuel to cook food. The supply of wood is also fast depleting because of the indiscriminate
felling of trees in the rural areas and the denudation of forests. There is a rapid deterioration in the
supply of these fossil fuels like coal, kerosene or cooking gas. The solution for the above problem is the
harnessing of solar energy for cooking purposes.
Thus solar cookers have a very relevant place in the present fuel consumption pattern.
Various designs of solar cookers have been developed in our country. The first solar cooker was
developed in the year 1945 by Mr. M.K. Ghosh of Jamshedpur a freedom fighter. He developed a box
type solar cooker with a reflecting mirror and a copper coil inside, on which the food materials used to
be placed in pots. He also designed a parabolic reflector which was used for sometime as a boiler of
Neera (palm juice). Later in 1953 NPL of India developed a parabolic solar cooker. The main reasons
for non-acceptance of these devices was the cheap availability of cooking fuel during these days and
high investment. The problem of harnessing and utilisation of solar energy arised after the fuel crisis of
the 1970s, which also affected the rural areas. Basically there are three designs of solar cooker:
(I) Flat plate box type solar cooker with or without reflector,
(ii) Multi reflector type solar oven and, (iii) Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker.
Flat plate box type solar cooker
Flat plate box type design is the simplest of all the designs. Maximum no load temperature
with a single reflector reaches up to 160°C. In multi reflector oven four square or triangular or
rectangular reflectors are mounted on the oven body. They all reflect the solar radiations into the
cooking zone in which cooking utensils are placed. Temperature obtained is of the order of 200°C. The
maximum temperature can reach to 250°C, if the compound cone reflector system is used. With
parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker, temperatures of the order of 450°C can be obtained in
which solar radiations are centrated onto a focal point.
 The principle of operation of box type solar cooker is illustrated in Fig. The solar rays
penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by a blackened metal tray kept inside the solar box.
The solar radiation entering the box are of long wavelength. The short wavelength radiation is not able
to pass through the glass cover i.e. eradiation from absorber plate to outside the box is minimized by
providing the glass cover. Two glass covers are provided to again minimize the heat loss. The loss due
to convection is minimized by making the box air tight by providing a rubber strip all round between
the upper lid and the box. Insulating material like glasswool, paddy husk, saw dust or any other
material is filled in the space between blackened tray and outer cover of the box. This minimizes heat
loss due to conduction. With this, the cooker is placed in the sun, the blackened surface starts absorbing
sun rays and temperature inside the box starts rising. The cooking pots, which are also blackened and
made up of aluminum are placed inside along with food material, get heat energy and food will be
cooked in a certain period of time depending upon the actual temperature attained inside. The
temperature attained depends upon the intensity of solar radiation and material of insulation provided.
The amount of solar radiation intensity can be increased by provided mirror or mirrors. The solar
cooker is made up of inner and outer metal or wooden box with double glass sheet on it. Absorber tray
(blackened tray) is painted black with suitable black paint like boiler interior paint. This paint should be
dull in colour so that it can withstand the maximum temperature attained inside the cooker as well as
water vapour coming out of the cooking utensils. The top cover contains two plain glasses each 3 mm
thick fixed in the wooden frame with about 20 mm distance between them. The entire top cover can be
made tight with padlock hasp. Neoprene rubber sealing is provided around the contact surfaces of the
glass cover and the cooker box. A small vent for vapour escape, in provided in the sealing. Collector
area of the solar cooker is increased by providing a plane reflecting mirror equal to the size of the box,
and hinged on one side of the glass frame. A mechanism (guide for adjusting mirror) is provided to
adjust the reflector at different angles with the cooker box. A 15 to 25°C rise in temperature is achieved
inside the box when reflector is adjusted to reflect the sun rays into the box. In winter, when sun rays
are much inclined to horizontal surface, reflector is a most useful addition.
 Overall dimensions of a typical model are 60 x 60 x 20cm height. This type of cooker is
termed as family solar cooker as it cooks sufficient dry food materials for a family of 5 to 7 people. The
temperature inside the solar cooker with a single reflector is maintained from 70 to 110°C above the
ambient temperature. This temperature is enough to cook food slowly, steadily and surely with
delicious taste and preservation of nutrients. Maximum air temperature obtained inside the cooker box
(without load) is 140°C, in winter and 160°C in summer. Depending upon the factors such as season
and time of the day, type of the food and depth of the food layer, time of the cooking with this cooker
ranges from 1 hr to 4 hrs. Meat should be allowed to stay for 3-4 hours. Vegetables take from 1/2 to 21
hours. All types of Dals can be cooked between 1 to 2 hours. Rice is cooked between 30 minutes and 2
hours. The best time of the day for cooking is between 11am and 2 pm. Cooking is faster in summer
than in winter due to high ambient temperature.
Following are the some merits of a solar cooker:
(i) No attention is needed during cooking as in other devices.
(ii) No fuel is required.
(iii) Negligible maintenance cost.
(iv) No pollution.
(v) Vitamins of the food are not destroyed and food cooked is nutritive and delicious with natural taste.
(vi) No problem of charring of food and no over flowing.
Limitations of a solar cooker are
(i) One has to cook according to the sun shine, the menu has to be preplanned.
(ii) One can not cook at short notice and food can not be cooked in the night or during cloudy days.
(iii) It takes comparatively more time.
(iv) Chapaties are not cooked because high temperature for baking is required and also needs
manipulation at the time of baking.
Concentrating Solar Cooker ( Paraboilc Solar Cooker )
It works on the principle of solar energy concentration using a Reflecting
Parabolic Solar Concentrator. A parabolic solar concentrator is used for concentrating solar radiation
on a focal area where the cooking vessel is placed
This type of solar cookers are very much used all over the world for faster cooking ability
They are also known as solar dish cookers. The main parts of the concentrating type solar cooker are :
Reflecting structure : Mainly all the concentrating type solar cooker are made with parabolic shape in
circular or rectangular profile. Reflecting material can be anodized aluminium sheet, reflecting mirror
or any other reflecting media with reflectivity more than 90%. This will reflect all the sunrays to one
focal point called focus of the parabola.
Cooking pot : At the focus of the parabolathe heat is maximum due to concentration odf the sun rays.
The cooking pot is placed at the focal point so that maximum heat can be utilized. In this type of
cooker a temperature of 250 to 450 degree centigrade can be achived The frying pan also be placed at
the focal point and frying can also be done. A proper pot holder is provided at the focal point.
Support structure : This is the structure on which complete parabolic rest and perform it’s operation It
must have rigid structure to with stand the higher wind velocity and also it should be protected with
corrosion resistant print or coating.
Castor wheel or tracking mechinisum : This type of solar cooker requires continuous tracking along
with the rotation of the sun. So there is automatic tracking or wheel is provided for the manual tracking.

Solar Furnace : A solar furnace is any device that creates heat by concentrating solar radiation through
the use of reflectors. A small solar furnace may be used to cook food without consuming firewood,
whereas a larger solar furnace can generate electricity by heating a gas. There have been attempts to
introduce the technology to developing countries to minimize firewood-related deforestation, but only
 with limited success. The principle of operation of a solar furnace is quite simple. Take two mirrors,
point them at a focus, and the intensity of sunlight in that focus will increase by around threefold. This
is because, instead of only getting light from the sun, the focus gets light from the sun and two mirrors.
Make that ten mirrors, and you start to get levels of heat that are useful for applications like cooking
food. At least a few groups of hobbyists have made a solar furnace that generates over a thousand
degrees of heat, capable of reducing most organic material to ash. In principle, the main limitation of
how much solar energy can be focused on one spot is a function of how accurately the mirrors can be
aimed at the focus. The solar furnace is one of those technologies that our ancestors would have found
extremely useful, if only they had the means to manufacture highly reflective mirrors, which they
didn’t. Ancient mirrors were merely polished silver or copper, whereas modern mirrors consist of a thin
layer of aluminum deposited on glass.
Solar ponds for trapping solar energy
The sun is the largest source of renewable energy and this energy is abundantly available in all parts of
the earth. It is in fact one of the best alternatives to the non-renewable sources of energy.
One way to tap solar energy is through the use of solar ponds. Solar ponds are large-scale energy
collectors with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. It can be use for various applications,
such as process heating, water desalination, refrigeration, drying and power generation.
The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is heated they
become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun’s rays heat
the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top but loses the heat into the
atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the atmospheric temperature. The solar
pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it too heavy to
rise.
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that looks like
a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a flat plate collector that
absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of the pond.
A solar pond has three zones. The top zone is the surface zone, or UCZ (Upper Convective
Zone), which is at atmospheric temperature and has little salt content. The bottom zone is very hot, 70°–
85° C, and is very salty. It is this zone that collects and stores solar energy in the form of heat, and is,
therefore, known as the storage zone or LCZ (Lower Convective Zone). Separating these two zones is the
important gradient zone or NCZ (Non-Convective Zone). Here the salt content increases as depth
increases, thereby creating a salinity or density gradient. If we consider a particular layer in this zone,
water of that layer cannot rise, as the layer of water above has less salt content and is, therefore, lighter.
Similarly, the water from this layer cannot fall as the water layer below has a higher salt content and is,
therefore, heavier. This gradient zone acts as a transparent insulator permitting sunlight to reach the
bottom zone but also entrapping it there. The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from the pond in
the form of hot brine from the storage zone.
Though solar ponds can be constructed anywhere, it is economical to construct them at places where
there is low cost salt and bittern, good supply of sea water or water for filling and flushing, high solar
radiation, and availability of land at low cost. Coastal areas in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and
Orissa are ideally suited for such solar ponds.

Solar Still
Solar still is a device to desalinate impure water like brackish or saline water. It a simple
device to get potable/fresh distilled water from impure water, using solar energy as fuel, for its
various applications in domestic, industrial and academic sectors.
A solar still consist of shallow triangular basin made up of Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP).
Bottom of the basin is painted black so as to absorb solar heat effectively. Top of the basin is covered
with transparent glass tilt fitted so that maximum solar radiation can be transmitted in to the still. Ages
of the glass are sealed with the basin using tar tape so that the entire basin becomes air tight. Entire
assembly is placed on a structure made of MS angle. Out let is connected with a storage container.
Provision has been made to fill water in the still basin. A window is provided in the basin to clean
the basin from inside. Water is charged in to the basin in a thin layer.
Solar Stills have got major advantages over other conventional Distillation / water purification /de-
mineralisation systems as follows :
1.Produces pure water
2.No prime movers required
3.No conventional energy required
4.No skilled operator required
5. Local manufacturing/repairing
6. Low investment
7. Can purify highly saline water (even sea water)

Solar Photo Voltaic systems

Solar photovoltaic systems are energy conversion systems which convert the light energy present
in the solar energy into electrical energy. Solar photovoltaic system operates on the basis of the
photovoltaic effect on a silicon junction diode designed to facilitate the collection of usable
magnitudes of electricity. Usually of the order of 1.5A at 0.5V. Such a junction diode is called a solar
cell. Number of cells are string up in series to generate power at usable voltages. The solar
photovoltaic system comprises of three main sub-systems, viz., solar panel, control unit and storage
battery bank. The solar panel contains solar cells which produce electricity when exposed to sunlight.
The electricity generated charges the battery / batteries and the power stored can be used at a later
time. The control unit regulates the charging and discharging of the battery. The application has to be
optimized according to the load profile and the geographic location in which it is used. The load is the
most important choice from the user’s point of view. There are more than five applications in practice.
Thus are the solar lantern, solar water pumping system , solar street light, solar sprayer, solar insect
trap and solar powered tricycle.

Before now, our silicon was all electrically neutral. Our extra electrons were balanced out by the
extra protons in the phosphorous. Our missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing
protons in the boron. When the holes and electrons mix at the junction between N-type and P-type
silicon, however, that neutrality is disrupted. Do all the free electrons fill all the free holes? No. If they
did, then the whole arrangement wouldn't be very useful. Right at the junction, however, they do mix
and form a barrier, making it harder and harder for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side.
Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and we have an electric field separating the two sides.

The effect of the electric field in a PV cell

This electric field acts as a diode, allowing (and even pushing) electrons to flow from the P
side to the N side, but not the other way around. It's like a hill -- electrons can easily go down the hill
(to the N side), but can't climb it (to the P side). So we've got an electric field acting as a diode in which
electrons can only move in one direction. When light, in the form of photons, hits our solar cell, its
energy frees electron-hole pairs. Each photon with enough energy will normally free exactly one
electron, and result in a free hole as well. If this happens close enough to the electric field, or if free
electron and free hole happen to wander into its range of influence, the field will send the electron to
the N side and the hole to the P side. This causes further disruption of electrical neutrality, and if we
provide an external current path, electrons will flow through the path to their original side (the P side)
to unite with holes that the electric field sent there, doing work for us along the way. The electron flow
provides the current, and the cell's electric field causes a voltage. With both current and voltage, we
have power, which is the product of the two.

Opera
 There are a few more steps left before we can really use our cell. Silicon happens to be a
very shiny material, which means that it is very reflective. Photons that are reflected can't be used by
the cell. For that reason, an antireflective coating is applied to the top of the cell to reduce reflection
losses to less than 5 percent. The final step is the glass cover plate that protects the cell from the
elements. PV modules are made by connecting several cells (usually 36) in series and parallel to
achieve useful levels of voltage and current, and putting them in a sturdy frame complete with a glass
cover and positive and negative terminals on the back. Unfortunately, the most that our simple cell
could absorb is around 25 percent, and more likely is 15 percent or less.

Basic structure of a generic silicon PV cell

Energy Loss in a Solar Cell :
Visible light is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation is not
monochromatic -- it is made up of a range of different wavelengths, and therefore energy levels. Light
can be separated into different wavelengths, and we can see them in the form of a rainbow. Since the
light that hits our cell has photons of a wide range of energies, it turns out that some of them won't have
enough energy to form an electron-hole pair. They'll simply pass through the cell as if it were
transparent. Still other photons have too much energy. Only a certain amount of energy, measured in
electron volts (eV) and defined by our cell material (about 1.1 eV for crystalline silicon), is required to
knock an electron loose. We call this the band gap energy of a material. If a photon has more energy
than the required amount, then the extra energy is lost (unless a photon has twice the required energy,
and can create more than one electron-hole pair, but this effect is not significant). These two effects
alone account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy incident on our cell. Why can't
we choose a material with a really low band gap, so we can use more of the photons? Unfortunately,
our band gap also determines the strength (voltage) of our electric field, and if it's too low, then what
we make up in extra current (by absorbing more photons), we lose by having a small voltage.
Remember that power is voltage times current. The optimal band gap, balancing these two effects, is
around 1.4 eV for a cell made from a single material. We have other losses as well. Our electrons have
to flow from one side of the cell to the other through an external circuit. We can cover the bottom with
a metal, allowing for good conduction, but if we completely cover the top, then photons can't get
through the opaque conductor and we lose all of our current (in some cells, transparent conductors are
used on the top surface, but not in all). If we put our contacts only at the sides of our cell, then the
electrons have to travel an extremely long distance (for an electron) to reach the contacts. Remember,
silicon is a semiconductor -- it's not nearly as good as a metal for transporting current. Its internal
resistance (called series resistance) is fairly high, and high resistance means high losses. To minimize
these losses, our cell is covered by a metallic contact grid that shortens the distance that electrons have
to travel while covering only a small part of the cell surface. Even so, some photons are blocked by the
grid, which can't be too small or else its own resistance will be too high.
A photovoltaic cell is created when a positively charged (P-type) layer of silicon is placed
against a negatively charged (N-type) layer of silicon to create a diode and this diode is connected in a
circuit via metal conductors on the top and bottom of the silicon sandwich. An actual PV cell includes
these elements with an anti-reflective coating to accept more sunlight into the silicon sandwich.

1. The photovoltaic cell, a sandwich of two semiconductor materials. The cell reacts to solar energy and
produces an electrical charge.
2. Metal conductor strips that run along the top layer of silicon. These strips capture the electrons freed
when solar energy hits the cell and concentrate them into a current. Another metal panel, attached to the
bottom layer of silicon, feeds electrons back into the cell.
3. An anti-reflective coating placed on top of or directly adhered to the silicon sandwich. This sheet
reduces the amount of sunlight reflected off the glass allowing more sunlight to hit the cell and
increasing the panel's efficiency.
1. The cell or multiple cells are the core of the photovoltaic panel.
2. A glass cover placed over the photovoltaic cell to protect it from the elements while allowing
sunlight to pass through to the cell.
3. An additional plastic anti-reflective sheet is often used to enhance the effect of the glass cover and
anti-reflective coating of the cell to block reflection.
4. A panel backing (typically plastic) and frame complete the photovoltaic panel, holding all the pieces
together and protecting it from damage during installation.
Putting Panels in an Array :
Finally, there are arrays of panels. These are created when multiple panels are connected together to
form a larger circuit.
Solar lantern
The solar lantern is a portable solar photovoltaic lighting system which provides about 2-3
hours of light per night based on the days charge. The lantern is designed to be similar to a hurricane
lantern in its shape and about a hundred times brighter. The system consists of 5 watt tube which is
driven at a specially designed frequency choke / inverter operating at a frequency above 30 Khz. As
these lanterns are portable, a person as per his requirements and convenience can carry it. As the
battery is a sealed maintenance free type, no special maintenance is required except for daily charging.
A Solar lantern has Solar module, Battery, Control circuits and Lamp

Solar water pumping system

A solar photovoltaic water pumping system, essentially consists of a SPV panel / array
directly powering a water pump. The water pumped during the day can be stored instorage tanks for
use during night. The generated electricity from the panel is fed to the pump through a switch and a 3
phase inverter, in case of AC submersible pumpset. Normally, no storage batteries are provided as the
water can be stored in storage tanks, if required.The features of the solar pumping system are :
Modular and hence easily field upgradable.
 Noise and pollution free operation
 Does not require any fuel
 Uses the abundantly available sunlight
 Simple to install, operate and maintain
 Designed to give optimum output even during low sunshine period
*****
 9. Wind energy and it’s utilisation
India is a country which is well known for it’s geographical variations and features. It is also
famous for its varied landscape and hence it is rightly called as “sub continent”. So we have the right
to utilize all it’s natural power, and the need of the hour is the demand for energy and we are not able
to satisfy it using our ordinary conventional sources as the demand is increasing leaps and bounds. The
best option is to go for non conventional energy resources. Keeping this fact in mind, our Indian
government has started a new agency in 1987 and this has been doing research on various renewable
energy sources and wind power is playing a keen role. Primarily wind power is mainly utilized for only
water pumping and later on various advancements have been done in developing wind power for
harnessing maximum energy. After the creation of separate ministry in 1992 a special emphasis was
made to give importance in 8th five year plan of grid quality power from the renewables.
Also, our expanding economy and the strong growth expected in this country calls for substantial
addition of our energy generating capacity. As such in India, only 60 % people have electrical power
during day especially in villages and 7.5 % energy shortage and 11% peaking shortage. The increase in
energy demand is 13% / year. Fossil fuels and hydro-electricity will continue to play an important role
in the energy sector of the country in the next few decades. However, the fossil fuels resources are
limited, non renewable and therefore need to be used prudently. Use of fossil fuels also leads
environmental problems such as global warming and climate change. Change in land use and wood
burning from deforestation causing 18 % of the Green house gas per year. Carbon dioxide produced by
burning fossil fuel leapt by 3.2 % from 2000-2005. The sharp rise is partly down in recent growth. This
can be compared with 0.8 % increase in 1990-1999. This is worrying sign that recent efforts to reduce
emission have virtually no impact on emission growth and that effective caps are urgently needed.
Hence the wind energy is clean and emission free source of energy.
Wind presents a vast source of renewable energy. For many centuries, wind mills have used wind
flow, or motion energy (i.e. kinetic energy) of wind, for grain grinding, water pumping and still is
extensively used for sailing and flying a kite.
Wind energy is in fact an indirect form of solar energy. Wind are produced mainly by the
Movement of the air, differences in pressure, depending on elevation and named after direction. Winds
are generated due to heating of air by solar radiations during the day, at variable rates in different parts
of the hemisphere and rotation of the earth. Heated air rises up and cooler air replaces it resulting in
wind. Wind movement on the earth surface is influenced by the terrain, water reserves, deserts, forests,
vegetation and habitat developments.
Indian Wind resource
Tropical wind system or trade wind systems are wind Energy resources come from the
monsoons systems
1. South West Monsoon (June to Sep)
2. Northeast Monsoon (Dec-Feb)
From Monsoon current the country get the largest share of wind energy. About 60 – 70%
Wind Energy is from Southwest Monsoon and the rest from Northeast. The Western Part of the
country have maximum potential from southern tip up to West Rajasthan. The region west of 78
degree longitude is considered potential for wind energy utilization. Potential areas are Western
Tamilnadu, Decan Plateau, Western Andhra Pradesh, Western Madhya Pradesh, Western Gujarat,
Northwest Rajasthan and Western Ghat region of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The
Western and Eastern Coastal areas, Central , Northern and NE region of the country have low potential.
The global circulation of wind is shown in Figure and the potential wind monsoons of India are shown
in Figure. The instruments used for measurement of various parameters are shown in Plate 1.

The potential wind monsoons of India

 Wind vane - Used to measure direction
of wind

Temperature sensor - Used for Temperature.

measurement

Barometer - Used for wind pressure

measurement

Cup anemometer - Used for wind velocity

measurement

Various types of wind parameter measuring devices

Wind Turbines (Wind electric generator)

Wind or air in motion contains the "kinetic energy" which is converted into mechanical power by
means of a wind turbine. The wind turbine is connected to a generator for producing electricity. Wind
turbines are installed on high level of more than 30 metres above the ground or a tower to capture the
most energy and to take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind.
The modern wind turbines are of two basic types: Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) and
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT), But these wind turbines may have tubular structure or trussed
structure.
Vertical axis wind turbines
These turbines have the vertical main rotor shaft. The main advantages of this arrangement are that
the generator and/or gearbox can be placed at the bottom, on or near the ground, so the tower doesn't
need to support it, and that the turbine doesn't need to be pointed into the wind. Drawbacks are usually
the pulsating torque produced during each revolution, and the difficulty of mounting vertical axis
turbines on towers. This means they must operate in the slower, more turbulent air flow near the
ground, with lower energy extraction efficiency. Further there are two types of Vertical axis wind
turbines, they are Savonius and darrieus wind mills.
Savonius Vertical axis wind turbine
This type was patented in 1929 in USA and Finland by S.J. Savonius. It is used for current
measuring instrument. Wind turbine have not shown much success so far. The Savonius type wind
turbine is shown in Plate 2 .
Darrieus Vertical axis wind turbine
This type wind turbine has a rotor consisting of two or three convex blades with aerofoil cross
section. The blades are mounted symmetrically on vertical shaft. The shaft is supported at top and
bottom. Top bearing platform is held in vertical axis line by eight or more guy ropes passing over the
entire turbine. The generator is mounted ground level. A largest 3.8 MW Darrieus Vertical axis wind
turbine is working in Quebec, Canada since 1987. The Darrieus Vertical axis wind turbine is shown in
Plate 3.

Plate 2 : Savonius Vertical axis wind turbine

Plate : Darrieus Vertical axis wind turbine

 Horizontal-axis wind turbine
These type have typically either have two or three blades. These three-bladed wind turbines
are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the wind. The other common wind turbine type is
the two-bladed, downwind turbine. Horizontal axis turbines are the most common type used today and
shown in Plate .
In a horizontal axis wind turbine, the wind turns two or three aerodynamic blades mounted
around a rotor shaft. The aerodynamic forces (lift and drag) of wind produce mechanical power. This
power rotates the blades and the shaft connected to a generator, normally via a gearbox, which
produces electricity. The rotor blades and shaft are connected to the nacelle, which contains the
gearbox and other power/mechanical components and is mounted at the top of the wind turbine tower.
The nacelle rotates freely to allow aligning of the wind turbine blades with the direction of the wind
and optimising extraction of wind energy.
Capacity range of wind turbines varies from few hundred watts to several megawatts. Small
capacity wind turbines, below 50 kW, are used mostly for stand alone applications such as homes,
offices, telecommunications and commercial buildings. Larger capacity wind turbines, above 50 kW,
are used in multiple numbers in wind farms, which provide bulk power to the electrical grid.

Plate : 4 Horizontal-axis wind turbine

Components of wind turbine
The three blade horizontal shaft propeller type wind turbine generator has the following parts :
nacelle, Tower, Rotor blades, Generator, Bearings, Shaft, Control cables, Power cables, electrical
switch box and control. The generator may be synchronous or induction type. The various components
are shown in Plate.

Components of wind mill

Basic components of a Wind Electric Systems are, Tower, Nacelle, Rotor, Gearbox and Generator

Controls of wind turbine

A wind mill turbine has four different controls for it’s efficient and safe working. They are Yaw
control, Blade tip pitch control, Teether control and Brake control.
Yaw control : The area of the wind stream swept by the wind turbine should be maximum, when
blades face into the wind. This is achieved by yaw control. In small machines, it is achieved by

Plate : Yaw control by tail vane

tail vane as shown in Plate. In larger machines, a motor rotates the turbine(nacelle) along the vertical
axis so that the turbine blades are always perpendicular to the direction of wind and a servo
mechanisum operated by a wind direction sensor controls the yaw motor.

Blade tip pitch control : For a given turbine, there is a minimum speed called “cut in speed” at which
the rotation is allowed to start and the rated wind speed at which generator produces it’s rated power.
The rotation rate is maintained constant by varying the output of the generator. As the wind speed
exceeds the rated value the rotor speed is held constant by automatic adjustment of the blades. At very
high speeds the blades are feathered as in aircraft and the rotation ceases. The blades can be rotated to
about 0 - 300 . The hydraulic pitch control is used.
Teether control : The three blade system are naturally balanced and hence does not require teether
control but in case of two blade system this control is required. In case of two blade system the two
extreme ends of the blade are at different elevations and hence the velocity at lower tip is less
compared to the top tip end. This causes the unbalanced forces. This control Rotates the horizontal
axis and thus balance the forces. The amount of rotation provided is 0 - 300.
Brake control : Due to some technical problems or some reason if the turbine is to stopped for repair,
then this control helps in stopping the turbines. Here mechanical and hydraulic brakes are provided.
Capacity factor
Capacity factor is one element in measuring the productivity of a wind turbine or any other power
production facility. It compares the plant's actual production over a given period of time with the
amount of power the plant would have produced if it had run at full capacity for the same amount of
time. Wind blows steadily at times & not at all at other times. Therefore a capacity factor of 25 to 40%
is common.
Laws governing the wind
Power in the wind
Wind posses energy by virtue of it’s motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass
of the moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy and convert it into useful work.
ρav3
Power in wind, P = ---------
2
Where, P - power in watts
ρ - density of air, 1.226 kg/m3
a - swept area, m2
v - velocity of wind, m/sec
Power law :
Winds are caused by heating of atmosphere by solar heating. The wind velocities are high
in flat open areas, deserts, sea shore and off shore sites. Wind velocities are also high on top of hills
and mountains. Wind speed increases with height. The variation of wind speed in the atmospheric
boundry layer from a zero value close to the ground to a value approaching the speed of free flowing
winds in higher layer can be expressed by the law.
It states that V1 h1a
----- = -------
V2 h2 a

Where, V1 - Wind velocity at height h1

V2 - Wind velocity at height h2
a - power law constant which depends on surface roughness.
Wind farm
A wind farm is merely a large area of land that homes a plethora of large turbines used to generate
energy. A wind farm consists of a number of wind mills installed and the electrical power is connected
to the electric grid. The wind farm may be situated in the hilly area or the seashore. A view of wind
farm on the hill is shown in Plate 8 and the seashore or ocean is shown in Plate 9 and 10. In wind
farm the wind mills are installed at a distance of 5D (row to row) and 7Dd (column to column) as
shown in Plate 11 where D is the diameter of the wind blades.

Plate : 11 Spacing of wind mills in a wind farm

Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy

The main advantages of wind energy are :
 Wind energy is a domestic source.
 Wind energy is Renewable energy.
 Wind energy source of electricity is inexhaustible and free.
 The cost of production of electricity is low using wind energy. Wind energy costs decrease
every year. Technological innovations have brought the cost of wind power
 Wind energy is clean and does not produce any harmful emissions or residues.
 Wind power does not produce any green house gases (Plate 12).
 Wind power operation does not need water and consequently it does pollute water.
 Wind power turbines are reliable and needs to be checked only twice a year and their service
life is more than 13 years.
 Land used to build roads and foundations is typically around 4% of the entire site, so the
majority of the site habitat remains intact.
 Wind farms can be located in agricultural fields also (Plate 13). Wind Turbines need less
then ¼ of an acre to operate on. Leaving ample room for pastures and farms.
 The wind farm gain some carbon credits (Plate 14).
 There is no hazardous emissions.
 Wind turbines are sometimes placed in landscapes which posses high scenic value.
The disadvantages of wind energy are :
 Wind is an unstable source of energy, depending on the existing climatic conditions.
 Wind energy cannot be stored
 Noise of rotors can be mitigated by modern technologies, but not completely eliminated. In
order to meet applicable hygienic limits, the noise level beyond 300 meters from the plant
should not exceed 35 dB.
 Danger for birds is not much more serious than power transmission lines. The movement and noise
disturbs the birds and scares away from the wind mill. The operation of wind power plant may
occasionally be disturbed by migratory birds
 The power plant disturbs television and radio signals, which can be eliminated by appropriate
choice of technical equipments like plastic rotor.
 The revolving rotor throws flickering shades and light patters, which might be unpleasant for
some people.
 In winter the rotor blades may be covered by frost and pieces of ice may sometimes fall off.
 The construction needs certain area of land and investment. The construction should be
carried out only in certain designated locality only.
 Wind turbines are sometimes placed in landscapes which posses high scenic value
*****
 10. Bio fuels and bio diesel

In India, the high-speed diesel is used up to 56.75 and 18.86 per cent for transport and
agricultural sector respectively. In India consumption of diesel is about five times more than gasoline.
The projected high-speed diesel demand has been estimated to be 66.90 million tons for the year 2011-
2012, which is about 1.6 times higher than the current demand.
The energy demand for both industry and agricultural sectors is enormously increasing every
year. The increase in energy demand for agricultural sector is mainly due to introduction of the
machineries like tractors, power tillers, combine harvesters, power sprayers, irrigation pumps and other
power operated machineries.
The alternative fuel technology usage will become more common in the coming decades for both
automobile and stationery motive power applications in agriculture. The promising alternative is the usage of
vegetable oils instead of fossil fuels.

The advantage of using vegetable oil as a fuel for diesel engines include better self ignition
characteristics, better compatibility with fuel injection system used in the existing compression
ignition engines and high energy content. The vegetable oil fuel produces greater thermal efficiency
than diesel fuel. However, the use of vegetable oil in direct ignition engines is limited by an important
physical property i.e., viscosity. The viscosity of vegetable oil is reported to be 10 – 12 times more than
that of diesel fuel and low calorific value which is considered to reduce total energy content, however
vegetable oils are of higher density, carbon residue and particulate matter.
Bio diesel as a substitute for diesel
Bio-oils can be defined as those extracted from seeds of tree species like Jatropha curcas L, and
Pongamia pinnata L, etc,. These oils are being used for, domestic lighting, leather and chemicals
industries, foundries, medicines, soap manufacturing, etc. Pongamia pinnata L. (commonly known as
Honge / Pongam / Karanja) is one such species which is hardy tree and can grow comfortably in tropical
regions. The bio-oils as replacement to fossil fuels have the advantages of increased energy independence, net
zero contribution to CO2 and increased economic activity on account of fuel production, processing and
utilization especially in the rural agriculture.
The problems associated with their usage are difficulty with cold start, plugging and
gumming of filters, fuel lines and injectors and engine knocking. In the long-term uses, the problem
may lead to reduced performance and even failure of the engine. These include choking of injector’s
nozzles, carbon deposit on the piston and cylinder head, dilution of the crankcase lubricating oil, excess
wear of the rings, piston and cylinder and failure of the engine lubricating oil due to oxidation and
polymerization. These problems have been correlated with several basic properties of the vegetable oil, such
as naturally occurring gums, high viscosity, acid composition, free fatty acid content and low cetane rating.
This problem combined with the viscosity of vegetable oils presents the greatest difficulty in using
vegetable oils in diesel engines. Therefore, several techniques are being used to reduce the viscosity.
These include heating of vegetable oil to sufficient temperature to lower the viscosity to near
specification range, diluting the vegetable oil with other less viscous liquid fuel to form blends that
have been termed as hybrid fuels, micro emulsifying the vegetable oil and esterification process i.e.,
chemically converting the vegetable oil to simple esters of methyl, ethyl or butyl alcohols.
Esterification process has been preferred because it reduces viscosity and maintains the heat of
combustion. Moreover, this process also enhances the volatility of the fuel, which in turn helps in its
better atomization. The esters produced from esterification process present a very promising alternative
to diesel fuel since they are renewable, non volatile and safer due to increased flash point, biodegradability,
contain little or no sulphur; moreover, they have been demonstrated to burn in unmodified diesel engines.
The main advantage of using of biodiesel is that its properties are similar to diesel fuel. Biodiesel
being a superior fuel than diesel fuel from environment point of view. The use of diesel makes net
addition of carbon to the atmosphere when burnt. The use of biodiesel also reduces dependence on
imports of crude. As the flash point of the biodiesel is higher than diesel it has no storage problems.
Biodiesel does not contain volatile organic compounds that give rise to poisonous and noxious fumes.
It has no lead or sulphur to react and release of any harmful gases.
Extraction of oil from seeds
The seeds were dried in open sun to reduce the moisture content. The mechanical extraction method is
used to extract the oil from the seeds. The mechanical screw press is used for extraction of oil. The
mechanical screw press is shown in Plate. The oil expelled consisted of a large amount of sediments and
was separated by using the filter press of twelve plate as depicted in Plate. The oil was pumped through
the filter press through a positive displacement pump. The filtered pongamia raw bio-oil was collected in
a tank. After extraction of oil, the cakes were formed as shown in Plate.

Samples of the Pongamia pinnata L. seed Mechanical screw press oil extraction unit
A twelve plate filter press for filtering oil Pongamia pinnata L. seeds cake after extracting oil

3.2 Production of biodiesel from pongamia bio-oil

The method followed for the production of biodiesel from pongamia raw bio-oil was alkali
catalyzed transesterification. Among various transesterification methods like alkaline, acid and
enzyme catalyst based transesterification, alkaline-based transesterification method is the best. Since
the alkaline catalyzed method was 40 times faster than that same amount of acidic catalyst. Because of
faster reaction rate, better biodiesel yield, lesser duration, this method is most often used commercially than
other methods mentioned above. The transesterification of tree seed oils involves reaction of
triglyceride present in the oil with alcohol added in the presence of a strong acid or base, producing a
mixture of fatty acids alkyl ester and glycerol. The fatty acid mono alkyl ester obtained from the
transestrification reaction is called as biodiesel. The stoichiometric reaction was made by using one mole
of a triglyceride and three moles of the alcohol. Excess of the alcohol was used to increase the yields
of the alkyl esters and to allow its phase separation from the glycerol formed.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used as catalyst in the alkali transesterification reaction. One
per cent of NaOH catalyst concentration was used for the preparation of sodium methoxide solution.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets were completely dissolved in methanol and added to the pongamia
oil. During transesterification of pongamia raw oil with methanol, the reaction temperature
maintained at 60oC. The reaction time per batch is 180 minutes with continuous stirring of the
mixture.
 Steam generator Biodiesel reactor

Biodiesel washing unit

The standardized process is shown in Fig. It was reported that 91 per cent ester was recovered having
8.16 cSt. kinematic viscosity.

Raw pongamia oil Pre heating at Methanol at 6:1

60°C molar ratio

Mixing for about 5-7 min

KOH / NaOH
(1.5 % Concentration)
Heating at 60oC for 180 min in shaking water bath

Separating glycerol at selected Glycerol Separated

setting time (24 h)

Washing of ester Removal of water containing

Water (Three times) excess of KOH, methanol and
soap
Dry the ester at 60oC for 15 min or
by using anhydrous sodium sulphate

pongamia methyl ester

Schematic diagram of conventional methyl esterification Process

 11. Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is a gasoline alternative that is manufactured from the conversion of carbon
based feed stocks such as sugar cane, sugar beets, switch grass, corn, and barley. It is an alternative
from petroleum based fuels and it is said to be better for the environment. Ethanol fuel can be
combined with gasoline at different percentages, or can be used in its pure form as E100. Not every
vehicle can run on 100% ethanol, but most run on small percentages of ethanol blends which are
common at most gas stations. Ethanol has become more common because it is currently being used as
an oxygenate additive for gasoline.

Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It can
be used as a transport fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for
transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres. From
2007 to 2008, the share of ethanol in global gasoline type fuel use increased from 3.7% to 5.4%.[1]

Bioethanol, unlike petroleum, is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from
agricultural feedstocks. It can be made from very common crops such as sugar cane, potato, manioc
and maize.

Cellulosic ethanol offers promise as cellulose fibers, a major and universal component in
plant cells walls, can be used to produce ethanol. According to the International Energy Agency,
cellulosic ethanol could allow ethanol fuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously
thought.

Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2 + heat

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat:

C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat

 Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. The simple sugar
fructose also undergoes fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after
breaking them up by hydrolysis into the glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Starch and
cellulose are molecules that are strings of glucose molecules, and sucrose (ordinary table sugar) is a
molecule of glucose bonded to a molecule of fructose. The energy to create fructose in the plant
ultimately comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, and so sunlight also
provides the energy generated by the fermentation of these other molecules.

Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to the double
bond converts ethene to ethanol:

CH2=CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH

This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed. The ethane
is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than
in pure oxygen, other chemical reactions occur with different components of the atmosphere such as
N2. This leads to the production of nitrous oxides NOx , a major air pollutant.

Production process

The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars,
distillation, dehydration and denaturing (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require
saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars.
Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis. Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.

Fermentation

Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. Microbial fermentation will

currently only work directly with sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are
both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugars for fermentation. Currently, only
the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch (e.g. corn) portions can be economically converted. However,
there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of a plant is broken
down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.

Distillation

For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed
by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol
azeotrope. The 95.6% m/m (96.5% v/v) ethanol, 4.4% m/m (3.5% v/v) water mixture may be used as
a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water fraction is typically
removed in further treatment in order to burn in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines.

Dehydration

There are basically five dehydration processes to remove the water from an azeotropic
ethanol/water mixture. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic
distillation and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture. When these components
are added to the mixture, it forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in vapor-liquid-liquid
equilibrium, which when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol in the column bottom, and a vapor
mixture of water and cyclohexane/benzene. When condensed, this becomes a two-phase liquid
mixture. Another early method, called extractive distillation, consists of adding a ternary component
which will increase ethanol's relative volatility. When the ternary mixture is distilled, it will produce
anhydrous ethanol on the top stream of the column.

With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed that avoid
distillation all together for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method has emerged and has been
adopted by the majority of modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular sieves to remove
water from fuel ethanol. In this process, ethanol vapor under pressure passes through a bed of
molecular sieve beads. The bead's pores are sized to allow absorption of water while excluding
ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove the absorbed water.
Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water while the other is being regenerated. This
dehydration technology can account for energy saving of 3,000 btus/gallon (840 kJ/l) compared to
earlier azeotropic distillation.[17]

Ethanol-based engines

Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles, though it may be used to power other
vehicles, such as farm tractors, boats and airplanes. Ethanol (E100) consumption in an engine is
approximately 51% higher than for gasoline since the energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34% lower
than for gasoline. However, the higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for
increased power output and better fuel economy than could be obtained with lower compression
ratios. In general, ethanol engines are tuned to give slightly better power and torque output than
gasoline-powered engines.
 In many countries cars are mandated to run on mixtures of ethanol. Brazil requires cars be
suitable for a 25% ethanol blend, and has required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol,
since of July 2007 25% is required. The United States allows up to 10% blends, and some states
require this (or a smaller amount) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have adopted their own
requirements. Beginning with the model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world are
manufactured with engines which can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without
modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, SUVs and pickup trucks) are
designed to be flexible-fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles).

Flow diagram outlining processes in an integrated bench plant

*****