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i

A Guide to Graduate
Programs in Counseling
ii
iii

A Guide to Graduate
Programs in Counseling
Written and Edited by Tyler M. Kimbel
and
Dana Heller Levitt

An official publication of the Council

for Accreditation of Counseling and
Related Educational Programs (CACREP)

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

Names: Kimbel, Tyler M., editor. | Levitt, Dana Heller, editor.
Title: A guide to graduate programs in counseling /
edited by Tyler M. Kimbel, Dana Heller Levitt.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016018151 | ISBN 9780190603724 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780190603717 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Counseling—Study and teaching. | Graduate students.
Classification: LCC BF636.65 .G85 2016 | DDC 158.3071/1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016018151

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada

Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
╇ v

CON T E N T S

Forewordâ•…â•…vii
Acknowledgmentsâ•…â•…xiii
Authors Listâ•…â•… xv

SECTION I: The Counseling Profession—╉An Overview

1. Introductionâ•…â•… 3
2. The History and Evolution of Professional Counselingâ•…â•… 9
Martin Ritchie
3. Career Pathways in Counselingâ•…â•… 23
4. Current Trends and Issues in Counselingâ•…â•… 37
Richard C. Henriksen, Jr. and Susan E. Henderson

SECTION II: Graduate Programs in Counseling—╉Personal

and Practical Considerations
5. On Becoming a Counselor—╉Self-╉Reflectingâ•…â•… 53
6. Finding and Comparing Counseling Programs—╉Selecting
the “Perfect Fit”â•…â•… 63
7. Applying to Graduate Schoolâ•…â•… 75
Robin Wilbourn Lee and Jennifer Jordan
8. The Experience of Being a Graduate Counseling Studentâ•…â•… 93
Victoria E. Kress, Michael Leskosky, Chelsey A. Zoldan,
and Jessica Headley

SECTION III: Life After Graduate School

9. Certification and Licensureâ•…â•… 113
Gerard Lawson and Jenna Haynes
10. Professional Involvementâ•…â•… 125
Samuel T. Gladding
11. Conclusionâ•…â•… 139

Indexâ•…â•…143
vi
vii

F OR E WO R D

DR . C A ROL L. BOBBY,
CACREP President and CEO

There is one question I refuse to ask any child or student. That question is,
“What do you want to be when you grow up?” I don’t ask because when
I was young I never knew what answer to give. When I was in elementary
school, I told my family I wanted to be an archaeologist. I was told, “Carol,
you know you can’t eat rocks.” When I was in high school, I said I wanted to
be an actor. I was told that I should probably consider a backup plan in case
my stage career never materialized. The only thing I knew for certain about
growing up was that I would go to college; it was expected of me.
So, off I went to Ohio University without a clue of what I would be or what
I would do when I finished my next round of schooling. My assumption
was that somehow going to college would help me figure it out. However,
when I was a senior I started receiving letters from the university Registrar’s
Office indicating that I had to declare a major if I ever expected to graduate.
The first time I got one of the letters I ignored it, but then the second and
third ones arrived. The letters strongly suggested I make an appointment as
soon as possible to officially declare a major. How could I declare a major
when I still didn’t know what I wanted to do with my life?
I finally decided after three letters that I should make the appointment
with the Registrar’s Office. In the interim, I tried on my own to consider
what my options might be. On my mother’s side of the family, I came from
a long line of teachers. My grandma had actually taught in a one-​room
schoolhouse. On my father’s side of the family, the women became nurses.
Neither one of these options appealed to me. I also made an appointment
to take some career interest surveys. The results were mixed, indicating that
my interests and talents ranged from psychology to retail buying and sell-
ing. Hmmm, not much help there, but it was at least food for thought.
The day of my appointment at the Registrar’s Office finally arrived. It
went better than I could have imagined. It was a very businesslike meeting,
and the fact that no one asked me what I wanted to do when I graduated
viii

( viii )   Foreword

was a big plus in my mind. The meeting simply focused on what I needed
to do to graduate according to the university’s credit requirements. What
I learned was that I already had enough credits to call myself an English
major. I also learned that I had enough credits to declare a major in psychol-
ogy. Lastly, I was informed that if I declared a major immediately, I could
probably graduate at the end of spring term. With decision time upon me,
I took stock of what I had been told. I loved all of my English classes. I loved
the stories and the great literature. But I also loved my psychology classes,
except for the time that I accidently lost control of a pigeon in the research
lab, which resulted not only in the accidental electrocution of the bird, but
also in the invalidation of weeks of research being carried out by one of my
professors. Unfortunately, the knowledge of what I wanted to claim as a
major area of interest in my life still eluded me, so my solution was to ask
if I could declare both as majors. It turned out that I could, so I left college
with the ability to say that I had a double major—​one in English and one
in psychology.
Armed with my double-​major degree, I found that entering the world
of work was a whole new challenge. Although I had completed a great
liberal arts education—​which had prepared me to read, write, think, do
group projects, and meet deadlines—​I found that my declared majors
were not exactly listed in job advertisements. So I ended up applying for an
Information Specialist position at a 24-​hour crisis information center. I had
completed a volunteer training program at a similar center while in college.
I also had an interest in helping others who had experienced crises and grief
in their lives. I had been orphaned when I was a teenager, so I felt that I had
some understanding of what others who called the hotline might be feeling.
And, I’m happy to report … I got the job!
Through maintaining and updating the hotline’s resource information
files, I also found myself talking to individuals in the local community men-
tal health centers. I volunteered to help them enter and analyze their pro-
gram evaluation data in my free time. After all, I had done some of this work
as a part-​time employee when I was a student in college. I knew how to set
up coding systems for keypunch cards and run data in an SPSS program.
My interests in the mental health needs of individuals and communities
continued to grow.
After a few years of working and trying out various roles, including a job
in retail as an assistant buyer, I decided it was time to go back to school.
I wanted to get a graduate degree that would allow me to somehow help
people. My love of reading had opened my eyes to a world of helpers, from
Virginia Axline to Virginia Satir, who were making a difference in people’s
lives. I thought to myself, “I think I would like to do work like this. It would
be meaningful, and if I have to work, please at least let it be meaningful.”
ix

Foreword  ( ix )

Coming to this conclusion was like being at the top of a mountain. The view
was promising, and I felt good about the decision to make the uphill climb.
I signed up to take the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) as soon as I could.
Then I had to decide who to have the scores sent to, which translated into
needing to know where I thought I wanted to go to graduate school. Of
course, that led to other big questions almost immediately. Did I want to
move? How would I pay for school? What about my partner? Could he get
a job if we moved to another town? Little did I know that the biggest ques-
tion of all still needed to be answered; that is, “What kind of helping profes-
sional did I want to become? Did I want to be a social worker, a counselor,
a psychologist, or some kind of therapist?”
I honestly did not know the differences between the different types of
helping professionals and there was very little information accessible to
me. This was the 1970s, and there were no Internet searches happening,
so I began poring over college catalogues in the local library. Some were
outdated publications, and some were more current, but I began to look at
the curriculum being offered in various programs and different universities
and found that the courses listed in counseling or counselor education pro-
grams excited me the most. So I chose three random counseling programs
based primarily on location. I was looking for warm weather, because I liter-
ally had taken the GRE during a winter blizzard in Ohio.
The rest is history. I ended up at the University of Florida primarily
because they were willing to accept me on short notice and let me start
in January, and it ended up being good fit for me. I was lucky. It was truly
serendipitous that things turned out so well. Why? Well, for starters, I never
really examined what I needed to know before investing in graduate school.
Allow me to share some of the things I did not know when I entered my
graduate counseling program:

• I did not know the difference between the counseling profession and
other helping professions, and I did not know that the counseling profes-
sion had less recognition than some of the other helping professions in
terms of getting reimbursed and right to practice issues. My first profes-
sional orientation class made this clear to me early on, which made me
question my decision for a while.
• I did not know that I would have to declare a specialization for my coun-
seling degree. Once I entered the program, I began to realize that coun-
selors work in a variety of settings such as public schools, mental health
facilities, hospitals, rehabilitation centers, colleges and universities, and
even business and industry settings. I also did not know that counselors
often held specialized titles such as School Counselors, Clinical Mental
Health Counselors, Career Counselors, Rehabilitation Counselors, or
x

( x )   Foreword

Marriage and Family Counselors, and that to practice in these areas typi-
cally required specialized coursework. Luckily, I had a great faculty advi-
sor and helpful professors who helped me figure out my strongest areas
of interest.
• I did not know if I would be eligible for financial aid or if the program
offered any graduate assistantships to help cover my tuition and living
expenses. The counseling program’s graduate coordinator took me aside
during my first week of class and told me I might be eligible for an out-​
of-​state tuition waiver based on my undergraduate GPA. He similarly
alerted me to an opening for one of the department’s graduate assistant-
ship. Thankfully, I got both!
• I did not know just how much self-​examination and self-​reflection would
be required of me as I progressed through the program. But, this was
good for me. I ended up in personal counseling at one point during my
program to finally deal with some long-​standing grief issues related to the
deaths of my parents when I was much younger.
• Finally, I did not know what kinds of requirements I would need to meet
after graduation in order to practice as a counselor. In other words, I had
no earthly idea what licensure or certification meant or how the accred-
ited status of my program might affect my ability to get licensed or certi-
fied. After I moved to Virginia, I began to apply for my counselor license.
I was so grateful that I had graduated from a program that required 60
semester hours and lots of supervised clinical experience hours!

Despite my ignorance about how to find a graduate program that was

a “perfect fit” for helping me become the counselor that I wanted to be,
I blundered my way into a profession that I have grown to love and respect.
As a counselor, I have thrived. I obtained my license to practice and have
maintained it for almost 30 years. I have worked with individuals, couples,
and families in distress. As the CEO of the Council for Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), I have been in
a position that allows me not only to advocate for the profession but also
to work on behalf of all future counselors by ensuring that our training pro-
grams provide students with the knowledge and skills they need to be effec-
tive counselors. Imagine how satisfying it is to go home every day realizing
that you have played a role in helping others reach their potential.
Over the years, I have also had the pleasure of speaking with hundreds
of prospective students searching for the right counselor preparation pro-
gram. In the early years of my job with CACREP, most callers were more
like me, not knowing what questions to ask. Today, prospective students
are much more savvy and “in the know” about the profession of counseling
and how it is different from other professions. They are also more astute
xi

Foreword  ( xi )

about issues related to post-​graduation requirements. I believe that their

Internet searches have served them well. But finding the right graduate pro-
gram can still be a hit-​or-​miss decision without giving proper consideration
to your needs as a student, your style of working, and your reasons for con-
sidering counseling as a profession. It is a good investment of your time to
try to understand the world you are entering so that you will be prepared to
face the challenges of life as a graduate counseling student, as well as what
life will be like after graduate school.
The book you are about to read is exactly what I could have used (but
did not have available) as I embarked upon the life-​changing decision to
get a graduate degree in counseling. Your journey toward becoming a pro-
fessional counselor, however, will be different than mine. Your decision-​
making process will be enriched by the information, first-​hand accounts,
and self-​reflective activities you complete in this book. This book will give
you the opportunity I never had to be both well-​informed and confident
that you are making the decision that is right for you.
Remember, luck is unpredictable; but making an informed choice can
be within your grasp if you just reach for this book. I wish you every success
as you embark on this journey of discovery!
xii
xiii

AC KNOW L E DG M E N T S

We would like to thank the CACREP Board of Directors for their initial con-
tribution to the development of this project and their continued support.
We would also like to thank our chapter authors who have graciously given
their time to a different kind of writing and contribution to the advance-
ment of the counseling profession. Perhaps most significantly, we would
like to express our utmost appreciation and gratitude to Candice Crawford
(doctoral student in counseling at Montclair State University) for her tire-
less editorial assistance. Without Candice, this project would not have been
possible, or at least submitted by the contract deadline. Finally, our thanks
to Dana Bliss at Oxford University Press for taking a chance on this project
and opening doors for future counselors everywhere.
xiv
xv

AU T H OR S L I S T

Samuel T. Gladding, Ph.D.

Dr. Samuel Gladding is a Professor in the Department of Counseling at
Wake Forest University in Winston-​Salem, North Carolina. He is a fellow
in the American Counseling Association (ACA) and its former president
(2004–​2005). Additional leadership Sam has been engaged in includes
serving as president of two ACA divisions (ACES and ASGW), president of
Chi Sigma Iota (the international counseling honorary society), president
of the American Association of State Counseling Boards, and chair of the
ACA Foundation. Sam has authored numerous professional publications,
including 41 books, 22 book chapters, eight counseling videos, and over
80 scholarly articles. He was a first responder to the 9/​11 attack in New York
City in 2001, providing psychological first aid to families of victims killed in
the Twin Towers. Sam was also a first responder to the shootings at Virginia
Tech. He has been honored by the American Counseling Association with
the Gilbert and Kathleen Wrenn Award for a Humanitarian and Caring
Person, the Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished Professional Service Award,
and the David K. Brooks Distinguished Mentor Award. The Association for
Creativity in Counseling (ACC) named their Inspiration and Motivation
Award in Sam’s honor, and the ACA Foundation recently named their
Unsung Heroes Award after him.
Twice a Fulbright Specialist, Sam has taught counseling and worked
with universities in Turkey, China, Estonia, Austria, Malaysia, Sweden,
Malta, South Africa, Australia, Singapore, Mexico, and Canada. He served
on the faculties at Fairfield University and the University of Alabama at
Birmingham, before coming to Wake Forest. He started his career as a cli-
nician in a rural mental health center and served as a first lieutenant in the
United States Army Quartermaster Corps. He has been married to his wife,
Claire, for 29 years. They are the parents of three grown young adult men.
Sam received his degrees from Wake Forest, Yale, and the University of
North Carolina at Greensboro. He continues to work as a licensed profes-
sional counselor.
xvi

( xvi )   Authors List

Jenna Haynes
Jenna Haynes is a 2009 graduate of the University of Virginia’s College at
Wise with a bachelor of science in psychology. During her time at UVA
Wise, she served as Psi Chi President, assisted faculty with research, and
received the Helen and Leon Heder Award in Applied Psychology. She
pursued a master’s degree in Clinical Mental Health Counseling and gradu-
ated from Western Kentucky University in 2012. During her time at WKU,
she served as president of Chi Sigma Iota (international counseling honor
society) and received the Outstanding Graduate Student Award in Mental
Health Counseling. Jenna obtained clinical experience as a practicing
Addictions and Mental Health Counselor in a community health setting
in Bowling Green, KY. She is a Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor
(LPCC) in the Commonwealth of Kentucky and is a National Certified
Counselor (NCC). She is currently in her first year as a doctoral student in
Counselor Education at Virginia Tech. Her research interests include utiliz-
ing mindfulness practices in counselor education, meaningful experiences
within supervision and counseling, and cultivation of professional identity
of counselors.
Jessica Headley, M.A., LPC (Ohio)
Jessica Headley is a Licensed Professional Counselor and doctoral candi-
date in the CACREP-​accredited Counselor Education and Supervision
Program at The University of Akron. She has served in various leader-
ship roles within counseling organizations to include Chi Sigma Iota, the
American Counseling Association, and the Ohio Counseling Association.
She actively contributes to counseling scholarship through publications
and presentations, teaches graduate counseling courses, and engages in
mentoring relationships with faculty and students.
Susan E. Henderson
Susan E. Henderson is a doctoral candidate and research assistant in a
CACREP-​accredited Counselor Education Program at Sam Houston State
University. As a result of her doctoral studies, Susan has gained a deep
appreciation for the professional counselor’s identity. Previously licensed
under older board rules accepting a variety of programming and supervi-
sors, Susan has seen the difference counselors training counselors makes.
In the counselor education program, Susan’s supervision courses have pre-
pared her to be a peer supervisor for the past five semesters to master’s and
doctoral students. She has presented at state, regional, and national coun-
seling conferences and has copublished four manuscripts during her stud-
ies as a counselor educator.
xvii

Authors List  ( xvii )

Richard C. Henriksen, Jr., Ph.D., LPCS, NCC

Dr. Richard C. Henriksen, Jr. is a Professor of Counselor Education in the
Department of Counselor Education at Sam Houston State University,
Huntsville, Texas. He received both his master’s and doctoral degrees
from Texas A&M University Commerce. Dr. Henriksen has been a coun-
selor for more than 18 years and specializes in multicultural issues with an
emphasis on the multiple heritage population (those often referred to as
biracial). He has more than 50 publications including two books, including
his award-​winning book Counseling Multiple Heritage Individuals, Couples,
and Families, 13 book chapters, and 40 journal articles. He has given more
than 65 presentations on a wide variety of counseling issues at the national
and state levels with an emphasis on the multiple heritage population.
Dr. Henriksen has been providing counseling services since 1996 and has
been a counselor educator for the past 15 years. He serves on the editorial
board of the journal Counseling & Values and serves in leadership roles in the
Texas Counseling Association and the Texas Association of Multicultural
Cultural Counseling and Development. He has also been a site team mem-
ber and site team leader for the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs since 2004. Dr. Henriksen has received
numerous awards for his writing and his commitment to multicultural
counselor education from the North Central Association of Counselor
Education and Supervision, the Association of Multicultural Counseling
and Development, and the Texas Counseling Association. He has been rec-
ognized by Chi Sigma Iota Counseling Academic and Professional Honor
Society International as a leading advocate for the counseling profession.
His most recent achievement is being named an American Counseling
Association Fellow in 2015.
Jennifer Jordan, Ph.D., LPC-​S, NCC
Dr. Jennifer Jordan is an Associate Professor and Director of the Counseling
and Development Program at Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South
Carolina. She is a Licensed Professional Supervisor and current treasurer and
interim executive secretary of the South Carolina Counseling Association.
She is the current secretary for the Association for Counselor Education
and Supervision. She is past-​president of the Southern Association of
Counselor Education and Supervision and specializes in counseling skill
development, supervision, and overseeing onsite practicum experiences.
Dr. Jordan’s interests include evaluating and determining appropriate inter-
vention strategies for children and adolescents with a variety of problems
utilizing play therapy and other creative techniques.
xviii

( xviii )   Authors List

Victoria E. Kress, Ph.D., LPCC-​S (Ohio), NCC

Dr. Victoria Kress is a Professor and the Director of the CACREP-​
accredited Clinical Mental Health and Addictions Counseling programs
at Youngstown State University. She has over 20 years of clinical experi-
ence, and she is passionate about mentoring students, new professionals,
and growing leaders. She is a past president of Chi Sigma Iota International
and the Ohio Counseling Association, and she has been the recipient of
22 professional counseling awards. She also cowrote two books on coun-
seling those who have mental disorders, is currently completing a book on
counseling children and adolescents, and has written over 100 publications.
Gerard Lawson, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, ACS
Dr. Gerard Lawson is an Associate Professor in the Counselor Education
Program at Virginia Tech, past-​president of the Association for Counselor
Education and Supervision (ACES), and past-​president of the Virginia
Counselors Association. Gerard earned his doctorate in counselor educa-
tion from the College of William and Mary, in Virginia. He is a Licensed
Professional Counselor, a National Certified Counselor, and an Approved
Clinical Supervisor. Since joining the faculty at Virginia Tech, Dr. Lawson
has published his research in prestigious journals including the Journal of
Counseling and Development, Counselor Education and Supervision, and The
Clinical Supervisor. He has presented at national and international confer-
ences on a range of topics including counselor wellness, crisis response and
resilience, and clinical supervision.
Gerard is currently the ACES representative to the ACA Governing
Council and serves on the Executive Committee. He is also trustee of
the American Counseling Association Foundation. He chaired the ACA
Taskforce on Crisis Response Planning and has authored several arti-
cles on counselor wellness and resilience, particularly when working in
disaster mental health. Under his leadership, Virginia Tech’s Counselor
Education Program was awarded the 2009 Robert Frank Outstanding
Counselor Education Program Award. In 2011, Dr. Lawson was honored
with the American Counseling Association’s Robert Rencken Professional
Leadership Award, and in 2012 he was awarded the John R. Cook Award
by the Virginia Counselors Association. Most recently, CACREP honored
Dr. Lawson with the 2015 Martin Ritchie Award for Excellence in Advocacy.
Robin Wilbourn Lee, Ph.D., LPC/​MHSP, NCC, ACS
Dr. Robin Wilbourn Lee is an Associate Professor in the Professional
Counseling Program at Middle Tennessee State University and serves as the
Director of the MTSU Center for Counseling and Psychological Services.
She is a Licensed Professional Counselor with Mental Health Services
Provider status in the state of Tennessee. She has 15 years of experience as a
xix

Authors List  ( xix )

counselor educator and has published in the in areas of ethics, supervision,

and women’s issues.
Michael Leskosky, B.A.
Michael Leskosky is a master's degree–​seeking student and graduate
assistant in the CACREP-​accredited Clinical Mental Health Counseling
Program at Youngstown State University. He is specializing in counsel-
ing children and adolescents, and he has four years of clinical experience
providing individual and group-​based behavior intervention services to at-​
risk youth in school, home, and community settings. He actively engages
in numerous campus organizations and has served in leadership roles with
Chi Sigma Iota and the Ohio Counseling Association.
Martin Ritchie, Ed.D., LPC-​S, FACA
Dr. Martin Ritchie earned his master’s and doctoral degrees in Counselor
Education at the University of Virginia. He worked as a School Counselor
in Virginia before moving to Australia where he helped found a school
counseling program. He returned to the United States as an Associate
Professor at Ohio University before taking a position at the University of
Toledo. He retired in 2013 after 35 years as a counselor educator. During
his career he served as president of the Ohio Counseling Association, Ohio
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, and the International
Association of Marriage and Family Counselors which he cofounded. He
was editor of the journal Counselor Education and Supervision and a member
of the Board of Directors of the Council for Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs, where he also served as chair. He is a
Fellow of the American Counseling Association and a Lifetime Member of
Chi Sigma Iota.
Chelsey A. Zoldan, M.S.Ed., LPC (Ohio), NCC
Chelsey Zoldan is a Licensed Professional Counselor and doctoral stu-
dent in the CACREP-​accredited Counselor Education and Supervision
Program at The University of Akron. She currently works in a medication
assisted treatment program with individuals who have co-​occurring chemi-
cal dependency and mental health diagnoses. She has held various lead-
ership roles within the American Counseling Association and the Ohio
Counseling Association, and she has contributed book chapters and peer-​
reviewed articles to the professional counseling literature.
Tyler M. Kimbel, Ph.D.
Dr. Tyler M. Kimbel is the Vice President of Research and Advocacy &
Outreach at the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP). He also serves as an adjunct professor
in counselor education. A graduate of Geneva College and Youngstown
xx

( xx )   Authors List

State University, Kimbel earned his Ph.D. in Counselor Education and

Supervision from the University of Northern Colorado. His professional
roots are in school counseling and he is experienced in a variety of clinical
settings working with adults and at-risk populations. Initiated into the Eta
Chapter of Chi Sigma Iota, Dr. Kimbel is an active member of the American
Counseling Association, American School Counselor Association, and
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. He promotes the
counseling profession through scholarly research, presentations, edito-
rial board work, and service as a member of the Advisory Council for the
national Evidence-Based School Counseling Conference. He currently
resides in Alexandria, Virginia.
Dana Heller Levitt, Ph.D., NCC
Dr. Dana Heller Levitt is a Professor of Counseling at Montclair State
University and the previous Graduate Program Coordinator for Master’s
Programs. She has been a counselor educator for over 15 years. She served
as a member of the CACREP Board of Directors from 2011-2016, includ-
ing 3 years on the Executive Committee. Dr. Levitt has published works
in the areas of professional ethics and counselor development, includ-
ing Values and Ethics in Counseling: Real Life Ethical Decision-Making. She
has presented extensively at the national, regional, and state level regard-
ing ethics, counselor development, and counselor pedagogy. Dr. Levitt is
an active member of the American Counseling Association, Association
for Counselor Education and Supervision, and Association for Spiritual,
Ethical, and Religious Values and Counseling, where she also serves on the
editorial board for the journal Counseling and Values. At Montclair State
University, Dr. Levitt works with masters and doctoral students on critical
reflection as advisor, mentor, and instructor.
xxi

A Guide to Graduate
Programs in Counseling
xxii
1

S E CT I ON I

The Counseling Profession—​An Overview

So you think you want to be a counselor? Let us give you a taste of the
counseling profession. In this first section, we introduce you to the idea of
becoming a counselor. We give you an overview of the book and how to
navigate through the contents, as well as discuss the importance of making
a decision about studying to be a counselor, the kind of graduate school
curriculum you can expect, and the history of and current trends in the
counseling profession. Begin with ­chapter 1 to identify the questions you
have about graduate programs in counseling, and use the rest of the pages
to help you begin to answer these questions.
2
3

CH A P T E R 1

Introduction

C ongratulations! As a prospective counseling student, looking through

the first pages of this guide is part of an important process for exploring
careers in professional counseling and gathering information that will ulti-
mately help you make an informed decision about whether or not to pursue
a graduate degree in counseling. We realize that this is a big step in your
professional development, whether you are just now considering options in
the helping professions or have an application to a graduate counseling pro-
gram already completed and ready to send. You will need to consider many
questions as you move from contemplation to application: What does a
counselor do? Where do I want to work as a counselor? Will I be able to get
a job when I finish graduate school? What should I consider in a graduate
program? Can I really afford the time and money to attend graduate school?
What will graduate study be like compared to my undergraduate degree?
Who will help me with my application? How will I make the transition to
learning to be a counselor?
These questions and more will be addressed in the chapters that follow.
We hope that you will find this guide useful as you contemplate, explore,
and ultimately apply to a graduate program that helps you fulfill your goals
of becoming a professional counselor. We begin with a few nuts and bolts
in this introductory chapter to familiarize you with this book and help you
get started on your journey.

WHAT IS COUNSELING?

There are as many helping professions as there are ways to help people in
need, such as social work, human services, marriage and family therapy,
psychology, psychiatry, nursing, coaching, counseling … the list goes on
4

( 4 )   Counseling Profession

and on. So how is counseling different from the other helping professions?
What exactly is counseling anyway? Counseling is unique in its develop-
mental approach to the individual challenges and life circumstances that
people face. The American Counseling Association (ACA) offers an official
definition: “Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse
individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, edu-
cation, and career goals” (Kaplan, Tarvydas, & Gladding, 2014, p. 368).
The counseling profession is relatively young compared to other helping
professions such as social work and psychology. Even in its youth, counsel-
ing is one of the fastest growing helping professions. According to a recent
study by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, which provide
information about insurance reimbursement for healthcare services, coun-
selors comprise 37% of all helping professionals, the largest of all profes-
sional groups that include social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and
marriage and family therapists. Chapter 2 will provide a more thorough
perspective on the history of the counseling profession and its evolution
to what it is today. But, for the purpose of this introduction, try to picture
yourself 3, 5, and even 20 years from now as a counselor. Who is sitting with
you? What are you saying and discussing? Where is your work taking place?
These are some of the defining points of counseling as a distinct profes-
sion and how you can make sure that this is the right decision for you. As a
counselor you can work with many types of individuals in multiple settings.
Counselors help individuals, groups, and families with a broad spectrum
of issues. Sometimes counselors reach out to students in a school to help
them manage social challenges such as bullying and making friends or with
career decision-​making for life after formal education. Counselors can also
be found in community and clinical mental health settings, such as agen-
cies, hospitals, and treatment facilities, where they serve clients struggling
with a wide variety of issues like substance abuse/​addictions, eating disor-
ders, depression, and other conditions that adversely affect mental health
and overall wellness. Regardless of the setting and specific issues, counsel-
ors help by considering the developmental and social context of the indi-
vidual. This includes a holistic and wellness orientation that considers the
capacities that a person has to manage challenges and look at ways to work
through them in the future. Your graduate studies will teach you strategies
for working with this orientation and applying principles to the popula-
tions and settings that you choose.
Counseling is a rewarding profession, and also a challenging one. You
are privileged to see the innermost feelings and thoughts of the people
you will help. You are empowered to help individuals identify the real and
perceived challenges they are struggling with, and then work with them
to find solutions to these challenges (without giving advice). With these
5

I n t ro d u c t i o n    ( 5 )

great opportunities also come challenges in making sure that you are not
taking on too much of your clients’ struggles as your own and taking your
work home with you. Later in the book we will discuss professional self-​
care: strategies that students and counselors use to take care of themselves
and make sure they are able to provide quality services and avoid burnout.
Most importantly, we want to make sure that you are entering a profession
that is consistent with how you see yourself, at least philosophically at this
point, working with people who seek counseling.

PURPOSE OF THE BOOK

The primary purpose of this book is to introduce you to graduate programs

in counseling. To do this, we need to orient you to the counseling profes-
sion and help you consider aspects of your graduate preparation and career
goals as a professional counselor. As you turn the pages we hope to lay the
foundation for your understanding of the career you are about to enter.
Certainly your graduate program will provide much more information
about the profession, its history, trends, and specific skills and strategies of
counselors. But, like running a race, you have to be sure you have the right
equipment and conditioning to start and see the finish line. Think of us as
your personal trainers: not running the race for you, but helping you condi-
tion so that there are few surprises along the course.
You will learn about the counseling profession through your graduate
program, of course, and become oriented to the skills you will need to be
an effective, ethical counselor. But you will first need to think about the type
of graduate counseling program that you want to enter. We will place a great
deal of emphasis on choosing a nationally accredited program, given that this
is a publication by the profession’s specialized accrediting body, the Council
for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, or
CACREP. We will help you to understand accreditation, why it is impor-
tant, how it shapes your training, and its benefits for job placement following
completion of a graduate degree in counseling. We dedicate a full chapter
to the trends and diversity across graduate counseling programs, including
size, cost, emphasis, experiences afforded by the program, and many other
considerations. It is important that you hear this from people who know
firsthand the ins and outs of graduate counseling programs. For that reason,
we have asked current students and recent graduates to provide their per-
spectives on the experience of being in graduate school as a counselor-​in-​
training. We think you will find it helpful to hear their voices about entering
a graduate counseling program and how they navigated the rigors of study-
ing and practicing, and ultimately graduating into the profession.
6

( 6 )   Counseling Profession

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

We have thought carefully about who could best speak to you as a reader
and what content is most relevant to make this a useful guide. We include
chapters such as the one mentioned above through the eyes of, and writ-
ten by, professional counselors, recent counseling students, and counselor
educators (professors in counseling programs). We want this to be both a
usable guide for you as you think about graduate school and also a resource
once you are there and beyond. The chapters are written in a way that we
think is sequential. But, as with any good publication, we hope you will read
them as they are most relevant to you depending on your current needs.
The guide is organized into three sections. In this first section, The
Counseling Profession—​An Overview, we offer three chapters beyond the
introductory one you are reading now to give you a sense of the profes-
sion you seek to enter. Chapter 2 will give you greater depth into the his-
tory of the counseling profession and define counseling more clearly. There
are many issues that brought the profession to its current state, and we
want to give you the foundation for thinking about what it will be like to
be a member. In ­chapter 3 we will discuss the types of career opportuni-
ties and settings available to you as a counselor and how to prepare for a
career in counseling. We will address the educational and licensure/​certifi-
cation requirements needed to work in various settings (e.g., mental health,
school) and, more specifically, the basic knowledge and skills you will need
to begin a career as a counselor. Don’t worry if these are new concepts;
that’s why counselors complete a master’s degree program to become good
at what they do! Finally, ­chapter 4 will outline trends in counseling that will
affect you as you enter the field. We will share data regarding job outlook,
salaries, and recognition of counselors by regulating agencies. You will also
be introduced to the documents and principles that guide the profession,
including ethical guidelines, credentialing/​licensure bodies, national stan-
dards, and professional organizations.
Section II, Graduate Programs in Counseling—​Personal and Practical
Considerations, transitions the orientation of the guide to more specific,
individual aspects of becoming a counselor. The four chapters in this sec-
tion are all about you, why you want to be a counselor and how you will get
there. Chapter 5 focuses on your decision to be a counselor. We will encour-
age you to consider your personal and professional goals, how counseling
fits in with these goals (both presently and in the future), and what might
be required of you as a graduate student in a counseling program. We will
also engage you in discussion about your undergraduate academic prepara-
tion, lifestyle, emotional well-​being, and self-​care. This is good practice for
the self-​awareness emphasis you will find in graduate study in counseling
Another random document with
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 ANNALS
OF

THE EARLY CALIPHATE.

 CHAPTER I.
ELECTION OF ABU BEKR.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

At eventide of a summer day in the

eleventh year of the Hegira, three chief Death of Mahomet, 13 Rabi
I. a.h. XI., June 8, a.d. 632.
‘Companions’ of Mahomet might be seen
issuing in haste from the Great Mosque at Medîna, where, close by
in the chamber of Ayesha, his favourite wife, the Prophet of Arabia
lay dead.[4] They were Abu Bekr, Omar, and Abu Obeida. I will first
describe each briefly, and then explain the object of their errand.
Abu Bekr, now threescore years of
age, was somewhat short in stature, of a Abu Bekr.
spare frame, rounded back, and stooping
gait. His face was thin, complexion smooth and fair, nose aquiline
and sharp, with other features delicate; the forehead high; the eyes
deep-seated and far apart; the veins well marked. His scanty hair
and beard, now for many years white, was dyed red. The
countenance was still in old age handsome; and the expression mild,
but wise and resolute. To him faith in the Prophet had become a
second nature, and, now that his Master was gone, the disciple lived
but to fulfil his will. It was this that nerved a disposition naturally soft
and yielding, and made Abu Bekr, the True,[5] of all the followers of
Mahomet, the firmest and most resolute.
Omar, fifteen years younger, differed
both in frame and temperament. Broad- Omar.
shouldered and tall, he towered above the
crowd. Though somewhat dark in complexion, the face was fresh
and ruddy. He was now bald; and his beard was dyed like his
friend’s. His stride was long, and his presence commanding.
Naturally hasty and passionate, he would twist his moustache when
angry and draw it downwards to his mouth. But time had mellowed
temper; and, beneath an imperious manner, he was bland and
courteous. Their attachment to Mahomet had, on these two friends,
an effect exactly opposite. That which braced the soft nature of Abu
Bekr served to abate the vehemence of Omar. Both stood in a like
relation to the Prophet, each having given a daughter to him in
marriage; Haphsa, Omar’s daughter, was one of Mahomet’s
favourite wives; but Ayesha, the child of Abu Bekr, was queen in his
affections to the end.
On these two men at this moment hung
the future of Islam. The third, who now Abu Obeida.
accompanied them, Abu Obeida, was
between them in age. He was thin, tall, and sinewy; bald, and with
little beard. Mild, unassuming, and unwarlike, he was yet destined to
take a leading part in the conquest of Syria.

It was the afternoon of the day on

which, but an hour or two before, Mahomet Abu Bekr and Omar in the
had breathed his last. The event had come Great Mosque.
unexpectedly at the end. Abu Bekr, thinking the Prophet better, had
shortly before retired to his house in the suburbs of the city. Called
back in haste, he entered Ayesha’s chamber, and kissed the face of
his departed friend, saying:—
‘Sweet wert thou in life; and sweet thou
art in death.’ The mosque was filled with a Men of Medîna would elect a
crowd excited by the voice of Omar, who chief of their own.
wildly proclaimed that the Prophet was not dead, but in a trance; and
that, like Moses, he would surely return to them again. Abu Bekr,
issuing from the chamber (which opened directly from the court of
the mosque), put his friend aside with these memorable words:—
Whoso worshippeth Mahomet, let him know that Mahomet is dead
indeed; but whoso worshippeth God, let him know that God liveth
and dieth not. He added passages from the Corân, in which the
Prophet had said that he would die; and Omar, hearing them as if he
had never heard them before, was speechless. The multitude
quieted down before the solemn words of Abu Bekr. But just then a
messenger hurried up with the report, that the citizens of Medîna—
the Ansâr, had assembled to choose for themselves a chief. The
moment was critical. The unity of the faith was at stake. A divided
power would fall to pieces, and all might be lost. The mantle of the
Prophet must fall upon one successor, and on one alone. The
sovereignty of Islam demanded an undivided Caliphate; and Arabia
would acknowledge no master but from amongst the Coreish. The
die must be cast, and at once.
Such, no doubt, were the thoughts
which occurred to Omar and Abu Bekr on Stormy scene in the hall of
receiving intelligence of the elective the citizens.
conclave; and so, alarmed at the danger, they hastened to the spot,
accompanied by Abu Obeida, if haply they might nip it in the bud. On
the way they met two friendly citizens coming from the assembly,
who warned them of the risk they ran; but, notwithstanding, they
hurried on. The men of Medîna meanwhile, gathered in one of their
rude halls, were bent upon an independent course. ‘We have
sheltered this nest of strangers,’ they cried. ‘It is by our good swords
they have been able to plant the Faith. The Chief of Medîna shall be
from amongst ourselves.’ And they had already fixed their choice on
Sád ibn Obâda, leader of the Beni Khazraj, one of ‘the Twelve’ at
‘the Pledge of Acaba,’ who, sick of a fever, lay covered up at the
further end of the hall. At this moment the three Companions entered
but just in time, for had the Citizens elected Sád and pledged their
troth to him, Medîna might have been irretrievably compromised.
Omar, with his native vehemence, was about to speak, when Abu
Bekr bade him to be silent, and anticipated him, as Omar used in
after days to say, with the same arguments he himself had thought
of, and even better. ‘Every word,’ said Abu Bekr, calmly and firmly,
‘which the Citizens had uttered in their own praise was true, but in
noble birth and influence the Coreish were paramount, and to none
but them would Arabia yield obedience.’ ‘Then,’ cried the men of
Medîna, ‘let there be one chief from amongst you and one from
amongst us.’ ‘Away with you!’ exclaimed Omar; ‘two cannot stand
together’; and even Sád from beneath his covering muttered that to
divide the power would weaken it. High words ensued. Hobâb, on
the side of Sád, cried out, ‘Hear him not! Attend to me, for I am the
well-rubbed Palm-stem.[6] If they refuse, expel them from the city. I
am the Roaring Lion of the desert, and will devour them up.’ ‘The
Lord destroy thee!’ cried Omar; and Hobâb returned the words. The
altercation gaining in heat and bitterness, Abu Bekr saw that it must
be stopped at any risk; so stepping forward he said: ‘Ye see these
two’—and he pointed to Omar and Abu Obeida—‘Choose ye now
whichever of them ye will, and salute him as your Chief.’ ‘Nay,’ cried
both at once, ‘Thou hast already, at the Prophet’s bidding, led the
prayers; thou art our Chief. Stretch forth thine hand.’ He did so, and
they struck their hand on his in token of allegiance.[7] Others began
to follow their example. ‘Wilt thou cut thine own kinsman’s throat?’
cried Hobâb to a Khazrajite about to take the pledge. ‘Not so,’ he
answered; ‘I only yield the right to whom the right is due.’ Whilst they
yet hesitated, the Beni Aus, jealous of the rival tribe and of Sád its
nominee, spake among themselves: ‘If this man be chosen, the rule
will be for ever with the Beni Khazraj. Let us salute Abu Bekr as our
Chief.’[8] The example once set, group
after group advanced to place their hand Abu Bekr elected Caliph.
on that of Abu Bekr, till none was left but Sád, who still lay covered in
the corner. Acknowledged thus by the men of Medîna, there could be
no doubt of Abu Bekr’s acceptance by the Coreish and all the
Refugees.[9] He was one of themselves, and the Prophet, by
appointing him to take his place, when laid aside, at the daily
prayers, had in a manner indicated him as his vicegerent. And so
homage was done on all sides to Abu Bekr. He was saluted as the
‘Caliph,’ or ‘Successor of the Prophet.’
The night was occupied in preparing
the dead for sepulture. The body was Burial of the Prophet.
washed and laid out, and the grave dug in
Ayesha’s apartment, where Mahomet had breathed his last. On the
morrow the citizens, men, women, and children, thronged the
chamber to look once more upon their Prophet’s face. And then the
body was reverently committed to the dust.
 The funeral being over, and the court of
the Great Mosque still crowded with the Abu Bekr’s inaugural
mourners, Abu Bekr ascended the pulpit, address.
and, sitting down, was saluted as Caliph by acclamation. Then he
arose, and said: ‘O people! Now I am Chief over you, albeit not the
best amongst you. If I do well, support me; if ill, then set me right.
Follow the true, wherein is faithfulness; eschew the false, wherein is
treachery. The weaker amongst you shall be as the stronger with
me, until that I shall have redressed his wrong; and the stronger shall
be as the weaker, until, if the Lord will, I shall have taken from him
that which he hath wrested. Leave not off to fight in the ways of the
Lord; whosoever leaveth off, him verily shall the Lord abase. Obey
me wherein I obey the Lord and his Prophet; when I disobey, then
obey me not. Now, arise to prayer, and the Lord be with you!’ The
assembly stood up for prayer, and Abu Bekr, for the first time as
Caliph, filled the place of Mahomet.
Besides Sád, there were few, if any,
who refused to do homage to Abu Bekr. Sád declines to swear fealty;
According to most authorities, Aly declined and also (probably) Aly for a
time.
to do so until the death of Fâtima his wife,
six months afterwards. Zobeir and Talha are also mentioned, but
doubtfully.[10] Sád persisted in his refusal; he even threatened to
empty his quiver against the usurpers, and then fight against them
with his retainers. ‘Let him alone,’ was the advice of those around
the Caliph; ‘he is but a single man, and his secession will not signify;
but if force be used against him, then his tribe will fight.’ The advice
approved itself to Abu Bekr’s forbearing spirit. Sád kept aloof, and
never appeared at court or in the mosque. When Omar succeeded to
the Caliphate, he presented himself with these words, ‘I love thee
not, O Omar!’ and, disappearing, eventually died in Syria.
With Mahomet ceased the theocratic
power which, as a prophet, he had The succession, how far
provided for by Mahomet;
exercised; but the kingly functions, as ruler and the precedent now
over all Islam, descended to his successor. established.
According to Arabian notions, such a ruler
was, like the Chieftain of a tribe, the head and representative of the
people, and his nomination was incomplete till confirmed by their
homage. Omar, we are told, in after days declared that the irregular
election of Abu Bekr (referring apparently to the scene enacted in the
hall) should not be drawn into a precedent. It was, he said, an event
the happiest in its consequences for Islam, but justified only by the
urgency of the moment. What might have been the issue if any son
of Mahomet had survived, it is useless to speculate. But certainly the
hereditary descent of kingly power was foreign to the sentiment of
Arabia. As matters stood, Mahomet seems to have shrunk from
anticipating the contingency of his death, and made no preparation
for what should follow. But in so far as we may suppose him to have
felt his illness mortal and his death impending, the nomination of Abu
Bekr to conduct the public prayers (the acknowledged mark of chief
or delegated authority) may be held the natural indication of his wish
that he should succeed.[11] Apart from the counter-claim of the men
of Medîna, there was, in point of fact, neither doubt nor hesitancy in
the election, and the counter-claim died away almost as soon as
made. The notion of divine right, or even of preferential claim, resting
in the Prophet’s family, was the growth of a later age.
 CHAPTER II.
EXPEDITION OF OSÂMA TO THE SYRIAN BORDER.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

Abu Bekr soon had the opportunity of

showing that he was resolved to carry out Osâma ordered by Mahomet
the commands of Mahomet to the very to lead an expedition against
the Syrian border, a.h. XI.
letter. A few weeks previously an May, a.d. 632.
expedition had been ordered to avenge by
a raid on the Syrian border the disaster which, three years before,
had tarnished the Moslem arms. In that reverse Zeid, the Prophet’s
bosom friend, who led the army, was with many others slain at Mûta;
and the more distinctly now to mark the object of the campaign, his
son Osâma, though still a youth, was nominated by Mahomet to the
command, and bidden to avenge his father’s death. The camp was
formed at Jorf, a little way on the Syrian road; but during the
Prophet’s sickness the force remained inactive, uncertain of the
issue. When the fatal event took place, Osâma broke up the camp,
and carrying back the banner which he had received at the hands of
Mahomet, planted it in the court of the Great Mosque, close by the
door of Ayesha’s apartment.
The day following his inauguration as
Caliph, Abu Bekr took up the banner, and Abu Bekr deaf to
reclamations against its
placing it in the hands of Osâma, in token dispatch.
that he was still commander, bade the
army again assemble and encamp, as it had done before, at Jorf;
and not a man was to be left behind. Obeying the command, the
fighting men of Medîna and its neighbourhood flocked again to the
camp, and even Omar was amongst the number. While yet preparing
to depart, the horizon darkened suddenly. Report of the Prophet’s
mortal illness, followed by tidings of his death, had spread like
wildfire over the land. From every side there now came rumours of
disloyalty, and of the resolve to cast the yoke of Islam off. The sense
of the army, and of Osâma himself, was strongly against leaving the
city thus defenceless, and the Caliph exposed to the risk of sudden
inroad. Omar was deputed to represent this to Abu Bekr, and also to
urge (as had been already urged to Mahomet himself[12]) that, if the
expedition must proceed, some more experienced general should
command. To the first request Abu Bekr replied, calm and unmoved:
‘Were the city swarming round with packs of ravening wolves, and I
left solitary and alone, the force should go; not a word from my
Master’s lips shall fall to the ground.’ At the second demand the
Caliph’s anger kindled: ‘Thy mother be childless, O son of Khattâb!’
he said, seizing Omar by the beard. ‘Shall the Prophet of the Lord
appoint a man to the command, and I, deposing him, appoint
another in his place?’ So Omar returned, without gaining either
object, to the army.
When all was ready for the march, Abu
Bekr repaired to the camp, and He accompanies it a little
way on foot. June, a.d. 682.
accompanied the force a little way on foot,
‘Be mounted,’ said Osâma to him; ‘or else I will dismount and walk
by thee.’ ‘Not so,’ replied Abu Bekr; ‘I will not mount; I will walk and
soil my feet, a little moment, in the ways of the Lord. Verily, every
step in the ways of the Lord is equal to the merit of manifold good
works, and wipeth out a multitude of sins.’ After a while he stopped,
and said to Osâma: ‘If it be thy will, give Omar leave that he may
return with me to the city, for strength and counsel.’ So he gave him
leave.[13]
The army then halted, to receive the
parting injunctions of the Caliph. ‘See,’ said And gives Osâma
he, addressing Osâma, ‘that thou avoid instructions.
treachery and deceit. Depart not in any wise from the right. Thou
shalt mutilate none; neither shalt thou kill child or aged man, nor any
woman. Injure not the date-palm, neither burn it with fire; and cut not
down any tree wherein is food for man or beast. Slay not of the
flocks or herds or camels, saving for needful sustenance. Ye may eat
of the meat which the men of the land shall bring unto you in their
vessels, making mention thereon of the name of the Lord. And the
monks with shaven heads that spend their lives in monasteries, if
they submit, leave them in their cloisters unmolested. Now march
forward in the name of the Lord, and may He protect you from sword
and pestilence!’
So Abu Bekr returned with Omar to
Medîna. Osâma marched by Wâdi al Cora, Osâma returns victorious,
July and August.
in the direction of Dûma, Obna, and the
highlands south of Syria. The brunt of his attack fell upon the Beni
Codhâa, and the semi-Christian tribes which, under the Roman
banner, had discomfited and slain his father. That disaster was now
avenged in fire and blood. The land was ravaged far and near, and
after an absence of two months, the army returned laden with spoil.
[14]

Meanwhile stirring events had transpired at Medîna, of which an

account is given in the chapter following.
 CHAPTER III.
MEDINA THREATENED.

A.H. XI. June and July, A.H. 632.

In after days Abu Bekr used to look

back with a just pride and satisfaction to Beneficial effects of Osâma’s
his despatch, against a universal expedition.
reclamation, of Osâma’s force. Public opinion was not long in
justifying the act and attributing thereto results of essential benefit.
The firmness of his attitude inspired the Bedouin tribes with a sense
of stability in the government. If the leaders at Medîna had not been
confident in their strength at home they would not have sent away
this army; and the Arabs, reasoning thus, were restrained from much
that they might otherwise have attempted. Still the position was
critical, and at times sufficiently alarming.
It was indeed a thing of which the brave
old Caliph might proud. ‘The Arabs,’ so the Courageous attitude of Abu
tradition runs, ‘were on all sides rising in Bekr.
rebellion. Apostasy and disaffection began to raise their heads;
Christians and Jews to stretch out their necks; and the Faithful were
left like a flock of sheep without a shepherd—their Prophet gone,
their numbers few, and their foes a multitude.’ It was in face of all this
that Abu Bekr sent off beyond recall his only force, and left Medîna
open and, to the outward eye, defenceless.
During the lifetime of Mahomet three
rivals had already laid claim to the Insurrection throughout
Arabia.
prophetic office and raised the standard of
rebellion. In the south, insurrection had hardly been quelled by the
assassination of the ‘Veiled Prophet’ of Yemen, when tidings of the
death of Mahomet made it burst forth with redoubled violence.
Enshrined in the very centre of the peninsula, Moseilama had
detached the powerful tribes around Yemâma from their allegiance;
and to the north-east, nearer home, Toleiha, the third pretender, was
now openly and dangerously hostile.[15] From every quarter, in rapid
succession, came the news of spreading disaffection. The legates of
Mahomet, the collectors of tithes—all, in fact, who represented the
authority of Islam—fled or were expelled. The Faithful were
massacred, and some confessors suffered a cruel death. Mecca and
Tâyif quivered and vacillated at the first intelligence of the Prophet’s
decease; in the end, through the strong influence of the Coreish,
they stood firm; but they were almost alone. Here and there some
few tribes, under loyal, or, it might be, temporising, chiefs,
maintained the semblance of obedience; but they were hardly
discernible amidst the seething mass of rebellion. Amru, hurrying
back from Omân (whither he had been sent by Mahomet as
ambassador at the Farewell Pilgrimage), witnessed the whole of
Central Arabia either in open revolt or ready to break away on the
first demand of tithes, and his report filled the citizens of Medîna with
dismay.[16] In truth, Islam had never taken firm hold of the distant
provinces; and as for the Bedouins, Mahomet had himself had
frequent cause to chide their fickleness. It was fear of punishment,
and the lust of plunder, rather than attachment to the faith, which had
hitherto held these wild sons of the desert in bondage to the Prophet.
The restraints and obligations of Islam were irksome and distasteful;
and now, on Mahomet’s death well rid of them, they hoped to return
to their lawless life.
As report after report came in of fresh
defection, Abu Bekr could but instruct his Demand for exemption from
tithes refused by Abu Bekr.
officers to hold on where they were able
with the loyal few, hoping to tide over the crisis till the return of
Osâma’s force. For the immediate defence of Medîna he took such
measures as were possible. He called in all that remained of the
faithful tribes in the neighbourhood, and posted pickets at the various
approaches to the city. The turbulent tribes in the near desert to the
east were the first to assume a threatening attitude. The Beni Abs
and Dzobiân massed there in such numbers ‘that the land was
straitened by them,’ and they parted into two bodies, one at
Rabadza,[17] the other at Dzul Cassa, the first station from Medîna
on the road to Nejd. The false prophet Toleiha sent his brother with
men to help them; but they still vacillated between the claims of the
pretender and Islam. At last they bethought themselves of a
compromise. They sent a deputation to Abu Bekr, offering to hold by
Islam and its ritual if only they were excused the tithe. The strangers
bearing the message were welcomed by the chiefs of Medîna, but by
the Caliph their advances were indignantly rejected. He would relax
not a tittle of the legal dues. ‘If ye withhold but the tether of a tithed
camel,’ said Abu Bekr, bluntly, ‘I will fight with you for the same.’ With
this refusal they retired, and also with the intelligence that the city
had but few defenders left. Now was the time, before the army came
back, not only for plunder, but to deliver a decisive blow. Abu Bekr,
foreseeing this, redoubled his precautions. He strengthened the
pickets, and set over them the chief men who had remained with him
—Aly, Zobeir, Talha, and Abdallah ibn Masûd. For the rest of the
people he appointed the Great Mosque a rendezvous. ‘The land hath
rebelled against us,’ he said, ‘and they have spied out our
nakedness and the weakness of our defence. Ye know not whether
they will come upon you by night or come upon you by day, or which
of you may be first attacked. They verily hoped that we should have
accepted their offer, but we rejected it. Wherefore be vigilant and
ready.’
And so it came to pass. They tarried
but three days, when a surprise was Attack on Medîna repelled.
attempted from Dzul Cassa. The outposts
were on the alert, and kept the assailants at bay while the main
guard was hurried up from the Mosque on camels. The Bedouins,
hardly prepared for so warm a reception, fled back upon their
reserves. They were pursued; but the camels of the Moslems, being
used only to draw water for the fields, took fright at a stratagem of
the enemy, and turning, fled back to the Mosque.[18] There were no
casualties among the Medîna troops, but the rebels were
emboldened by the flight of their opponents. Abu Bekr, anticipating a
renewed attack, called out every man capable of bearing arms, and
spent the night in marshalling his force. Next morning, while yet dark,
the Caliph himself led out the little band in regular array, with a
centre and two wings.[19] The enemy were taken by surprise at early
dawn, and as the sun rose were already in full flight. Abu Bekr drove
them with slaughter out of Dzul Cassa, and, leaving a portion of his
little force as an outpost there, returned with the rest to Medîna.
The affair was comparatively small, but
its effect great. As failure would have been Good effect of the victory.
disastrous, perhaps fatal, to Islam, so
victory was the turning-point in its favour. The power of the Prophet’s
successor, even without his proper army, to secure the city and beat
off his assailants was noised abroad. And soon after, the spirits of
the Moslems rose as they saw certain chiefs appear, bringing in the
tithes. The tribes they represented, to be sure, were few in contrast
with the apostate hordes; but it was an augury of brighter days to
come. Safwân and Zibricân, chiefs of two branches of the Beni
Temîm, and Adi son of Hâtim from a loyal branch of the Beni Tay,
were the first to present their legal offerings to the Caliph. Each was
ushered into his presence as an ambassador. ‘Nay,’ said Abu Bekr;
‘they are more than that; they are Messengers of glad tidings, true
men, and defenders of the faith.’ And the people answered, ‘Even
so; now the good things that thou didst promise are appearing.’
Tradition delights to ascribe with pious
gratitude the preservation of Islam to the Saving of Islam due to Abu
aged Caliph’s faith and fortitude. ‘On the Bekr.
death of Mahomet,’ we are told, ‘it wanted but little, and the faithful
had utterly perished. But the Lord strengthened the heart of Abu
Bekr, and stablished us thereby in the resolve to give place, no not
for one moment, to the apostates; and to say but these three words
—Submission, Exile, or the Sword.’ It was the simple faith in
Mahomet of Abu Bekr which fitted him for the task, and made him
carry out the law of his Master to the very letter. But for him, Islam
would have melted away in compromise with the Bedouin tribes, or
might have perished in the throes of its birth.
 CHAPTER IV.
RETURN OF OSÂMA. EXPEDITIONS FORMED AGAINST THE
APOSTATE TRIBES THROUGHOUT ARABIA.

A.H. XI. Sept.—Oct. A.D. 632

Osâma at last appeared, and Medîna,

for two months left unprotected, was Osâma’s return. Jumâd II.
relieved from further danger. The army a.h. XI. Sept. a.d. 632.
returned laden with booty. The royal Fifth was delivered to the
Caliph, and by him distributed among the people.[20]
Abu Bekr lost no time in now following
up the advantage he had gained over the Expedition against Beni Abs
and Dzobiân.
Beni Abs and Dzobiân. Driven back from
Dzul Cassa, they had retired to Rabadza, and vented their anger in
destroying by cruel deaths the faithful followers of the Prophet still
left amongst them. Deeply moved at the fate of these confessors,
Abu Bekr took a solemn oath that ‘he would by the like deaths
destroy as many of them as they had slain, or even more.’
Putting Osâma in command of the city,
and leaving the army there for a little while Abu Bekr chastises the rebel
tribes at Rabadza.
to recruit, Abu Bekr took the remaining
force and marched again towards Rabadza. The chief men
expostulated with him on going forth to fight in person. If a
commander were killed in action, his place could easily be filled; but
if the Caliph fell, their head and ruler would be gone. ‘Nay,’ replied
Abu Bekr; ‘but I will go forth, and will be your comrade even as one
of your own selves.’[21] So they marched on, and coming up with the
enemy at Abrac, completely discomfited them, killing some, and
taking others prisoners. The Beni Abs and Dzobiân fled to Toleiha,
and joined his army at Bozâkha. Thereupon Abu Bekr confiscated
their pasture-lands, and declared them to be for ever a public
domain reserved for the stud and camels of the State. On eventually
submitting, they found themselves thus debarred from re-entry; but
this was of comparatively little consequence, as they had, in the end,
ample compensation in the conquered lands beyond Arabia. After
some days spent at Rabadza, the Caliph returned to Medîna.
The army by this time was refitted. The
tithes had begun to come in from many Islam must be reimposed on
neighbouring tribes in token of submission. all Arabia.
Medîna was no longer in peril, and the citizens breathed freely. But a
heavy burden still lay upon the Caliph. Islam was to be the faith of all
Arabia;—‘Throughout the peninsula there shall be no second creed,’
was the behest of Mahomet on his death-bed. False prophets must
be crushed; rebels vanquished; apostates reclaimed or
exterminated; and the supremacy vindicated of Islam. It was, in
short, the mission of Abu Bekr to redeem the dying Prophet’s words.
With this great purpose, Abu Bekr went
forth a second time to Dzul Cassa, and Eleven expeditions
there summoned the whole available despatchedof Arabia.
to different parts

forces of Islam and all the loyal chiefs

around him. He divided them into eleven independent columns, and
over every one appointed a distinguished leader, to whom (following
the example of his Master) he presented a banner. Arabia was
mapped out, and each detachment given a province to reclaim, with
marching orders, where to begin and what course to take. Thus
Khâlid ibn Saîd was named for the Syrian border; Khâlid ibn Welîd
was to subdue Toleiha; and Ikrima with Shorahbîl, Moseilama;
Mohâjir was sent to Yemen; Alâ to Bahrein; Hodzeifa and Arfaja to
Mâhra; and Amru against the Beni Codhâa. And so by this great
scheme, in course of time, no spot would be left unconquered. The
troops retained at home were few; for few were needed now.[22]
Having despatched the various
expeditions, Abu Bekr returned to Medîna. Proclamation summoning
apostates to repent. Oct.,
There his first concern was to publish a a.d. 632.
summons to the apostate tribes,
commanding them everywhere to repent and submit themselves, on
which condition they should be pardoned, and received back into
Islam. Such as refused would be attacked, their fighting men cut to
pieces, and their women and children taken captive. This summons
was sent by the hand of envoys to every province and rebellious
tribe. The Adzân, or call to prayer, was to be the test of faith; if that
were heard and responded to, good and well; if not, the people were
apostate, and as such to be attacked.
Abu Bekr never again left Medîna to
lead his troops. Some say that afterwards Abu Bekr did not again go
he regretted this; but it is not likely that he out to fight.
did so. Medîna, where he continued to reside, was his proper place.
From it, as a central point, he was able to direct the movement of his
commanders all over the peninsula; and with operations in so many
different quarters to control he could not have been better situated.
It is more open to remark that none of
the more distinguished Companions of the No chief ‘Companion’
Prophet were appointed to commands. appointed to a command.
The same was the case with Omar, who was known to say that he
purposely refrained from nominating them to any government, both
out of respect to their dignity,[23] and also to strengthen his own
hands by having them about him as advisers. This latter reason may
also well have weighed with Abu Bekr, who used to take counsel on
all important matters with the leading Companions. Still, it is singular
that men like Aly and Zobeir, who took so prominent a part in the
battles of Mahomet, should now altogether disappear from
operations in the field.