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Igor A. Karnovsky
Olga Lebed
Advanced
Methods
of Structural
Analysis
Second Edition
Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis
Igor A. Karnovsky • Olga Lebed
Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis

Strength, Stability, Vibration
Second Edition
Igor A. Karnovsky Olga Lebed
811 Northview Pl. 811 Northview Pl.
Coquitlam, BC, Canada Coquitlam, BC, Canada
ISBN 978-3-030-44393-1 ISBN 978-3-030-44394-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44394-8
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific
statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Book Road Map
Ch1. Kinematical Introduction Stability and

Analysis • Vibration
Principal
•
Assumptions Ch15. Stability of
•
• Elastic Systems
• Design Diagram
Analysis of different Ch16. Free Vibration

Different methods of • of Elastic Systems
types of statically • Ch2. General Theory
analysis of redundant
determinate structures of Influence Lines
structures
Ch3. Multispan • Ch17. Forced Vibration
Ch9. Force Method •
Hinged Beams Ch8. Deflection of of Elastic Systems
and Frames Elastic Structures
Initial Parameters • Ch10.

Ch4. Plane Trusses Method Displacement Ch18. Special Topics
• Method of Structural Dynamics
Ch5. Space Trusses • Mohr integral
Ch11. Mixed
Ch6. Three-Hinged Vereshchagin rule • Method
Non-classical Topics
Arches
Elastic load
method Ch12. Influence Ch14. Plastic Analysis
Ch7. Cables of Structures
Line Method
More detail
Section 8.11
Ch13. Matrix Ch19. Nonlinear
Ch20. Once More about • Stiffness Method Structural Analysis
Modeling of Structures Reciprocal theorems
•
• •
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of the book entitled “Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis” (593 pages) was published by Springer
Publishing House in 2010 (Karnovsky and Lebed 2010). Authors present the second revised and expanded edition of the
textbook under the extended name “Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis: Strength, Stability, Vibration.”
The authors retained the general structure of the first edition of the book Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis, but in
the second edition of the book key concepts have been added, new chapters have been introduced, and existing chapters have
been significantly expanded. These additions relate to the theory, analysis procedures, detailed illustrative examples, and
discussion of the results and comments.
All additions pursued the following purposes:
• Draw reader’s attention to the conceptual provisions that go through the whole course of the theory of structural mechanics.
Among them are design diagram of a structure, equilibrium conditions for the whole system and any part of it,
correspondence of the stress-deformable state of the system to the superimposed constraints, and invariance of the analysis
results from the accepted method of analysis of the structure.
• Acquaint the reader with some questions of the theory of structures that are insufficiently covered in the educational
literature or even completely absent in them.
• Expand the scope of the classical methods used for analyzing the mechanics of rod systems, and show typical examples of
the advantages and disadvantages of analysis methods.
• Prepare the reader for the idea of presentation of the structure by different design diagrams and justification of its final
version that meets various but often contradictory requirements.
The following six new chapters have been introduced:
Chapter 5: Space Frameworks. The reader is provided with detailed information about the methods of formation of spatial
rod structures, the conditions of attachment to the base, and the method of connecting two 3-D structures. Attached and
released framework concepts are introduced. Various types of spatial structures (meshwork structures, compound, complex
space frameworks) and procedure for their analysis are discussed. Detailed analysis of the Schwedler’s dome is presented.
Chapter 17: Dynamics of Elastic Systems. Forced Vibration. This chapter is devoted to the dynamic analysis of structures
with finite and infinite number of degrees of freedom subjected to force and kinematical excitations. The steady-state and
transitional vibrations are considered. Dynamical analysis is carried out in terms inherent to the deformable structures
adopted in the classical course of structural mechanics. The continuity of classic analysis methods (such as force and
displacement methods, initial parameter method) to the problems of dynamic behavior of deformable systems is presented.
Material covered in new Chapters 5 and 17 is considered within the framework of classical assumptions.
Chapter 18: Special Topics of Structural Dynamics*. The peculiarity of this chapter is that each paragraph of this chapter
contains an additional assumption that does not contradict the assumptions adopted in the classical structural analysis. This
allows for constructing a refined mathematical model of the object, discovering new qualitative aspects of system behavior,
and explaining the paradoxes arising under the classical assumptions.
Chapter 19: Nonlinear Structural Analysis*. A feature of this chapter is that each paragraph of this chapter contains a
rejection of at least one of the conventional assumptions of the classical structural analysis. The need to consider such
problems is that in an arbitrary deformable system inevitably there are various kinds of nonlinearity. Taking them into
account allows discovering new effects inherent to a real structure. Analytical solutions of a number of nonlinear problems
of strength, stability, and vibrations of beams are presented; these solutions can be considered as test result for an alternate
method.
Chapter 20: Once More About Modeling of Structures. This chapter summarizes modeling deformable structures. The
chapter contains requirements and factors influencing the choice of design diagram as well as concepts for transition from a
constructive scheme of a structure to its design diagram. It also notes an inevitable trade-off between a detailed design
vii
viii Preface to the Second Edition
diagram, for which precise results can be obtained, and a simplified diagram, for which less accurate results can be
obtained. This chapter also discusses the difference between analysis of a structure and direct design of a structure.
Chapter 21: Fundamental Developments in the History of Structural Mechanics. This chapter covers only two stages—
the period of the formation of the science of strength (1638–1826) and the creation of the classical theory of structures itself
(from 1826). The following set of issues are discussed: the objective reasons behind deadlock state of the limit state
method, the essence of the Claude-Louis Navier reform (1826) and the need to switch from the limit state method to the
working state method, the difference between these methods, and the disadvantages and merits of structural analysis
utilizing the working state method.
The following additions have been made:
Introduction is substantially revised and supplemented. The subject of detailed discussion is the concept of design diagram,
which is the cornerstone of structural mechanics course, and determines the behavior of the system and the method of its
analysis.
Chapter 8: A number of classical methods for determining displacements are added (a fictitious beam method, energy
methods, the principle of the smallest work, etc.).
Chapter 9: Classical methods of beam analysis are added (three moment equations and focal ratio method).
Chapter 16: A new material related to the application of the method of initial parameters (16.4.4–16.4.5) and the method of
displacements (16.4.6) in problems of dynamics is added.
Chapters 2–4: Construction of influence lines by kinematical method for beams and plane trusses is added.
Also, examples are added in separate chapters; reference material in the Appendix and the list of bibliography are expanded.
Much attention is paid to verifying the results obtained by applying different methods of analysis to the same design
diagram. Solving problems of a certain class using various methods allows the reader to compare their effectiveness and
evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. This approach is of great methodological significance, since it allows formulating
recommendations with an indication of the limits of the effective application of methods.
Authors will appreciate comments and suggestions to improve the current edition. All constructive criticism will be
accepted with gratitude.
Vancouver, Canada Igor A. Karnovsky

Olga I. Lebed
Preface to the First Edition
Theory of the engineering structures is a fundamental science. Statements and methods of this science are widely used in
different fields of engineering. Among them are the civil engineering, shipbuilding, aircraft, robotics, space structures, as well
as numerous structures of special types and purposes—bridges, towers, etc. In recent years, even micromechanical devices
have become objects of structural analysis.
Theory of the engineering structures is alive and is a very vigorous science. This theory offers an engineer-designer a vast
collection of classical methods of analysis of various types of structures. These methods contain in-depth fundamental ideas
and, at the present time, they are developed with sufficient completeness and commonness, aligned in a well-composed
system of conceptions, procedures, and algorithms; use modern mathematical techniques; and are brought to elegant
simplicity and perfection.
We now live in a computerized world. A role and influence of modern engineering software for the analysis of structures
cannot be overestimated. The modern computer programs allow providing different types of analysis for any sophisticated
structure. As this takes place, what is the role of classical theory of structures with its in-depth ideas, prominent conceptions,
methods, theorems, and principles? Knowing classical methods of structural analysis is necessary for any practical engineer.
An engineer cannot rely only on the results provided by a computer. Computer is a great help in modeling different situations
and speeding up the process of calculations, but it is the sole responsibility of an engineer to check the results obtained by a
computer. If users of computer engineering software do not have sufficient knowledge of fundamentals of structural analysis
and understanding of physical theories and principal properties of structures, then he/she cannot check obtained numerical
results and their correspondence to an adopted design diagram, as well as explain results obtained by a computer. Computer
programs “. . . can make a good engineer better, but it can make a poor engineer more dangerous” [Cook R.D., Malkus D.S.,
Plesha M. E (1989) Concepts and applications of finite element analysis, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York]. Only the knowledge of
fundamental theory of structures allows to estimate and analyze numerical data obtained from a computer; predict the
behavior of a structure as a result of changing a design diagram and parameters; design a structure which satisfies certain
requirements; perform serious scientific analysis; and make valid theoretical generalizations. No matter how sophisticated the
structural model is, no matter how effective the numerical algorithms are, no matter how powerful the computers are that
implement these algorithms, it is the engineer who analyzes the end result produced from these algorithms. Only an individual
who has a deep knowledge and understanding of the structural model and analysis techniques can produce a qualitative
analysis.
In 1970s, one of the authors of this book was a professor at a structural engineering university in Ukraine. At that time,
computers were started to be implemented in all fields of science, structural analysis being one of them. We, the professors and
instructors, were facing a serious methodical dilemma: Given the new technologies, how to properly teach the students?
Would we first give students a strong basis in classical structural analysis and then introduce them to the related software, or
would we directly dive into the software after giving the students a relatively insignificant introduction to classical analysis?
We did not know an optimal way to solve this problem. On this subject we have conducted seminars and discussions on a
regular basis. We have used these two main teaching models, and many different variations of them. The result was somewhat
surprising. The students that were first given a strong foundation in structural analysis quickly learned how to use the
computer software, and were able to give a good qualitative analysis of the results. The students that were given a brief
introduction to structural analysis and a strong emphasis on the computer software at the end were not able to provide
qualitative results of the analysis. The interesting thing is that the students themselves were criticizing the latter teaching
strategy.
Therefore, our vision of teaching of structural analysis is as follows: in the first step, it is necessary to learn analytical
methods, perform detailed analysis of different structures by hand in order to feel the behavior of structures, and correlate their
behavior with obtained results; the second step is a computer application of engineering software.
Authors wrote the book on the basis of their many years of experience of teaching the structural analysis at the universities
for graduate and postgraduate students as well as on the basis of their experience in consulting companies.
ix
x Preface to the First Edition
This book is written for students of universities and colleges pursuing civil or structural engineering programs, instructors
of structural analysis, and engineers and designers of different structures of modern engineering.
The objective of the book is to help a reader to develop an understanding of the ideas and methods of structural analysis and
to teach a reader to estimate and explain numerical results obtained by hand; this is a fundamental stone for preparation of
readers for numerical analysis of structures and for use of engineering software with full understanding.
The textbook offers the reader the fundamental theoretical concepts of structural analysis, classical analytical methods,
algorithms of their application, comparison of different methods, and a vast collection of distinctive problems with their
detailed solution, explanation, analysis, and discussion of results; many of the problems have a complex character. Considered
examples demonstrate features of structures, their behavior, and peculiarities of applied methods. Solution of all the problems
is brought to a final formula or number.
Analyses of the following structures are considered: statically determinate and indeterminate multi-span beams, arches,
trusses, and frames. These structures are subjected to fixed and moving loads, changes of temperature, settlement of supports,
and errors of fabrication. Also, the cables are considered in detail.
In many cases, same structure under different external actions is analyzed. It allows the reader to be concentrated on one
design diagram and perform complex analysis of behavior of a structure.
In many cases, same structure is analyzed by different methods or by one method in different forms (for example,
displacement method in canonical and matrix forms). It allows to perform comparison analysis of applied methods and see
advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Part I Statically Determinate Structures

1 Kinematical Analysis of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Classification of Structures by Kinematical Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Generation of Geometrically Unchangeable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Required and Redundant Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Constraint Replacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Analytical Criteria of the Instantaneously Changeable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Null Load Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 The Simplest Beams: Theory of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Analytical Method for Construction of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Influence Lines for Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Influence Lines for Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Application of Influence Lines for Fixed and Moving Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 Fixed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Moving Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.3 Envelope Diagrams of Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 Absolute Maximum of Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Indirect Load Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Kinematical Method for Construction of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5.1 Influence Line for Bending Moment at Section k, IL(Mk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5.2 Influence Line for Shear Force at Section k, IL(Qk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Combining of Fixed and Moving Load Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 Properties of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Multispan Hinged Beams and Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Generation of Multispan Hinged Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Interaction Diagrams and Load Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Fixed Load Method for Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Influence Lines for Reactions and Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.1 Static Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.2 Kinematical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.3 Indirect Load Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
xi
xii Contents
3.5 Fixed Load Method for Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4 Plane Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1.1 Classification of the Plane Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1.2 Assumptions and Design Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 The Generation of Statically Determinate Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.1 Simple Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.2 Compound Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.3 Complex Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3 Simple Trusses: Fixed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.1 Analytical Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.2 Maxwell–Cremona Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Simple Trusses: Influence Line Method—Static Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5 Trusses with Subdivided Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5.1 Main and Auxiliary Trusses and Load Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5.2 Single-Tiered Auxiliary Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5.3 Two-Tiered Auxiliary Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6 Special Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6.1 Three-Hinged Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6.2 Trusses with a Hinged Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.7 Kinematical Method for Construction of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.8 Complex Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.8.1 Substitution Bar Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.8.2 Closed Section Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.8.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 Space Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 General Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Classification of the Space Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.1 Method of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.2 Three-Dimensional Engineering Rod Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 Space Framework Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4 Kinematical Analysis of Space Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.1 Attached and Released Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.2 Improper Connections of 3-D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.3 Meshwork Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5 Static Analysis of 3-D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.5.2 Meshwork Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5.3 Compound Space Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.5.4 Complex Space Frameworks: The Rod Replacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.5.5 Schwedler Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6 Three-Hinged Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Preliminary Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1.1 Design Diagram of Three-Hinged Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1.2 Peculiarities of the Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.1.3 Geometric Parameters of Circular and Parabolic Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Contents xiii
6.2 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

6.2.1 Concept of Substitute Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.2 Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.3 Maximum Economy Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3 Influence Lines for Reactions and Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3.1 Influence Lines for Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3.2 Influence Lines for Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.3.3 Application of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.4 Nil Point Method for Construction of Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.4.1 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.4.2 Shear Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.3 Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.5 Special Types of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.5.1 Askew Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.5.2 Parabolic Arch with Complex Tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.1 Preliminary Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.1.1 Direct and Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.1.2 Fundamental Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2 Cable with Neglected Self-Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.2.1 Cables Subjected to Concentrated Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.2.2 Cable Subjected to Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.3 Effect of Arbitrary Load on the Thrust and Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.4 Cable with Self-Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.1 Fundamental Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.2 Cable with Supports Located at the Same Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.3 Cable with Supports Located on Different Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.5 Comparison of Parabolic and Catenary Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.6 Effect of Axial Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.6.1 Elastic Cable with Concentrated Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.6.2 Elastic Cable with Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8 Deflections of Elastic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2 Double Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3 Initial Parameter Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3.1 Universal Equation of Elastic Curve of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3.2 Beam Subjected to Settlement of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.4 Conjugate Beam Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.5 Strain Energy Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.5.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.5.2 Work-Energy Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.5.3 Castigliano’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.5.4 Principle of Least Work (Menabrea Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.6 Maxwell–Mohr Method (Dummy Load Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6.1 Deflections Due to Fixed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6.2 Deflections Due to Change of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.7 Displacement Due to Settlement of Supports and Errors of Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
xiv Contents
8.8 Graph Multiplication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

8.9 Elastic Load Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.10 Reciprocal Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.10.1 Reciprocal Work Theorem (Betti’s Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.10.2 Reciprocal Unit Displacement Theorem (Maxwell’s Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.10.3 Reciprocal Unit Reaction Theorem (Rayleigh’s First Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.10.4 Reciprocal Unit Displacement and Reaction Theorem (Rayleigh’s Second Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Part II Statically Indeterminate Structures

9 The Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.1 Fundamental Idea of the Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.1.1 Degree of Redundancy, Primary Unknowns, and Primary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.1.2 Compatibility Equation in Simplest Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9.2 Canonical Equations of Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9.2.1 The Concept of Unit Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.2.2 Coefficients and Free Terms of Canonical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.3 Analysis of Redundant Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.3.1 Canonical Equation of the Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.3.2 The Three-Moment Equation (Clapeyron Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.3.3 Focal Ratios Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.3.4 Redundant Beam with Intermediate Hinge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
9.4 Redundant Plane Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.4.1 Frames of the First Degree of Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.4.2 Frames of the Second and More Degree of Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.4.3 Frame with Closed Contour. Elastic Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.4.4 Frame with Elastically Compliant Supports and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.5 Redundant Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.5.1 Externally Redundant Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.5.2 Internally Redundant Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.5.3 Some Properties of Redundant Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.6 Redundant Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
9.6.1 Parabolic Two-Hinged Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.6.2 Circular Arch with Clamped Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
9.6.3 Analysis of Parabolic Arch on the Basis of Modified Design Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.7 Combined Redundant Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.8 Deflections of Statically Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.9 Settlements of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.9.1 Internal Forces due to the Settlements of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9.9.2 Displacements Due to the Settlements of Supports. Modified Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.10 Temperature Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.10.2 Redundant Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.10.3 Redundant Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.10.4 Redundant Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.11 Some Features of Redundant Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
9.12 Comparison of the Redundant and Statically Determinate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
9.12.1 Additional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
10 The Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
10.1 Fundamental Idea of the Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
10.1.1 Kinematical Indeterminacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Contents xv
10.1.2 Primary System and Primary Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

10.1.3 Compatibility Equation: Concept of Unit Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
10.2 Canonical Equations of Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.2.1 Compatibility Equations in General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.2.2 Calculation of Unit Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.2.3 Properties of Unit Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
10.2.4 Procedure for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
10.3 Comparison of the Force and Displacement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
10.3.1 Properties of Canonical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.3.2 Variations of Design Diagrams and Choice of Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.4 Sidesway Frames with Absolutely Rigid Crossbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
10.5 Special Types of Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
10.5.1 Settlements of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
10.5.2 Errors of Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
10.6 Analysis of Symmetrical Structures: Combined Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
10.6.1 Symmetrical and Antisymmetrical Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
10.6.2 Concept of Half-Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
11 Mixed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
11.1 Fundamental Idea of the Mixed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
11.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
11.1.2 Mixed Indeterminacy, Primary Unknowns, and Primary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.2 Canonical Equations of the Mixed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.2.1 The Matter of Unit Coefficients and Canonical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.2.2 Calculation of Coefficients and Free Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.2.3 Computation of Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
12 Influence Lines Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
12.1 Construction of Influence Lines by the Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
12.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
12.1.2 Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
12.1.3 Hingeless Nonuniform Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
12.1.4 Statically Indeterminate Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
12.2 Construction of Influence Lines by the Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
12.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
12.2.2 Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
12.2.3 Redundant Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
12.3 Comparison of the Force and Displacement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
12.4 Kinematical Method (Müller-Breslau Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
12.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
12.4.2 Continuous Beams: Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
12.4.3 Continuous Beams: Models of Influence lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
13 Matrix Stiffness Methòd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
13.1 Basic Idea and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
13.1.1 Finite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
13.1.2 Global and Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
13.1.3 Displacements of Joints and Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.2 Auxiliary Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.2.1 Joint–Load (J-L) Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.2.2 Displacement–Load (Z-P) Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
13.2.3 Internal Forces–Deformation (S-e) Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
13.3 Initial Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
xvi Contents
13.3.1 Vector of External Joint Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

13.3.2 Vector of Internal Unknown Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
13.4 Resolving Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
13.4.1 Static Equations and Static Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
13.4.2 Geometrical Equations and Deformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
13.4.3 Physical Equations and Stiffness Matrix in Local Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
13.5 Set of Formulas and Procedure for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
13.5.1 Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
13.5.2 Unknown Displacements and Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
13.5.3 Matrix Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
13.6 Analysis of Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
13.6.1 Fixed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
13.6.2 Settlements of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
13.6.3 Moving Load (Construction of Influence Lines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
13.7 Analysis of Redundant Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
13.8 Analysis of Redundant Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
13.9 Stiffness Matrices: Expanded Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
13.9.1 Truss Element (Pinned-Pinned Element) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
13.9.2 Beam Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
13.9.3 More General Case of a Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
13.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Part III Special Topics

14 Plastic Behavior of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
14.1 Idealized Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
14.2 Direct Method of Plastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
14.2.1 Elastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
14.2.2 Plastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
14.3 Fundamental Methods of Plastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
14.3.1 Kinematical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
14.3.2 Static Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
14.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
14.4 Plastic Analysis of Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
14.4.1 Static Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
14.4.2 Kinematical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
14.4.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
14.5 Plastic Analysis of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
14.5.1 Beam Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
14.5.2 Sidesway Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
14.5.3 Combined Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
14.5.4 Limit Combination Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
15 Stability of Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
15.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
15.2 Stability of Structures with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
15.2.1 Structures with One Degree of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
15.2.2 Structures with Two or More Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
15.3 Stability of Columns with Rigid and Elastic Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
15.3.1 The Double Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
15.3.2 Initial Parameters Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
15.3.3 Euler’s Solution and Paradox of Critical Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
15.4 Stability of Continuous Beams and Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Contents xvii
15.4.1 Unit Reactions of the Beam-Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

15.4.2 Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
15.4.3 Modified Approach of the Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
15.5 Stability of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
15.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
15.5.2 Circular Arches under Hydrostatic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
15.5.3 Complex Arched Structure: Arch with Elastic Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
15.5.4 Parabolic Arch under Gravity Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
16 Dynamics of Elastic Systems: Free Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
16.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
16.1.1 Kinematics of Vibrating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
16.1.2 Forces Which Arise at Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
16.1.3 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
16.1.4 Purpose of Structural Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
16.2 Systems with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom: Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
16.2.1 Differential Equations of Free Vibration in Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
16.2.2 Frequency Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
16.2.3 Mode Shapes of Vibration and Modal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
16.3 Systems with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom: Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
16.3.1 Differential Equations of Free Vibration in Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
16.3.2 Frequency Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
16.3.3 Mode Shape of Vibrations and Modal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
16.3.4 Comparison of the Force and Displacement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
16.4 Structures with Infinite Number of Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
16.4.1 Differential Equation of Transversal Vibration of the Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
16.4.2 Fourier Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
16.4.3 Krylov-Duncan Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
16.4.5 Transfer Matrices Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
16.4.7 Missed (Unaccounted) Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
17 Dynamics of Elastic Systems: Forced Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
17.1 Structures with One Degree of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
17.1.1 Differential Equations: Two Classical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
17.1.2 Types of Excitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
17.1.3 Duhamel Integral and Some Special Types of Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
17.1.4 Harmonic Excitation: Equivalent Design Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
17.1.5 Kinematical Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
17.2 Structures with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom: The Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
17.2.1 Resolving Equation of the Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
17.2.2 Harmonic Excitation: Reciprocal Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
17.2.3 Impulsive Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
17.2.4 General Case of Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
17.3 Structures with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom: Initial Parameters Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
17.3.1 Resolving Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
17.3.2 Steady-State Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
17.4 Structures with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom: Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
17.4.1 The Steady-State Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
17.4.2 Group Unknowns Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
17.5 Structures with Distributed Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
17.5.1 Initial Parameter Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
xviii Contents

17.5.3 Bolotin Approximate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Problems . . . ........................................................................ . 685
17.5.1 Structures with Finite Number of Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
18 Special Topics of Structural Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
18.1 Timoshenko-Ehrenfest Beam Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
18.2 Flexural Vibration of Compressed Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
18.2.1 Fundamental Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
18.2.2 Galef’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
18.3 Traveling Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
18.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
18.3.2 Quasi-Static Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
18.3.3 Critical Velocity of Moving Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
18.4 Parametric Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
18.4.1 Dynamic Stability of Simply Supported Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
18.4.2 Ince-Strutt Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
18.5 Vibration Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
18.5.1 Vibration Protection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
18.5.2 Dynamic Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
18.5.3 Lumped Vibration Absorber of the Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
19 Nonlinear Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
19.1 Introduction and Types of Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
19.2 Compressed Rods with Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
19.2.1 Double Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
19.2.3 P-Δ Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
19.3 Static Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
19.3.1 Features of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
19.3.2 Transversal Vibration of a Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
19.4 Physical Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
19.4.1 Features of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
19.4.2 Transversal Free Vibration of Uniform Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
19.5 Geometrical Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
19.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
19.5.2 Stability of a Flexible Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
20 Conclusion: Once More About Modeling of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
20.1 Some Problems of Structural Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
20.2 Common Modeling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
20.3 Differences Between Structural Analysis and Direct Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
21 Fundamental Developments in the History of Structural Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Introduction
The knowledge of certain principles easily

supplies the knowledge of certain facts
Claude Adrien Helvétius
Essays on the Mind. Essay III, Chap.1, page 196;
A Speech lately made in the Court of King’s Bench:
The Oxford Magazine, July, 1768, page 11.
Entities should not be multiplied
without necessity
William Ockham’s razor
The Introduction contains general information about important concepts in the course of structural mechanics. This includes
the subject and purpose of the course, assumptions, classification of possible types of analysis of engineering structures, and
fundamental concept “design diagram of a structure,” which penetrates absolutely in all sections of the course. Also, loadings
and modeling of some structural members are discussed.
The Subject and Purposes of the Structural Mechanics
The subject and purposes of the theory of structures in the broad sense is the branch of applied engineering that deals with the
methods of analysis of structures of different types and purposes subjected to arbitrary types of external exposures. Analysis of
a structure implies its investigation from the viewpoint of its static behavior (strength and stiffness), stability, and vibration.
The purpose of analysis of a structure from a viewpoint of its strength is determining internal forces, which arise in all
members of a structure subjected to the time-independent external exposures, and displacements of specified points of a
structure as a result of external exposures. The internal forces produce stresses; the strength of each member of a structure will
be provided if their stresses are less than or equal to permission ones. The stiffness of a structure will be provided if its
displacements are less than or equal to permission ones.
The purpose of stability analysis is to determine the compressive loads on the structure elements, which leads to the
appearance of new forms of equilibrium. The transition to a new form usually occurs suddenly and leads to collapse of a
structure; the corresponding loads are referred to as critical ones. The stability of a structure will be provided if acting loads
are less than the critical ones.
The purpose of the free vibration analysis of the structure is to determine the frequencies and corresponding shapes of the
vibration. These data are necessary for the analysis of the forced vibration.
The purpose of the forced vibration analysis is to determine the response of the structure subjected to arbitrary time-
depending excitation, to estimate the effect of such disturbance and to avoid dangerous phenomenon (a resonance), at which a
sharp increase in the amplitudes of vibration occurs. Both sections—free and forced vibration analysis—are united by the
common title dynamic (or vibration) analysis.
These sections—strength, stability, and vibration—constitute the structural mechanics. Other identical names of this
science are structural analysis, theory of engineering structures, classic theory of structures, etc. The term “classic” means
each section of the course of structural mechanics contains rigorous analytical methods. These methods are based on a number
of assumptions and deep ideas that provide analytical solutions. It is important that these solutions can be tested by various
methods and therefore can be considered as classical solutions.
In the classic course of structural mechanics, the object of research is the rod structures. This choice is easy to justify. First
of all, rod systems are widely used in real engineering structures. Then, the rod systems are a simple elastically deformable
xix
xx Introduction
object, where new concepts and methods can be easily tested and mastered. Finally, structural mechanics immediately follows
the first engineering discipline “Mechanics of Materials,” which considers a single rod as the main object of research. It is in
this course that the reader receives the first information about analytical methods for analyzing the stress-strain state of elastic
elements subjected to various kind of influences.
With the development of the science of strength there are many associated names of eminent scientists. Origins of
mechanics of materials and structural mechanics as the strength sciences are linked to names of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–
1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). Robert Hooke (1635–1703) and Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) independently
suggested ratios that are fundamental to the modern classical theory of structures. The further development of these sciences
is associated with the names of Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705), L. Euler (1707–1783), J.L. Lagrange (1736–1813), C.L. Navier
(1785–1836), J.C. Maxwell (1831–1879), О. Моhr (1835–1918), G. Lamè (1795–1870), B.P.E. Clapeyron (1799–1864),
C.A. Castigliano (1847–1884), Barre de Saint-Venant (1797–1886), J.A.C. Bresse (1822–1883), Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919),
and many others. They enriched science with new problem statements, introduced rich fundamental ideas, and developed new
theorems and methods for solving problems. Thanks to their works, the modern classical structural mechanics is distinguished
by elegant simplicity and perfection. Since the emergence of new concepts is not very frequent, the variability of primary
concepts and methods of the classical structural analysis (mechanics) is low.
Inquiries of practice lead to the emergence of new materials, structures, new operating conditions, and increased
requirements for the reliability of engineering structures. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, a rapid development
of various sections of the mechanics of a solid deformable body has occurred. Among them are new sections of science
(plasticity, creep, rheology); new materials (nonlinear, composite, anisotropic); new thin-walled structural elements (plates
and shells); new directions in science (nonlinear analysis, dynamic stability, theory of reliability, theory of optimal structures,
finite element method), etc.
A huge team of scientists in different countries is effectively working in these and related areas. In any engineering product,
in one form or another, the achievements and results of the science of strength are always present. Characteristic of modern
mechanics of deformable body is the use of a serious mathematical apparatus and the extensive use of powerful computers.
A number of current trends in the structural mechanics should be noted:
• Design and analysis of special-purpose structures (ships, planes, ocean platforms, space technology)
• Design and analysis of units with intensive dynamic loads and heavy operating modes (rotary excavators, pipe rolling
units)
• Analysis of structures under special effects (blast waves, nuclear explosion), taking into account the physics-chemical
processes occurring in them (corrosion), under special operating conditions (weightlessness, radiation, and thermal
effects), etc.
• Protection of structures from harmful effects (radiations, dynamics)
• Optimal design of structures
• Analysis of structures during their operation under conditions of loading uncertainty
This series of actively developed areas is far from complete, but for the reader who begins to explore classical structural
mechanics, this short list will be useful.
Modeling of Engineering Structures and Principal Assumptions
All types of structural analysis of an arbitrary engineering structure are performed on the basis of replacing the actual structure
with its idealized scheme. Idealization of the system is carried out in three main directions. They are (1) idealization of
geometric shapes, connections, and supports; the result of these idealizations is the design diagram of structure; (2) idealization
of material properties; and (3) idealization of the load. This whole set of issues is called the modeling of engineering
structures.
Design Diagram
Real structures (residential buildings, bridges and towers, diversified industrial structures, ships and aircrafts, etc.) are
characterized, as a rule, by the complexity and variety of constructive forms. It is impossible to carry out an analysis of the
structure, taking into account all its design features, and there is no need for this, since many features have an insignificant
Introduction xxi
effect on the operation of the structure. Therefore, when analyzing a real structure, its constructive scheme (type of structure,
its elements, connections, supports, etc.) is replaced by its design diagram, which is an idealized and simplified model of a
structure. This diagram reflects only the basic properties of a real structure. The design diagram of a structure is one of the
most important concepts of the theory of structures.
The choice of the design diagram and its justification is the first and exclusively responsible stage of the structural analysis.
This choice depends on many factors. Among them are the purpose of a structure and the conditions of its operation, the type
and objective of the analysis, the required accuracy of computations and available software, etc. A small refinement of the
design diagram can lead to significant complication of the analysis, while a simplified design diagram can lead to an
unacceptable error.
One of the principal requirements for the choice of the design diagram is taking into account the constructive features of a
structure that significantly affect its behavior. Among the most important features of any structure are the following:
– Types of members of the structure
– Types of supports
– Type of connections
Among characteristics of the secondary importance are shapes of cross sections of members, existence of local reinforcements
or holes, size of supports and joints, types of member connections (welding, riveting, bolts), etc.
Few general rules of representing a real structure by its design diagram are the following:
– A structure itself is presented as a set of simple structural members.
– Real supports are replaced by their idealized supports.
– Any connection between elements of a structure is replaced by idealized joints.
– Cross section of any member is characterized by it area and/or moment of inertia.
Let us consider each of these elements of the design diagram.
1. Types of members: In many engineering structures, it is possible to discern one-dimensional members, for which one
dimension (length) substantially exceeds two other sizes (width and thickness). Such an element is called a rod. An
example of rod structures is a bridge truss, a power line pylon, etc. The axis of the rod can be straight as well as curvilinear.
In the last case, the curvature of the rod is assumed to be natural, but not the result of deformation of the rod. If the rod
experiences bending deformations, then it is called a beam. One-dimensional flexible elements that perceive only axial
tensile forces are called cables. They are used as the main element in suspension bridges.
It is possible to use two-dimensional elements for which two dimensions (length and width) are significantly larger than
the third dimension (thickness). If the surface of a two-dimensional element is flat, then such an element is called a plate,
otherwise—a shell. There are shells of various types. Among them are cylindrical shell, spherical shell, cylindrical panel,
and others. The rocket body is a cylindrical shell. The hull of the fuselage, wing of the aircraft, and the hull of the ship can
be represented as a set of plates and shells with reinforcing one-dimensional elements. The analysis of the stress-strain state
of such systems is carried out using the theory of plates and shells.
Three-dimensional elements are possible, for which all three dimensions (length, width, and thickness) are comparable.
Such elements are called solid (massive). Analysis of the stress-strain state of such bodies is performed by the methods of
the theory of elasticity.
Structures formed from the above members are called the bar structures, plate (shell) structures, and solid structures
(massive), respectively. These structures are presented in Fig. 1.
In this book only one-dimensional members (bar structures and cabled structures) are considered. Bar (rod) structures
may be planar and space structures. Planar structures contain all members and loads in one plane. Pure planar structures
seldom occur in engineering. However, the regular space structures often may be presented as a set of planar structures with
loads lying in its plane. A simplest example is a bridge, which contains two braced trusses with a load between them.
Analysis of this spatial structure may be performed with sufficient accuracy on a base of one planar truss.
a b c
Fig. 1 Structures formed from different members: (a) Bar structure; (b) plate structure; (c) solid structure
xxii Introduction
On the design diagram, the elements of structure are depicted by axial lines. The design diagram also contains idealized
supports and idealized connections of elements (idealized joints), dimensions of the structure, elastic characteristics of the
material, and geometric characteristics of the cross section of each element. It is convenient to use relative units: if the
bending stiffness of two elements differs twice, then it is convenient to treat the smallest stiffness as 1ЕI, and then the
stiffness of the second element will be equal to 2ЕI. This allows us to consider this design diagram for similar structures
with different stiffness EI.
2. Types of supports: The supports of any structure may be rigid or contain elastic members. Rigid supports and their
kinematical and static characteristics are presented in Table 1. This table also contains the elastic curves near each support;
these curves are shown by dotted line. Kinematical characteristics of the support show its ability for displacement; static
characteristics of the support show its ability to perceive the load.
Table 1 Types of the supports and their characteristics
Hinged movable Hinged immovable Clamped support Sliding support

support (roller) support (pinned) (fixed, built-in)
Presentation Δhor
H H H
of supports,
displacements θ θ M M Δvert
and reactions R R
R
Δvert = 0 Δvert = 0 Δvert = 0 Δ vert ≠ 0
Kinematical Δhor ≠ 0 Δhor = 0 Δhor = 0 Δ hor = 0
characteristics θ =0 θ =0 θ =0 θ =0
R≠0 R=0 H=0
Static R≠0 H≠0 H≠0 M≠0
characteristics M≠0
• Roller support (hinged movable support): Schematically, this support is represented by one support bar with two ideal
hinged ends. This support prevents displacement along the support bar; thus, reaction R of this support passes along
support’s element. This support allows two displacements at the end of the member’s structure, such as angular
displacement θ and linear displacement Δhor in direction, which is perpendicular to the support bar.
• Pinned support (hinged immovable support): Schematically, this support is represented by two support bars with ideal
hinges at their ends. This support prevents displacement in two mutually perpendicular displacements and allows only
angular displacement θ. Reaction of this support passes through the top hinge, but direction of this reaction remains
unknown. This reaction can be resolved into two components of any direction.
• Clamped support (fixed support): This support completely excludes linear and angular displacements at the support
point. Three unknown reactions (two forces and a moment) arise in this support.
• Sliding support: This support allows only vertical displacement Δvert of the end of the member while the horizontal
displacement and the angle of rotation are equal to zero. One unknown force and moment arise at this support.
The static and kinematic characteristics are interrelated as follows: if displacement (linear, angular) is possible, then
there is no corresponding reaction (force, moment) and vice versa, if reaction is possible, then there is no corresponding
displacement. Note that the type of reaction (force, moment) depends only on the type of support, but not on the loads,
while the value of reaction depends on type, value, and direction of external loads.
All constraints, presented in Table 1, are two-side supports. It means that if constraint prevents displacement in any
direction, then it prevents displacement in the opposite direction also. The one-side constraint means that the support
prevents displacement in one direction and allows displacement in the opposite direction. In classical structural
mechanics, only two-side supports are considered. In addition to the marked supports, the elastic supports should be
noted; their properties will be considered in the special sections.
3. Types of connection of elements: The members of a structure may be connected together in various ways. In real systems,
the connection of two and more rods is elastic compliant; two limiting cases lead to the rigid and hinge joint.
In general, three classical types of connections of one-dimensional elements are possible (Fig. 2).
1. Simple hinge (Fig. 2a): One hinge connects two elements in the joint. Note that, in the second sketch, shown in Fig. 2a, the
hinge does not divide a vertical element (in the third sketch the hinge does not divide a horizontal element). It means that
the hinge does not divide the element (vertical and horizontal) into two separate elements. Therefore, all three sketches in
Introduction xxiii
Fig. 2a present two-rod joint (connection). Hinged joint can transmit axial and shear forces from one part of the structure to
the other; the bending moment at the hinge itself is equal to zero.
2. Multiple hinge (Fig. 2b): The hinge is put into the vertical element, that is, divided into two separate elements.
Equivalent presentation of multiple hinge is shown in the second sketch in Fig. 2b. Thus, multiple hinge connects three
(or more) elements in the joint. The multiple hinge is equivalent to n1 simple hinges, where n is a number of members
connected in the joint.
3. Rigid joint which connects two elements, 1 and 2, is shown in Fig. 2c. The internal forces (axial N, shear Q, and moment
M ) in sections infinitely close to the geometric center of the joint are shown in Fig. 2c. From a static point of view, a rigid
connection of two elements means the transfer of a bending moment from the end section of one element to the end section
of another element without change. From the kinematic point of view, the rigid connection of two elements means that the
joint can displace and rotate as a whole; however, mutual angular displacement of two sections located infinitely close to
the geometric center of the joint is zero. The properties of the elastic joints will be considered in the special sections of the
textbook.
a b c M2
2
N2
1
Q1
Q2
M1
N1
Fig. 2 Types of joints of a structure: (a) simple hinge; (b) multiple hinge; (c) rigid joint and internal forces in the vicinity of joint
The type of connection of the elements, type of supports, and loads determine the nature of the deformation of the entire
structure, distribution of internal forces, method, and procedure for its analysis.
Figure 3a shows the structure with rigid joints. Elastic line of a structure is shown by dotted line. In the fixed support A,
according to Table 1, the angle of rotation (slope) is equal to zero; in the hinge support B the slope φ is not equal to zero. If in
the rigid joint C the angle between the elements before load application is α, and then after the deformation it remains the
same.
a b F F c F F
M1 M2
F C 2
1
α α
1 2
φ R1 R2 R1 R2
A B
Fig. 3 Portal frames with different types of supports and joints. (a) Deformation shape; (b, c) forces acting on the cross bar
Let the structures in Fig. 3b, c be subjected to arbitrary vertical force F. In the case of design diagram with hinged joints
(Fig. 3b), the state of cross bar does not depend on the presence of columns, and is determined only by a given load. In the case
of rigid joints (Fig. 3c), the cross bar is subjected to external load F and moments M1 and M2, which occur at the connection of
the cross bar with column. The magnitude of these moments should be determined from the analysis of the entire system as a
whole.
Idealization of Material Properties
This idealization is associated with the concepts of continuity, homogeneity, ideal elasticity, and isotropy.
The concept of continuity means that within geometric boundaries of the body, the whole medium is filled with material
completely and continuously. This concept is so universal that it should be attributed rather to the most important principle of
xxiv Introduction
the mechanics of a deformable body as a whole, but not to the narrower problem associated with the design diagram of a
structure. The concept of continuity allows using the methods of analysis of infinitely small. This concept contradicts to the
theory of the molecular structure of matter. Since we are exploring objects with sizes significantly exceeding the interatomic
distances then the use of this concept is acceptable.
The concept of homogeneity of the material means the invariability of the properties of the medium within the geometric
boundaries of the body. The continuum medium is endowed with properties that correspond to the properties of a real
material. The properties of the medium can be schematized in different ways, depending on the properties of the actual
material and the objectives of the study. In the classic course “structural mechanics,” an ideal elastic material model is
adopted. This does not exclude other models, for example, elastic-plastic and absolutely rigid. When analyzing a structure
with different material models, we do not consider changes in the crystal lattice, but only establish the external manifestations
of the processes occurring in it. Reflection of these changes is the nature of the stress-strain diagram and the numerical values
of the mechanical characteristics of the material obtained experimentally. Such an approach to the description of material
properties is called phenomenological, i.e., “describing the phenomenon.”
The concept of ideal elasticity means the ability of the body to fully restore its original shape and size after eliminating the
causes which led to deformation of the body. Behavior of a perfectly elastic material obeys Hooke’s law: The deformation of
material at each point is directly proportional to the stresses at that point. Hooke’s law is valid for many materials but at
stresses not exceeding the proportionality limit. At stresses exceeding the elastic limit, residual (plastic) deformations occur in
the material, which remain in the body after the load is removed.
The concept of isotropy of a material means that the mechanical properties of the material are the same in all directions. In
the classic course of structural mechanics an isotropic material model is adopted. Steel is one of the isotropic materials; among
anisotropic materials are wood, reinforced concrete, laminated materials, etc. Constructive anisotropy is possible, which is
related to all construction in whole. Such a structure represents a set of similar structural blocks. Constructive anisotropy can
be easily implemented in the space framework type of rod slab.
Load Idealization
The loads which act on the structure are a very important element of the design diagram. External forces can be classified by
several signs described below.
The Location of Points at Which Forces Are Applied to the Body
This is one of the most significant signs of force. On this sign, all forces are divided into superficial and volumetric.
Volumetric forces include the forces of weight, inertia, magnetic ones, etc. These forces are the result of the interaction of
bodies that are not necessarily in contact with each other; they are distributed over the volume of the body, and their dimension
is [force/length3].
Superficial forces are the result of the interaction of the given body with other bodies, the flow of liquid, etc. The contact of
the bodies always occurs at a certain pad; therefore, all interaction forces are distributed over the surface. It means that there is
no existence of the concentrated forces in nature. The unit of superficial forces is [force/length2].
If a contact area is small compared to the size of the body, then the idealized concentrated force means only the resultant of
the entire load that acts within the contact area. Idealization in the form of concentrated force is possible only in those cases,
when the stress-strain state of the system is studied “as a whole.” This idealization is governed by Saint-Venant principle
(1855), according to which in sections sufficiently distant from the places of application of the load, the deformation of the
body does not depend on the particular method of loading and is determined only by the static equivalent of the load. This
principle is obvious and does not require proofs, but it is illustrated by a large number of examples. The concept of
“concentrated force” refers only to the design diagram.
Analysis of stresses and strains within a small area is the subject of study of the theory of contact problems. These problems
go beyond the classical theory of structural mechanics and are studied in the course of the theory of elasticity.
Idealization of a real superficial load allows representing the load distributed over the length; the dimension of such a load
is [force/length]. The following idealized loads are concentrated moment and moment distributed along the length. Their
dimensions are [force length] and [moment/length], respectively.
Introduction xxv
The Nature of Change of Forces in the Process of Their Application
By this sign, the forces are divided into static and dynamic. Static force means that it is applied so slowly that the arising
accelerations of a structure, and consequently the inertia forces, are small and can be neglected. In other words, if the load is
such that the kinetic energy of structural members is small compared with the potential energy of elastic deformation, then it
can be assumed that at any time the structure is in equilibrium; this assumption leads to the concept of “static load.” Otherwise,
the load is considered as dynamic.
Dynamic forces can be impact and variable. Impact force means that the change in external force and the state of the body
due to this force occurs in a very short period of time. In general, the law of change of force as a function of time can be
arbitrary. Of particular importance is the case of harmonic force. Dynamic loads cause vibration of deformable structures.
The Nature of the Dependence of Forces on the Deformation of the Structure
There are possible types of loads that not only cause strain but also depend on the strain. In problems of stability of deformable
structures, it is necessary to not only specify the magnitude and direction of the force (as is sufficient in the static problems of
structural analysis), but also indicate the nature of behavior of the force in the process of deviation of the system from the
original equilibrium position. The nature of the load behavior depends on the type of transmitting device between the force
and the rod. In the subsequent discussion we assume that the load remains in its original direction and does not depend on the
deformations, unless otherwise specified. For more details, see Sect. 15.1.
If we talk about the load as a source of stress and strain in the structural elements, then we should mention other factors that
cause its stress-strain state. Among them are the displacement of the supports, inaccuracy of manufacturing and installation,
effects associated with changes in material properties (e.g., concrete shrinkage), thermal effects, etc.
Duration of the Influence of Loads on Structures
By this sign, the forces, depending on the nature of their occurrence, are divided into two large groups. They are the dead and
live loads. The dead loads are always static loads, while live loads may be static and dynamic ones.
Dead loads have a constant magnitude and fixed position and are permanently attached to a structure. Among them are
1. The load caused by self-weight of all structural elements (columns, beams, overhead slabs, walls, etc.); the special parts of
an industrial building (crane girder, skylight, braces, etc.).
2. The load caused by the self-weight of fixed service equipment (ventilating and air-conditioning equipment, plumbing
fixtures, electrical cables, etc.).
3. Internal dead loads which arise in the elements of the structure in the absence of external loading: The element subjected to
this type of dead load is called a prestressed element. Internal dead loads occur under creating of the specific conditions.
Live loads present the extensive class of loads, the duration of which is not permanent. These loads, depending on their nature,
may be divided into the following classes:
1. Environmental loads (snow, wind, earthquake, hydrostatic and soil pressure, etc.): Additional environmental loads should
be considered, such as the stream current, ice, ocean waves, etc. These types of loads act on the piers of a bridge and on
other marine constructions. It is obvious that the same structure in different geographic regions is subjected to different
environmental loads.
2. Loads caused by the building being occupied, used, and maintained: Among them are loads in the libraries, loads due to
accumulation of people in concert halls, industrial service loads due to the stationary equipment (machine tools, engines,
conveyers, etc.), movable incorporated equipment in factories, and moving loads (highway and railroad bridge loads).
3. Special types of loads (loads from supersonic aircraft and blast waves, factory crane loads, to name but a few).
The live loads may be static and dynamic (which in turn may be further classified as periodical, impact, etc.). Live loads may
have varying directions and points of application. Computation of the dead and live loads and determination of the most
unfavorable combinations are governed by special documents specific for region of construction.
xxvi Introduction
Idealization of the Structure as a Whole
We note a number of general assumptions related to the structure as a whole.

1. Displacements of a structure are small. It means that deflections do not change original design diagram of a structure. In this
case we say that analysis of the structure is performed on the base of its entire or non-deformable design diagram (Navier
assumption, 1826). Analysis of a structure by the deformable design diagram assumes that determination of internal forces
of the structure is performed on the basis of corrected design diagram, which takes into account deformations of the
structure, caused by applied loads. Such an approach should be applied, in particular, for the analysis of tall and flexible
structures. Generally we will consider analysis of structures based on non-deformable scheme. Few examples of analysis of
structures based on deformable scheme are considered in special sections.
2. Parameters of a structure are not changed under loading.
3. Superposition principle of the force action is applicable. This principle means that any factor (reaction, internal forces,
displacement, etc.), caused by complicated loading which acts simultaneously, can be determined by adding together the
required factor due to each load separately. If the structure is loaded by inclined forces then it is convenient to present each
of these forces as horizontal and vertical components. In this case the component of required factors is equal to the
algebraic sum of this factor due to each load component separately.
The superposition principle is based not only on the assumption of a linear relationship between forces and displace-
ments, but also on the assumption of the reversibility of the processes of loading and unloading and the invariability of the
design diagram of the structure (Feodos’ev 1975).
The superposition principle in the problems of the structural analysis is of fundamental importance. Firstly, this
principle allows at various influences to obtain a solution as a result of the addition of particular solutions. Secondly,
this principle allows to prove the most important theorems (reciprocity theorems, Mohr integral, Castigliano’s theorem,
etc.), on the basis of which fundamental methods for the analysis of structures (force method, displacement method, etc.)
were developed.
4. Saint-Venant principle (1855) is valid: If the dimensions of the applied external load area are small (compared to the cross
section of the rod), then in sections sufficiently distant from the point of application of the load, the stresses and strains
depend little on the way the load is applied. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 4. Cantilevered beam is loaded by the load P
(Fig. 4a), but the ways the load is transferred are different. They are using one and two lugs (Fig. 4b, c), respectively, plate
connected with beam using bolts or welding (Fig. 4d).
a P c
b d P
P
P
Fig. 4 (a) Design diagram; (b–d) different ways of load transfer
The Saint-Venant principle significantly expands the scope of application of the basic design formulas, since there is no
need to take into account the specific way of application of the load and features of the distribution of forces in the area
adjacent to the application of the load.
The variety of modern engineering structures, their features, operating conditions, assumptions, types of analysis, and
accuracy requirements is so great and varied that it is impossible to unite them within the same discipline. Therefore, a large
number of border disciplines emerged that constitute in a broad sense mechanics of deformable solid body.
For each of the disciplines included in this cycle of sciences, a certain system of assumptions is characteristic. As an object
a separate structural element can be taken, for example, plate and shell. The study of such elements is considered in the theory
of plates and theory of shells. Some aspects of the behavior of such elements are considered in the course “stability and
vibration of plates and shells.”
Introduction xxvii
As an object of study the whole structure can be taken (aircraft, ship, bridge, high-rise building, etc.). The study of such
structures is considered in the courses “the theory of the aircraft,” “the theory of the ship,” “bridges,” etc.
The following disciplines of the general cycle—“the theory of elasticity” and “the theory of plasticity”—solve the problem
of analyzing structures and their elements with more precise methods; it is clear that the main assumption in these disciplines
is associated with such a property of the material as elasticity and plasticity.
The rejection of the isotropic property of a material leads to a new discipline—“the theory of anisotropic plates and shells.”
The rejection of the assumptions adopted in the classical course (for example, the material of the structure does not obey
Hooke’s law, one or several connections turn out to be one sided, the deformations of the structure are large) leads to an
extensive class of nonlinear problems of mechanics of a solid deformable body. For nonlinear systems, the superposition
principle in general case is not applicable. The subject of study of such systems is “nonlinear mechanics of deformable
bodies.”
Structural mechanics as a part of generalized scientific discipline “mechanics of solid deformable body” takes a worthy
place. Many of the provisions of structural mechanics find application in each of the scientific disciplines noted above. In any
engineering product, in one form or another, the provisions and methods of structural mechanics as a science are invariably
present.
Even this short list of scientific disciplines related to the analysis of structures shows the importance of classical structural
mechanics in creating numerous engineering objects of different types and purposes.
It is pertinent to emphasize once again that classical structural mechanics contains a number of fundamental principles,
theorems, and in-depth analytical methods for analyzing engineering structures. The basis of these theorems and methods is
the set of special assumptions, which lead to linear structural mechanics; a feature of linear mechanics is the validity of the
superposition principle. In the future, it is in this sense the term “classical structural mechanics” will be used. It is important
that for the adopted design diagram of structure, various methods of classic mechanics lead to identical results.
A diverse set of aspects related to the design diagram of structure can be found in an excellent book (Perelmuter and
Slivker 2003).
Types of Structures
The different combinations of internal forces arise in the cross section of the structural members. They are the bending
moments and shear forces; the bending moments, shear, and axial forces; only axial forces (compressive and tensile) or only
tensile, etc. Therefore, the behavior of such structures is different.
According to the type of internal forces and constructive features of an object, the structures are classified as follows: multi-
span beams, trusses, frames, arches, cables, and combined structures.
Multi-span beams contain intermediate supports (Fig. 5). Therewith beams with intermediate hinges (Fig. 5a) or without
them (Fig. 5b) are possible. Multi-span beams are subjected to transverse load and undergo bending deformations. In the cross
sections of beams the bending moments and shear forces arise. In the intermediate hinges 1 and 2 (Fig. 5a) the bending
moment equals zero. The presence of an intermediate hinge leads to the kinks of the elastic line (EL) of the beam, as shown in
Fig. 5a. If there are no intermediate hinges, the elastic line of the beam does not have the kinks (Fig. 5b).
a b
2
EL 1
EL
Fig. 5 Design diagrams of multi-span beams: (a) Statically determinate beam; (b) statically indeterminate beam
The frames are characterized by the presence of at least of one rigid joint; design diagrams of several frames composed of
straight members are shown in Fig. 6a–d. In a general case, in the members of a frame arise the bending moments, shear, and
axial forces. Axial forces may be tensile and compressive.
xxviii Introduction
a b
*
A
*
c d e
C H H
* * A * A
*
A B B B
D D D
Fig. 6 Plane frames. Different design diagrams and corresponding elastic curves
In any deformable structure, distribution of internal forces and the nature of its deforming depend on the type of supports,
the ways of connection of the elements, and the way of loading of a structure. Figure 6a shows a frame with supports which
permit a linear (horizontal) displacement of joints (sideway frame). Each rigid joint has an angular displacement; however, the
mutual angle of rotation of adjacent elements of each joint is equal to zero. Assume that the frame is subjected to horizontal
force. Corresponding deformable shape of the frame is shown by dotted line. The elastic curve within each cross bar has
inflection point, which is denoted by the symbol (*).
If according to some requirements it is necessary to exclude the bending of the right pillar, then this can be achieved by
introducing a movable right support instead of a pinned support (Fig. 6b). New movable support allows the horizontal
displacement; therefore, horizontal reaction of this support is absent. As a result, the right vertical element is not bent, and
perceives only axial force.
Figure 6c represents another design diagram of a frame and corresponding deformable shape; thanks to the clumped
support А the joint C of the frame does not have horizontal displacement. For a given load, the rigid joint C of the ACD frame
rotates; this leads to the appearance of inflection points within both cross bars.
Assume that we need to reduce the influence of one part of the structure, ACD, on the other, CB. This can be achieved by
introducing the hinge H, as shown in Fig. 6d. The hinge H is simple because it does not cut in the rigid joint C, but connects
only two elements of the frame. They are the Γ-shaped left side ACD of the frame and cross bar HB. It is obvious that the
elastic lines in Fig. 6c, d are different.
To create greater independence in the work of individual parts of the structure, it is possible to adopt the design diagram of
the structure as shown in Fig. 6e. If the hinge H is inserted into the rigid joint, it becomes a multiple, since it now connects the
three elements, AH, HB, and HD. The absence of at least one rigid joint turns the frame into a simple connection of three rods,
which does not represent the frame.
Thus, it becomes obvious that the construction of the design diagram of a structure can be performed both at the stage of
analyzing the existing structure and at the stage of designing the structure in order to impart it certain properties.
A truss is a structure composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinges (Fig. 7).
a b
Fig. 7 Plane trusses. (a) Simple truss; (b) truss with subdivided panel
Introduction xxix
The hinged connection of the truss elements is adopted on the basis of a number of easily realizable assumptions. Their
implementation leads to the fact that in the elements of the truss only axial forces arise that are characteristic just for straight
elements with the hinges at the ends. On the other hand, these assumptions significantly simplify the procedure of truss
analysis. One of the assumptions requires that forces be applied to the truss joints. The corresponding simple truss is shown in
Fig. 7a. Truss with subdivided panel (Fig. 7b) contains additional elements. They satisfy the above condition and reduce the
length of the panel. The number of different types of trusses is very large.
An arch is a curvilinear structure (Fig. 8a, b) in which the vertical load causes not only vertical reactions, but also equal
horizontal reactions H, called a thrust. Various types of arches are possible. Among them are three-hinged arch (Fig. 8a),
two-hinged arch (Fig. 8b), etc. If the arch is subjected to inclined force (Fig. 8c), then unequal horizontal reactions H1 and H2
occur, which cannot be called a thrust. In the cross section of the arch three types of internal forces occur: bending moment,
shear, and axial forces. Axial forces in arches are always compressed.
a b c
H H H H H1 H2
Fig. 8 Plane arches. (a, b) Vertical load: the equal horizontal reactions H are thrust; (c) the force is inclined: the non-equal horizontal reactions H1
and H2 are not the thrust
A cable presents a perfectly flexible element of an engineering structure. Cabled structures contain a cable, which supports
a beam (Fig. 9). In the cross sections of cables only axial tensile forces arise.
a b
Pillar
Hangers Mast
Cable
Span Guy-rope
Fig. 9 Cabled structures. (a) Suspension bridge; (b) guy-rope of the mast
A combined structure contains the parts subjected to different types of deformations. Two combined structures are
presented in Fig. 10. In both of them, element 1 is subjected to bending deformation and elements 2 to axial one.
a b 1
1
2
2
Fig. 10 Combined structures

xxx Introduction
Another example of combined structures is presented in Fig. 9a. Indeed, for structure in whole, the different types of
internal forces arise in all members (cable, hangers, pillars, and span).
By the nature of the reactions, the structures may be classified as thrusted and non-thrusted (thrustless). Non-thrusted
structures are such structures, in which the vertical loads lead to vertical reactions only (Fig. 11a, b).
a b
Fig. 11 Non-thrusted structures
Thrusted structures are such structures, in which the vertical load causes not only the vertical reactions, but also the
horizontal reactions as well. The typical thrusted arched structures are presented in Fig. 8. If in the non-thrusted structures in
Fig. 11 the movable support is replaced with a pinned or clamped support, then both systems become the thrusted structures
(the thrusted frame and arch, respectively). Assume that the structures in Fig. 11a, b are subjected to inclined force. Of course,
this will cause a horizontal reaction in the left pillar. However, it cannot be interpreted as a thrust.
Structures may also be classified as statically determinate and statically indeterminate. If all reactions of supports and all
internal forces can be obtained using equilibrium equations only, then such structures are called statically determinate;
simplest statically determined structures are shown in Figs. 5a, 7, 8a, and 11. Otherwise, the structure is called statically
indeterminate.
If to determine the reactions of a structure the equilibrium equations are not enough, then the system is called externally
statically indeterminate. The example of externally statically indeterminate structures is shown in Figs. 5b and 8b, c.
If to determine the internal forces in the elements of a structure the equilibrium equations are not enough, then the system is
called internally statically indeterminate. The truss shown in Fig. 12 in the central panels contains two diagonal elements
which are not connected at the points 1 and 2. This truss is externally statically determinate; however, it is an internally
statically indeterminate structure.
1 2
Fig. 12 Externally statically determinate, and internally statically indeterminate truss
Equilibrium equations for a statically determinate structure define unique values of reactions of supports and distribution of
internal forces. However, equilibrium equations for statically indeterminate structure do not define unique values of reactions
of supports and distribution of internal forces. To determine them, additional conditions should be considered, the so-called
conditions of compatibility of deformations.
By the arrangement of the rods, the structures are subdivided into flat and spatial. A flat is a structure for which all the
elements and the load are located in the same plane. If arch is subject to a horizontal load caused by train braking, then such a
system is flat. If arch is subject to a horizontal wind load directed at an angle to the arch plane, then such a system should be
considered as a spatial.
Behavior of every above structure has its specific features; the methods of their analysis will be considered in
corresponding chapters of the book.
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Advanced Methods of Structural

Analysis Igor A. Karnovsky

Advanced Structural Analysis with MATLAB Srinivas

Advanced Methods in Structural Biology 1st Edition

Advanced Structural Mechanics Alberto Carpinteri

Fundamentals of Structural Analysis Kenneth M. Leet

Structural Analysis Third Edition Coates

Structural Analysis-SI Edition Aslam Kassimali

Structural Methods in the Study of Complex Systems

Structural Analysis A Unified Classical and Matrix

Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis

ISBN 978-3-030-44393-1 ISBN 978-3-030-44394-8 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Ch1. Kinematical Introduction Stability and

Analysis of different Ch16. Free Vibration

Initial Parameters • Ch10.

Ch5. Space Trusses • Mohr integral

Vancouver, Canada Igor A. Karnovsky

Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Part I Statically Determinate Structures

3.5 Fixed Load Method for Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.2 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

8.8 Graph Multiplication Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Part II Statically Indeterminate Structures

10.1.2 Primary System and Primary Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

13.3.1 Vector of External Joint Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

Part III Special Topics

15.4.1 Unit Reactions of the Beam-Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

17.5.2 Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

The knowledge of certain principles easily

The Subject and Purposes of the Structural Mechanics

Modeling of Engineering Structures and Principal Assumptions

Table 1 Types of the supports and their characteristics

Hinged movable Hinged immovable Clamped support Sliding support

Idealization of Material Properties

The Location of Points at Which Forces Are Applied to the Body

The Nature of Change of Forces in the Process of Their Application

The Nature of the Dependence of Forces on the Deformation of the Structure

Duration of the Inﬂuence of Loads on Structures

Idealization of the Structure as a Whole

We note a number of general assumptions related to the structure as a whole.

Fig. 4 (a) Design diagram; (b–d) different ways of load transfer

Fig. 10 Combined structures

Fig. 11 Non-thrusted structures

Fig. 12 Externally statically determinate, and internally statically indeterminate truss

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