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Security Informatics and Law Enforcement
Series Editor: Babak Akhgar

Babak Akhgar · Marco Gercke

Stefanos Vrochidis · Helen Gibson Editors

Dark Web
Investigation
Security Informatics and Law Enforcement

Series Editor
Babak Akhgar, CENTRIC
Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Editor’s Note:
The primary objective of this book series is to explore contemporary issues
related to law enforcement agencies, security services and industries deal-
ing with security related challenges (e.g., government organizations,
financial sector insurance companies and internet service providers) from
an engineering and computer science perspective. Each book in the series
provides a handbook style practical guide to one of the following security
challenges:
Cyber Crime - Focuses on new and evolving forms of crimes. Books
describe the current status of cybercrime and cyber terrorism develop-
ments, security requirements and practices.
Big Data Analytics, Situational Awareness and OSINT- Provides unique
insight for computer scientists as well as practitioners in security and polic-
ing domains on big data possibilities and challenges for the security
domain, current and best practices as well as recommendations.
Serious Games – Provides an introduction into the use of serious games
for training in the security domain, including advise for designers/pro-
grammers, trainers and strategic decision makers.
Social Media in Crisis Management – explores how social media enables
citizens to empower themselves during a crisis, from terrorism, public dis-
order, and natural disasters
Law enforcement, Counterterrorism, and Anti-Trafficking – Presents
tools from those designing the computing and engineering techniques,
architecture or policies related to applications confronting radicalisation,
terrorism, and trafficking.
The books pertain to engineers working in law enforcement and research-
ers who are researching on capabilities of LEAs, though the series is truly
multidisciplinary – each book will have hard core computer science, appli-
cation of ICT in security and security / policing domain chapters. The
books strike a balance between theory and practice.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/15902
 Babak Akhgar • Marco Gercke
Stefanos Vrochidis • Helen Gibson
Editors

Dark Web
Investigation
Editors
Babak Akhgar Marco Gercke
CENTRIC Cybercrime Research Institute
Sheffield Hallam University Köln, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Sheffield, UK
Helen Gibson
Stefanos Vrochidis CENTRIC
Information Technologies Institute Sheffield Hallam University
Centre for Research and Sheffield, UK
Technology Hellas
Thessaloniki, Greece

ISSN 2523-8507     ISSN 2523-8515 (electronic)

Security Informatics and Law Enforcement
ISBN 978-3-030-55342-5    ISBN 978-3-030-55343-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55343-2

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole
or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical
way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer
software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature

Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to Aryan H. Akhgar
You are always in our hearts
 Foreword

Criminality on or enabled by the dark web has been a concern for law
enforcement agencies (LEAs) since before the Silk Road dark web market
came to mainstream prominence in 2011. Many years later, the difficulties
faced in policing the dark web remain a key challenge for law enforcement.
The issues encountered by LEAs in conducting investigations on the
dark web are wide and varied including technical and ethical challenges
such as network access and configurations, limited access to tools which
support dark web investigation (e.g. even simple access to the ToR
browser), a mindset that is limited to manual investigatory processes, bud-
getary concerns that prevent the purchase of specialised software to sup-
port investigations, and lack of knowledge of both investigators and senior
investigators in terms of ‘how’ to access and investigate content on the
dark web. Even the name, ‘the dark web’ conjures up a form of fear and
mystique that leads less experienced investigators to believe that accessing
the dark web is somehow illegal or may cause them to be immediately
confronted with overwhelming amounts of terrorist content, child sexual
abuse material or the opportunity to buy copious amounts of drugs and
weapons.
As criminals become more technically savvy and move more of their
operations onto the dark web, LEAs must try to get ahead of them and
develop capabilities to prevent and detect the criminal activities. Even as
investigatory procedures and technological capabilities improve (as we
have seen for open source intelligence (OSINT) in recent years), the chal-
lenge remains to have access to the ‘right’ tools to effectively and lawfully
carry out dark web investigations whilst integrating such tools with already

vii
viii FOREWORD

fragmented software ecosystems used by LEAs. Such systems usually suf-

fer from a lack of a harmonised data model, duplication of data (especially
nominal information), and an over-reliance on either free text entries or
screenshots which, while useful against individual pieces of intelligence,
restrict the ability of investigators to identify links between persons, loca-
tions, conversations and other data items as their investigation grows.
Furthermore, the multi-source nature of internet investigations and, by
extension, dark web investigations mean they need tools which can auto-
matically gather intelligence from a range disparate and often ephemeral
web pages, profiles, forums and markets in heterogeneous formats and
combine them with extensive and purposeful processing to fuse such data
into a common and comparable representation. Such tools will enable
LEAs to safely and lawfully capture the ‘what’ of what is happening on the
dark web and support them to build a picture of the ‘how’ and the ‘why’,
essential for transitioning from the identification of criminal activity to a
conviction.
In online research, LEAs face another final challenge – navigating the
web lawfully, ethically, in accordance with the GDPR and the law enforce-
ment directive and doing-so in a manner that is societally acceptable.
Tacking such challenges is not a simple process and must be considered
from the investigator and user right through to the tool developers and
designers.
In these 13 chapters, our aim is to inform, educate and promote discus-
sion on the challenges of performing investigations on the dark web. It is
our hope that the first chapters will provide a solid basis from which inves-
tigators of all levels of expertise with the dark web can learn and consoli-
date their understanding. That the next chapters will highlight areas where
potential criminal activity on the dark web already takes place and how the
development and use of well-designed technological tools can greatly
assist in investigations from data collection to analysis. Tackling the ethi-
cal, legal and privacy-based challenges are essential for any investigator and
here we provide an informed discussion of the many complexities to be
considered. Finally, successful dark web investigators can learn from those
which have gone before them, case studies of dark web investigations
across a range of topics and modalities show how the dark web is just one
part of the criminal ecosystem and that disruption and informed enquiries
can have a significant impact on the criminal enterprise.
I hope this book is able to support investigators, practitioners and
researchers alike, especially those beginning their dark web journey, in
 FOREWORD ix

enhancing their confidence and understanding of the dark web and how it
may provide crucial and underexplored avenues for intelligence gathering
within their investigations.

 John D. Parkinson, OBE, MSt, CMgr, CCMI, CIMS, FRSA, United

Kingdom
 Acknowledgements

The editors would like to thank the experts who have contributed to this
book, sharing their knowledge, experience and latest research. In particu-
lar, we would like to thank the following people, projects and
organisations:

• Police Services of Northern Ireland (PSNI)

• European Commission’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation
Programme, the TENSOR project and its partners
• European Commission (EC)
• DG HOME (European Commission)
• Staff at CENTRIC (Centre of Excellence in Terrorism, Resilience,
Intelligence and Organised Crime Research)
• Staff at Information Technologies Institute, Centre for Research and
Technology Hellas
• The Center for Security Studies (KEMEA)
• Dr Nada Milisavljevic of DG HOME
• Jonathan Middleton of Police Services of Northern Ireland (PSNI)
• Ulrich Gasper of Cybercrime Research Institute
• Mary James of Springer

xi
 Contents

Part I Foundations

1 Understanding the Dark Web  3

Dimitrios Kavallieros, Dimitrios Myttas,
Emmanouil Kermitsis, Euthimios Lissaris,
Georgios Giataganas, and Eleni Darra

2 Using the Dark Web 27

Dimitrios Kavallieros, Dimitrios Myttas,
Emmanouil Kermitsis, Euthimios Lissaris,
Georgios Giataganas, and Eleni Darra

3 Terrorist Activities in the Dark and the Surface Web 49

Euthimios Lissaris, Georgios Giataganas, Dimitrios Kavallieros,
Dimitrios Myttas, and Emmanouil Kermitsis

4 Dark Web Markets 85

Emmanouil Kermitsis, Dimitrios Kavallieros, Dimitrios Myttas,
Euthimios Lissaris, and Georgios Giataganas

5 TENSOR: A Solution to Dark Web Investigations119

Tony Day, Kieran Dennis, and Helen Gibson

xiii
xiv Contents

Part II Legal and Ethical Considerations

6 Ethical and Societal Issues of Automated Dark Web

Investigation: Part 1139
Marco Gercke

7 Ethical and Societal Issues of Automated Dark Web

Investigation: Part 2151
Ulrich Gasper

8 Ethical and Societal Issues of Automated Dark Web

Investigation: Part 3161
Ulrich Gasper

9 Ethical and Societal Issues of Automated Dark Web

Investigation: Part 4169
Marco Gercke

10 Ethical and Societal Issues of Automated Dark Web

Investigation: Part 5189
Ulrich Gasper

Part 3 Case Studies

11 Case Study: Dark Web Markets237

Yara Abdel Samad

12 Case Studies: Child Sexual Exploitation249

Alice Raven, Babak Akhgar, and Yara Abdel Samad

13 Case Study: Match Fixing on the Dark Web267

Alice Raven

Index273
 Editor Biographies

Babak Akhgar is Professor of Informatics and Director of CENTRIC

(Centre of Excellence in Terrorism, Resilience, Intelligence and Organised
Crime Research) at Sheffield Hallam University, UK, and Fellow of the
British Computer Society. He has more than 130 refereed publications in
international journals and conferences on strategic information systems
with specific focus on knowledge management (KM) and intelligence
management. He is member of editorial boards of several international
journals and has acted as Chair and Program Committee Member for
numerous international conferences. He has extensive and hands-on expe-
rience in the development, management and execution of KM-projects
and large international security initiatives (e.g. the application of social
media in crisis management, intelligence-based combating of terrorism
and organised crime, gun crime, cyber-crime and cyber terrorism, and
cross-cultural ideology polarisation). In addition to this, he acts as techni-
cal lead in EU security projects (e.g. the EU H2020-project TENSOR on
dark web). He has co-edited numerous books on Intelligence Management,
for instance, Emerging Trends in ICT Security, Application of Big Data for
National Security, Open Source Intelligence Investigation and Combatting
Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism. Prof Akhgar is board member of the
European Organisation for Security (EOS) and member of the Academic
Advisory Board of SAS UK.
Marco Gercke is an entrepreneur, thinker and scientist. With more than
1000 speeches in over 100 countries and over 100 scientific publications,
Marco is a leading experts in the field of cybersecurity and cybercrime. He is

xv
xvi EDITOR BIOGRAPHIES

the Founder and Director of the Cybercrime Research Institute, an inde-

pendent research institute. He advises governments, international organisa-
tions and large enterprises around the world with regard to strategic, political
and legal issues in the field of cybersecurity. Over the past 15 years, he has
worked in over 100 countries across Europe, Asia, Africa, the Pacific and
Latin America. Marco is involved in various international projects related to
cybersecurity including the EU-funded projects TENSOR and FORESIGHT.
Helen Gibson is a Senior Research Fellow and Operations Lead within
CENTRIC at Sheffield Hallam University. Prior to CENTRIC, Helen
studied for her PhD at Northumbria University in Graph and Network
Visualisation. Before that, she completed a Master’s in Computing also at
Northumbria and BSc in Mathematics at Edinburgh University. Helen’s
main research interests lie in the areas of data science and visualisation with
a specific focus on how data can be used and presented to achieve the maxi-
mum value and understanding in intelligence operations. Helen has worked
on a number of EU-funded projects within CENTRIC including Athena,
Unity, TENSOR, ROBORDER and CONNEXIONs as well as supporting
the development of the open source intelligence capability with CENTRIC.
Stefanos Vrochidis has a Diploma in Electrical Engineering from
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, an MSc degree in Radio Frequency
Communication Systems from University of Southampton, and a PhD
degree in Interactive Video Retrieval based on implicit user feedback from
Queen Mary, University of London. He is a Senior Researcher with the
Multimedia Knowledge and Social Media Analytics Lab at the Information
Technologies Institute of the Centre for Research and Technology Hellas
(CERTH-ITI). Dr. Vrochidis is also a Research Development Manager
and Co-founder of Infalia PC. His research interests include multimedia
analysis, computer vision, web data mining, semantics, information
retrieval, multimodal analytics, decision support, as well as security appli-
cations including crisis management, fighting crime and terrorism, and
border surveillance.
Dr. Vrochidis has participated in more than 30 national and European
projects relevant to ICT and Security, of which he has been the Project
Coordinator in three, Deputy Project Coordinator in two, and S ­ cientific/
Technical Manager in four. He has been the organiser of various workshops
relevant to multimodal retrieval, multimedia, and security and has served as
regular reviewer in several scientific journals and conferences. He is also the
co-author of more than 180 conference, journal and book chapter articles.
 Contributors

Babak Akhgar CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

Eleni Darra Center for Security Studies-KEMEA, Athens, Greece
Tony Day CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Kieran Dennis CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Ulrich Gasper Cybercrime Research Institute, Cologne, Germany
Marco Gercke Cybercrime Research Institute, Cologne, Germany
Georgios Giataganas Center for Security Studies-KEMEA,
Athens, Greece
Helen Gibson CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Dimitrios Kavallieros Center for Security Studies-KEMEA,
Athens, Greece
University of Peloponnese-Department of Informatics and
Telecommunications, Tripoli, Greece
Emmanouil Kermitsis Center for Security Studies-KEMEA,
Athens, Greece
Euthimios Lissaris Center for Security Studies-KEMEA, Athens, Greece
Dimitrios Myttas Center for Security Studies-KEMEA, Athens, Greece
Alice Raven CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Yara Abdel Samad CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

xvii
 PART I

Foundations
 CHAPTER 1

Understanding the Dark Web

Dimitrios Kavallieros, Dimitrios Myttas,

Emmanouil Kermitsis, Euthimios Lissaris,
Georgios Giataganas, and Eleni Darra

1.1   Introduction
Dimitris Avramopoulos, European Commissioner for Migration, Home
Affairs and Citizenship, said:

The Dark Web is growing into a haven of rampant criminality. This is a

threat to our societies and our economies that we can only face together, on
a global scale…

D. Kavallieros ()
Center for Security Studies-KEMEA, Athens, Greece
University of Peloponnese-Department of Informatics and Telecommunications,
Tripoli, Greece
e-mail: d.kavallieros@kemea-research.gr
D. Myttas • E. Kermitsis • E. Lissaris • G. Giataganas • E. Darra
Center for Security Studies-KEMEA, Athens, Greece
e-mail: d.myttas@kemea-research.gr; e.kermitsis@kemea-research.gr; e.lissaris@
kemea-research.gr; g.giataganas@kemea-research.gr; e.darra@kemea-research.gr

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

B. Akhgar et al. (eds.), Dark Web Investigation,
Security Informatics and Law Enforcement,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55343-2_1
 1 UNDERSTANDING THE DARK WEB 15

The I2P client software can act as a router once it is installed in a machine,
providing connectivity to I2P websites (TLD, .i2p) in the darknet, or it
can host a service (e.g. an .i2p website).
The garlic routing technique, which is a variant of onion routing, was
coined back in 2000 and in the framework of I2P provides the following
three attributes (I2P Garlic Routing 2018):

• Tunnel building and routing (in order to transmit data, each router
creates one-way tunnels (inbound and outbound tunnels)).
• Data bundling to be able to evaluate the end-to-end message deliv-
ery status.
• ElGamal/EAS + SessionTags encryption algorithms are used to pro-
vide end-to-end encryption and minimise the possibility of traffic
analysis attacks.

I2P can be downloaded from geti2p.net/en/download, and it is

available for Windows, Mac OSX, GNU/Linux, BSD, Solaris, Debian,
Ubuntu and Android.

1.2.4  I2P Network Database

In order for a client to connect to other clients and setup a circuit, it will
have to ask the I2P netDB which contains all mandatory information
regarding other user’s inbound tunnels. The I2P netDB basically contains
two important types of records, the RouterInfos, which is the contact
information of the I2P routers (IP address, respective port and public
key), and the LeaseSets, which contains the destination contact informa-
tion (tunnel endpoints and the public key of the requested service).
Furthermore, tunnels expire every 10 minutes; thus clients have to request
the aforementioned information from the netDB, if they want to stay
connected with the service (Egger et al. 2013; I2P, 2018b).

1.2.5  I2P Routers and Tunnels

I2P routers use two pairs of one-way tunnels in total from which the one
handles the inbound traffic and the other the outbound traffic as Fig. 1.7
depicts. Thus, for one message and the respective reply, the router will
build four tunnels each time. To clarify how the I2P tunnels work, we first
need to understand the philosophy of how the inbound and outbound
tunnels are built. The creator of a tunnel decides the number of the peers
Another random document with
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 Fig. 155.

The cutting edge of the hole is at the smaller diameter; place that
side of the plate up. Never use a hammer as it would split the top of
the peg and would ruin the cutting edge of the dowel plate should it
strike it. Use a mallet, and when the peg is nearly thru finish by
striking a second peg placed upon the head of the first.
86. Directions for Doweling.—(1) Place the boards to be
doweled side by side in the vise, the
face sides out, and even the jointed edges. (2) Square lines across
the two edges with knife and trysquare at points where it is desired
to locate dowels. (3) Set the gage for about half the thickness of the
finished board and gage from the face side across the knife lines. (4)
At the resulting crosses bore holes of the same diameter as that of
the dowel.
 Fig. 156.

These holes should be bored to a uniform depth. Count the turns

of the brace. One inch is a good depth for ordinary work. (5)
Countersink the holes slightly, just enough to remove the sharp
arrises. This removes any bur and allows a little space into which the
surplus glue may run. (6) Cut the sharp arrises off the dowel, just
enough to allow it to be started into the hole. (7) With a stick slightly
smaller than the hole, place glue upon the sides of the hole, and
drive the dowel in. A small V-shaped groove previously cut along the
side of the dowel will allow the surplus glue to escape and thus
prevent any danger of splitting the board. (8) Clean off the surplus
glue, unless the members can be placed together before it has had
time to set. (9) Saw off the dowels to a length slightly less than the
depth of the holes in the second piece. (10) Trim off the sharp
arrises. Fig. 156. (11) Glue the holes and the edge of the second
board. (12) Put the two members in the clamps and set away until
the glue has had time to harden.
 Fig. 157.

87. Keyed Tenon-and-Mortise.—Fig. 157 shows the tenon, the

mortise in the second member into
which the tenon fits, the mortise in the tenon and its key or wedge.

Fig. 158.

88. Directions for Key:—Keys are made in quite a variety of

shapes. Some of the simple forms are
shown in Fig. 158. Where two or more keys of the same size are to
be made, it is customary to plane all in one piece. (1) Plane a face
side, a face edge, gage and plane to thickness. If there is more than
one key, saw each to length. (2) Shape the remaining edge as
desired. The lines AB and CD, Fig. 158, indicate the points at which
measurements are to be made to determine the length of mortise in
the tenon which is to receive the key. These lines should be laid off
at a distance apart equal to the thickness of the tenon.
89. Directions for Tenon.—(1) Measure from the end of the piece
the length of the tenon, and mark with a
knife point. Where tenons are to be cut on both ends of a piece,
measurement is frequently made from the middle of the piece each
way to locate the shoulders. Should there be any variation in the
length of the piece from what it should be, this difference will then be
equally divided at the ends. This is done when it is more important to
have the distance between the shoulders of a definite length than
that the tenons be of correct length. (2) Square knife lines entirely
around the piece at the knife point mark. (3) Set the gage equal to
the distance required from the face edge to the nearest edge of the
tenon and mark on both sides, as far as the shoulder marks, and on
the end. (4) Repeat, setting the gage from the face edge to the
farther edge of the tenon. If the two members are of the same width
and the tenon and mortise are to be equally distant from the face
edge, both tenon and mortise should be gaged with the same
settings. Frequently, the gage settings are obtained from the rule
indirectly. The rule is laid across the piece and the width or thickness
of mortise or tenon marked with the point of a knife blade, Fig. 159.
The spur of the gage is then set in one of these points, the block
being pushed firmly against the face; the thumb-screw is then
fastened, Fig. 160. The second setting is obtained in a similar
manner from the same edge or side. All the pieces are marked for
the first width before resetting. (5) After having laid out the mortise in
the tenon, rip to the gage lines and cross-cut to the shoulder lines,
paring if necessary. (6) Slightly bevel the ends of the tenon.
 Fig. 159. Fig. 160.

90. Directions for Mortise.—(1) From one end of the piece

measure and mark with the knife point
the respective distances to the two edges of the mortise. (2) Square
lines across the face edge and the two broad surfaces at these
points. (3) Set the gage equal to the required distance from the face
edge to the nearer edge of the mortise and mark between the lines.
(4) Set the gage equal to the required distance from the face edge to
the farther edge of the mortise and mark between the lines. Make
both gage lines on face side and side opposite as well. (5) Cut the
mortises. First, bore a series of holes thru the mortise, using a bit
somewhat smaller than the width of the mortise. Bore these holes so
that they connect one with another. (6) Place the piece on a chiseling
board and, taking thin cuts about half way thru, work from the middle
of the mortise out to within one thirty-second of an inch of the knife
and gage lines. (7) Reverse and chisel from the other side, finishing
it; then chisel the first side out to the lines. Test the sides of the
mortise with a straight edge—the blade of the chisel makes a good
one—to see that they are cut straight. Fig. 161.
 Fig. 161.

91. Directions for Mortise in the Tenon.—(1) Lay out the sides
of the mortise for the key
before the sides and shoulders of the tenons are cut. From the
shoulder line of the tenon, measure toward the end a distance
slightly less—about one thirty-second of an inch—than the thickness
of the member thru which the tenon is to pass. This is to insure the
key’s wedging against the second member. (2) Square this line
across the face edge and on to the side opposite the face side. (3)
On the top surface measure from the line just squared around the
piece a distance equal to the width the key is to have at this point
when in place. Fig. 158, A B. (4) Square a pencil line across the
surface at this point. (5) In a similar manner, measure and locate a
line on the opposite side, C D, Fig. 158. (6) Set the gage and mark
the side of the mortise nearer the face edge on face side and side
opposite. (7) Reset, and from the face edge gage the farther side of
the mortise, marking both sides. (8) This mortise may be bored and
chiseled like the one preceding. As one side of the mortise is to be
cut sloping, a little more care will be needed.

Fig. 162.

92. Blind Mortise-and-Tenon.—Probably no joint has a greater

variety of applications than the
blind mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 162. It is of equal importance to
carpentry, joinery and cabinet-making. The tenon shown has four
shoulders; it is often made with but three or two.
93. Directions for Tenon.—(1) Measure from the end of the piece
the length of tenon, (see also directions
for tenon, Section 89) and mark with the point of a knife. (2) Square
knife lines entirely around the four sides at this point to locate the
shoulders. (3) Lay the rule across the face edge near the end of the
piece and mark points with the end of the knife to indicate the
thickness of the tenon, Fig. 159. (4) With the head of the gage
against the face side, set the spur of the gage in one of these marks,
then fasten the set screw, Fig. 160. Gage on the end and the two
edges as far back as the knife lines. When there are several tenons
remember to mark all of them before resetting. (5) Set the gage in
the other mark, the head of the gage being placed against the face
side; then gage as before. (6) In a similar manner, place the rule
across the face side, mark points with the knife for the width of
tenon, set the gage to these points, and gage on the face and side
opposite as far as the shoulder lines and across the end. The head
of the gage must be held against the face edge for both settings. (7)
Rip to all of the gage lines first, then crosscut to the shoulder lines,
using back-saw. (8) The end of the tenon may be slightly beveled
that it may be started into the mortise without tearing off the arrises
of the opening.
94. Directions for Laying out Mortise.—(1) From one end of the
piece measure the
required distance to the nearer and the farther ends of the mortise.
Mark points with the knife. (2) Square lines across at these points.
(3) Lay the rule across the face into which the mortise is to be cut
and mark points with the knife for the sides of the mortise. (4) Set the
gage as was done for the tenon, the spur being placed in the knife
point mark and the head of the gage being pushed up against the
face. Gage between the cross lines. (5) Reset from the same face
for the other side of the mortise, and then gage.
If a mortise or tenon is to be placed in the middle of a piece, find
the middle of the piece, Fig. 3, Chapter I, Section 1, and with the
knife, place points to each side of the center mark at a distance
equal to one half the thickness or width of the tenon or mortise.
When several mortises or tenons of the same size are to be laid out
and are to be equally distant from a face, the gage needs to be set
but twice for all—once to mark the nearer edges and once for the
farther edges of the tenon or mortise. Should there be several like
members with like joints, the gage settings obtained from the first
piece will suffice for all.
The importance of working from face sides or face edges only,
cannot be overestimated. To work from either of the other two sides
of a piece would make the joints subject to any variation in the
widths or thicknesses of the pieces. To gage from the faces only,
insures mortises and tenons of exact size no matter how much the
pieces may vary in widths or thicknesses.
95. Directions for Cutting Mortise.—Two methods of cutting
mortises are in common use,
(a) boring and chiseling, and (b) chiseling alone. First method: (1)
Fasten the piece in the vise in a horizontal position. (2) Bore a series
of connecting holes to the required depth, Chapter IV, Section 45,
with a bit slightly smaller than the width of the mortise. (3) The sides
of the mortise are next pared to the gage and knife lines, beginning
at the auger holes and working with thin slices toward the lines. This
method requires care and patience in order to get the sides of the
mortise cut square to the surface. It is especially well adapted to
large mortises from which much wood is to be removed.

Fig. 163. Fig. 164.

 96. Directions for Cutting Mortise.—Second Method: (1) Clamp
the piece which is to be
mortised firmly to the bench top, using a hand clamp. Fig. 163 shows
a little device called a mortise grip. Tighten the vise screw and tap
the grip with the mallet until it holds the piece solidly. (2) Select a
chisel of a width equal to that desired for the mortise. Stand well
back of the mortise at one end or the other so as to be able to sight
the chisel plumb with reference to the sides of the mortise. (3) Begin
the cutting in the center of the mortise. Make the first cut with the
bevel of the chisel toward you; reverse the bevel and cut out the
wedge-shaped piece, w, Fig. 164. (4) Continue cutting in this manner
until the proper depth has been attained, making the opening no
larger at the surface than is necessary. (5) Set the chisel in a vertical
position, bevel towards you, begin at the center and, taking thin
slices, cut toward the farther end. Drive the chisel the full depth of
the mortise each time, then pull the handle towards you to break the
chip from the sides of the mortise. Cut to within one-eighth of an inch
of the end of the mortise. (6) Reverse the piece, or your position, and
cut in a similar manner to within one-eighth of an inch of the second
end. (7) With the bevel side of the chisel next the end of the mortise
pry out the chips once or twice as the cutting proceeds. (8) Chisel
the ends to the knife lines, carefully sighting the chisel for the two
directions. Fig. 165 suggests the order.

Fig. 165.
 97. Miter Joint.—The miter joint is subject to various
modifications. In the plain miter, Fig. 166, the ends
or edges abut. They are usually fastened with glue or nails or both.
The most common form of the plain miter is that in which the slope is
at an angle of forty-five degrees to the edge or side.

Fig. 166. Fig. 167.

98. Directions for Miter Joint.—(1) Lay off the slopes (see
Chapter I, Section 4). (2) Cut and
fit the parts. To fit and fasten four miter joints, such as are found in a
picture frame, is no easy task. Special miter boxes are made for this
purpose which make such work comparatively easy. (3) Fig. 167
shows the manner of applying the hand clamps to a simple miter
joint. When a joint is to be nailed, drive the nail thru one piece until
its point projects slightly. Place the second piece in the vise to hold it
firmly. Hold the first piece so that its end projects somewhat over and
beyond that of the second; the nailing will tend to bring it to its proper
position, Fig. 168. If a nail is driven thru from the other direction, care
must be taken to so place it that it will not strike the first, or a split
join will result.
 Fig. 168.

99. Dovetail Joint.—Dovetailed joints are so named from the

shape of the pieces which make the joint. Fig.
169 shows a thru multiple dovetail commonly used in fastening the
corners of tool boxes. In hand made dovetails, the tenons are very
narrow and the mortises wide, while in machine made dovetails,
tenons and mortises are of equal width. Mechanics lay out the
tenons without measurement, depending upon the eye unaided to
give the proper size and shape. Sometimes dovetails are laid out to
exact shape and size, the tenons being marked on both sides and
ends. The mortises are marked with trysquare and bevel after one
side of each has been marked by superimposing the tenons. In
some kinds of dovetailing, such as the half-blind dovetail, the
mortises are made first and the tenons marked out from them by
superposition.
 Fig. 169. Fig. 170.

100. Directions for Dovetail Joint.—(1) Square lines around

each end to locate the inner
ends of the mortises and tenons. These lines will be at a distance
from the ends equal to the respective thicknesses of the pieces. (2)
Determine the number of tenons wanted and square center lines
across the end of the member which is to have the tenons. Place
these center lines so that the intervening spaces shall be equal. (3)
Measure along an arris and mark on either side of these center lines
one-half of the desired width of the tenon. In fine hand made
dovetails, the usual width for the narrow edge of tenon is scarcely
more than one-sixteenth of an inch—the width of a narrow saw kerf.
(4) Set the bevel for the amount of flare desired. Fig. 170 shows
measurements which may be used in setting the bevel. A flare stick
may be made of thin wood and used instead of a bevel if desired,
Fig. 170. (5) Mark the flares on either side of the center lines. Place
the bevel so that the wide side of the tenon shall be formed on the
face side of the piece. (6) Carry these lines back on each side of the
piece as far as the lines previously drawn across these sides. (7)
With a fine tenon saw rip accurately to the lines. Cut the kerfs out of
the mortises, not out of the tenons. (8) Chisel out the mortises
formed between the tenons and trim up any irregularities in the
tenons. (9) Set the tenons on end on the face side of the second
member, with the face side just touching the cross line placed on the
second member, Fig. 171, and mark along the sides of the tenons.
(10) Square lines across the end to correspond with the lines just
drawn. (11) Saw accurately to the lines, cutting the kerfs out of the
mortises, not the tails. Chisel out the mortises for the tenons, Fig.
172. (12) Fit the parts together.

Fig. 171. Fig. 172.

 CHAPTER IX.
Elementary Cabinet Work.

101. Combination Plane.—The most elementary of cabinet work

necessitates considerable groove
cutting, rabbeting, etc. Rabbets and grooves can be formed by
means of the chisel, the sides first being gaged. A better way, by far,
is to plane them. In earlier practice, joiners were obliged to have a
great variety of special planes—one for each kind of work, and
frequently different planes for different sizes of the same kind of
work. There were rabbeting, dado, plow, filletster, beading, matching
planes, etc., etc.

Fig. 173.

Fig. 173 illustrates a modern combination plane which, by an

exchange of cutters, can be made to do the work of a (1) beader,
center beader, (2) rabbet and filletster, (3) dado, (4) plow, (5)
matching plane, and (6) slitting plane, different sized cutters for each
kind of work permitting of a great variety of uses. By means of a
guide or fence, the plane can be set to cut to a required distance
from the edge of the board. A stop or depth gage can be set so as to
keep the plane from cutting any deeper than is desired. When cutting
across the grain, as in cutting dadoes, adjustable cutting spurs
precede and score or cut the fibers of the wood on either side of the
cutter.
102. Drawer Construction.—The front of a drawer is usually
made of thicker stock than the other
parts. Fig. 174. For example, if the front were to be made of three-
quarter inch stock the sides, back and bottom would probably be
made of three-eighths inch material. Drawer fronts are always made
of the same material as the rest of the cabinet or desk while the
sides, back and bottom are usually made of some soft wood such as
yellow poplar.

Fig. 174. Fig. 175.

Fig. 175 A illustrates a very common method of fastening the

drawer sides to the front. This form is used mainly upon cheap or
rough construction. It is commonly known as a rabbeted joint. The
half-blind dovetail, Fig. 175 B, is a better fastening, by far, and is
used almost exclusively on fine drawer construction.
103. Directions for Rabbeted Corner.—The rabbeted joint, Fig.
175 A, sometimes called a
rebate or ledge joint is made as follows: (1) Line across the face side
of the drawer front at a distance from the end equal to the thickness
of the drawer sides; also, across the edges to the approximate depth
of rabbet. (2) Set the gage and gage on ends and edges as far as
the lines just placed, for the depth of rabbet. (3) Cut the sides of
rabbet, paring across the grain as in cutting the dado. Fasten by
nailing thru the drawer sides into the front, not thru the front into the
sides.
104. Directions for Dovetail Corner.—The front of the drawer
should be laid out and cut
first. (1) Gage on the end the distance the drawer side is to lap over
the front. (2) Without changing the setting of the gage, hold the head
of the gage against the end of the drawer side and gage on both
broad surfaces. Ordinarily, one should not gage across the grain of
the wood nor should the head of the gage be held against other than
a face. A little thought will show why exception has been made in this
case. (3) Square a line across the face side—the inside surface—of
the drawer front at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of
the drawer side. This line gives the depth of mortise for the tails. (4)
The groove for the drawer bottom having been cut, or its position
marked on the end of the front, lay out on the end the half tenons at
both edges so that the groove shall come wholly within a tail mortise.
The amount of flare at which to set the bevel is given in Chapter VIII,
Section 100. (5) Determine the number of tenons wanted and divide
the space between the flares just drawn into the required number of
equal parts and draw center lines for the tenons, Fig. 176. (6) With
the bevel lay off to either side of these center lines the sides of the
tenons. (7) Carry these lines down the face side to meet the line
previously drawn to indicate mortise depth. (8) Saw exactly to the
knife lines, cutting, Fig. 177, the kerfs out of the mortises, not the
tenons. (9) Chisel out the mortises. Fig. 178.
 Fig. 176. Fig. 177.

Fig. 178. Fig. 179.

The corresponding mortises and tails may now be laid out on the
drawer side and worked. (10) By superposition, Fig. 179, mark out
the shape of the mortises to be cut in the sides. (11) Saw and chisel
these mortises. Fig. 172.
105. Directions for Drawer.—(1) Square the different members to
size. (2) Groove the front and sides of
the drawer to receive the drawer bottom. These grooves should be
made somewhat narrower than the bottom is thick to insure a good
fit. The under side of the bottom, later, may be gaged and beveled
on the two ends and the front edge, Fig. 180. (3) Lay out and cut in
the drawer sides the dadoes into which the ends of the back are to
be fitted, Fig. 181. (4) Lay out and cut the joints on the front of the
drawer. (5) Get the bottom ready; that is, plane the bevels on the
under side as suggested in 2, above. (6) Assemble the members dry
to see that all fit properly. (7) Take apart; glue the joints by which the
sides are fastened to the front and the joints by which the back is
fastened to the sides. Glue the bottom to the front of the drawer but
not to the sides or back.

Fig. 180. Fig. 181.

Sometimes on large or rough work nails are used instead of glue

to fasten the members together. In this case the front, sides and
back are put together, the back being kept just above the grooves in
the sides. The bottom is then slipped in place under the back. It is
fastened to the front of the drawer only. Especial care should be
taken in squaring the bottom for the squareness of the drawer is
dependent upon this.
106. Paneling.—Often it is desired to fill in a rather wide space
with wood. To offset the effects of shrinkage,
winding and warpage, a panel rather than a single solid piece is
used. By increasing the number of panels a space of any size may
be filled. Fig. 182.

Fig. 182.

107. Cutting Grooves.—Grooves for panels are best cut by

means of the panel plow or combination
plane. It is not necessary to gage for the sides of the groove; the
adjustments of the plane are such as to give the proper depth and
location, when once set, and a cutter of the width equal to that of the
desired groove inserted. The fence of the plane must be held against
one or the other of the faces. Fig. 173.
108. Haunched Mortise-and-Tenon.