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Advances in Neutron Optics
Advances in Neutron Optics

Fundamentals and Applications in

Materials Science and Biomedicine

Edited by
Maria L. Calvo and Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-36446-2 (Hardback)

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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................ix
About the Editors.......................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii
Introduction............................................................................................................... xv

SECTION I A
 n Introductory Approach to the
Foundations of Neutron Optics

Chapter 1 Neutron Optics: Fundamentals.............................................................. 3

Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada and Maria L. Calvo

Chapter 2 Neutron Matter-Wave Diffraction: A Computational

Perspective........................................................................................... 79
Ángel S. Sanz

Chapter 3 Neutron Confinement and Waveguiding........................................... 123

Ignacio Molina de la Peña, Maria L. Calvo,
and Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada

SECTION II N
 eutron Optics-Based
Technologies and Applications

Chapter 4 Neutron Imaging............................................................................... 163

Markus Strobl

Chapter 5 Neutron Spin Optics: Concepts, Verification, and Prospects............205

Nikolay Pleshanov

Chapter 6 Applications of Neutron Optics to Biomedicine: BNCT................... 239

Ignacio Porras
Index....................................................................................................................... 275

v
Preface
This book is presented with the intention to be an updated contribution to the field
of neutron optics. This interdisciplinary area among nuclear physics, optics, and
quantum physics is based upon the dual particle-wave behavior and very specific
properties of slow neutrons and contains, in turn, a number of multidisciplinary sub-
jects. The slow neutrons are enjoying a noticeable expansion since they are related
to many interactive areas of science, namely, major branches as material science,
biomedicine and related based technologies. Moreover, there is an active develop-
ment of optical (or optics-inspired) components used for neutron instrumentation,
new neutron sources, and new emerging branches involving the introduction and
the design of new key results created by and expanding the previous contributions.
An update in neutron optics has a double focus: the revision and expansion of the
theoretical formalisms and mathematical models, and the development of new revo-
lutionary technologies. This double view leads an eventual student to a more com-
plete understanding of this interesting and promising field. Neutron optics has such
a wide scope that a number of interesting specific subjects had to be omitted from
the present update, a fact for which we apologize and which may be only partially
amended through the references given in the book. We can only hope that the sub-
jects included in the book justify the present (hence, partial) update.
Although neutron optics is not yet a subject routinely included in the academic
programs for physics in many universities, we are convinced that, in a near future, it
will constitute a standard offer for students of masters and many specialties of phys-
ics that include materials science and biomedicine. Also, we believe that currently, in
the field of nuclear engineering, neutron optics constitutes quite a challenging topic.
We hope and wish that this book will be of help and provide knowledge support
to many readers interested in this fascinating area of science.

Maria L. Calvo
Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada

vii
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Professor Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan, Editor of the CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis Books Series in Multidisciplinary and Applied Optics, for his
kind invitation to perform this quite exciting and challenging project. We also thank
Dr. Marc Gutierrez, from CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, for all the accorded
technical support and kind facilities.
Our sincere gratitude goes to all authors for their contributions without which
this book could not have been edited. We emphasize here that all authors are deeply
involved in research in the area of neutron optics, which provides important impact
on the contents of the corresponding chapters. We also thank all authors’ efforts to
maintain the initial proposed timing.

ix
About the Editors
Maria L. Calvo, Ph.D., is Emeritus professor at the
Department of Optics, Faculty of Physical Sciences,
Complutense University of Madrid (UCM) (Madrid,
Spain). She initiated research at the CNRS (Paris, France)
in the Glass Laboratory. She also founded and leads the
Interdisciplinary Group for Optical Computing (GICO-
UCM) created in 2001 from the former Interdisciplinary
Group for Biooptics initiated earlier in 1993. Her theo-
retical research interests include classical formalism for
light scattering, optical waveguide theory and neutron
waveguides, photonic devices, and applications to par-
ticular media such as holographic gratings. In experimental physics, she has relevant
contributions in the design, synthesis, and characterization of holographic photoma-
terials. She has been a visiting professor in other institutions as the University of
California at Berkeley and the University of Saint Louis-Missouri. On all the men-
tioned subjects she has published as author or co-author more than 200 scientific
articles. Professor Calvo has taught general and specialized courses in optics for
both undergraduate and master’s degree candidates in physical science at UCM. She
is involved in education and professional issues, and has authored, coordinated, and
edited various textbooks in Spanish and in English. She has been president of the
International Commission for Optics (ICO) during the term 2008–2011.

Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada, Ph.D., is Emeritus profes-

sor of physics at the Department of Theoretical Physics,
Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University
of Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain, where he has taught
undergraduate and graduate courses since 1975. He has
been group leader on research projects (1986–2012), spon-
sored by successive Ministries of Science in Spain. He has
been visiting scientist in Faculté des Sciences d’ Orsay,
Université de Paris, and visiting professor at Theory
Division, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland and at Theoretical
Physics Group and Nuclear Science Division, Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, University of California at Berkeley,
California. He has published, as author and co-author, more than 120 research papers
in international scientific journals on elementary particle physics, quantum field the-
ory, quantum physics and scattering, classical and quantum optics, non-equilibrium
classical and quantum statistical mechanics, statistical mechanics of macromolecu-
lar chains and, since 1984, neutron optics. He has co-authored one research book in
English, co-authored three textbooks in Spanish, and authored and co-authored con-
tributed chapters to books, in particular, on neutron optics.

xi
Contributors
Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada Ignacio Porras
Emeritus Faculty of Physical Sciences Faculty of Science
Department of Theoretical Physics Department of Atomic, Molecular and
Complutense University of Madrid Nuclear Physics
Madrid, Spain University of Granada
Granada, Spain
Maria L. Calvo
Emeritus Faculty of Physical Sciences Ángel S. Sanz
Department of Optics Faculty of Physical Sciences
Complutense University of Madrid Department of Optics
Madrid, Spain Complutense University of Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Ignacio Molina de la Peña
Faculty of Physical Sciences Markus Strobl
Department of Optics Neutron Imaging and Applied Materials
Complutense University of Madrid Group (NIAG)
Madrid, Spain Paul Scherrer Institut
Villigen, Switzerland
Nikolay Pleshanov and
Neutron Research Department Niels Bohr Institut, University of
Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute Copenhagen
of National Research Centre Copenhagen, Denmark
«Kurchatov Institute»
Gatchina, Leningrad Region, Russia

xiii
Introduction
The very early discovery of the neutron by Chadwick in 1932 established it as a sub-
atomic particle and, therefore, as a constituent of the atomic nucleus. In the almost
ninety years of continuous scientific research about the neutron and its interaction
with matter, there has been an impressive expansion of many subjects related to it.
The key properties of the neutron (its dual particle-wave nature, mass, spin, elec-
tric neutrality, strong interactions, and presence in all atomic nuclei, except those
of ordinary hydrogen) have given rise to a new interdisciplinary area in physics.
For the latter purpose, neutrons have to be slow. Neutron optics is that interdisci-
plinary area, dealing with the theory and application of the wave behavior of slow
neutrons. Neutron optics involves studying the interactions of matter with a beam of
free slow neutrons, much as spectroscopy represents the interaction of matter with
electromagnetic radiation. There are two major mechanisms and artificial sources
for the production of beams of free slow neutrons: (1) fission reactions at nuclear
reactors and (2) collisions in particle accelerators (small ones, spallation sources) of
proton beams with targets of heavy atoms, such as Tantalum and Uranium. In this
book, attention will be paid to artificial neutron sources of the above two classes
(including some short reference to various spallation sources geographically distrib-
uted over the world, including the new big facility, namely, the European Spallation
Source in Lund, Sweden).
The chapters of this book can be broadly divided into two major areas or sections:
Section I—An Introductory Approach to the Foundations of Neutron Optics and
Section II—Neutron Optics-Based Technologies and Applications.
Chapter 1, co-authored by Álvarez-Estrada and Calvo, deals with fundamentals.
This chapter introduces various general aspects of neutron optics. It treats funda-
mental concepts and tools providing a general overview and, so, allows to afford
the more specific contents of the book. Significant references are included, that is,
those having a historical meaning and those offering a wide perspective, which could
eventually help to fill the gap corresponding to several interesting subjects and refer-
ences that could not be included here due to space limitations. The authors apologize
for both omissions. Readers could amplify the references given and fill the gaps
generated by the omissions, according to their own interest. For instance, the subsec-
tion on inelastic neutron scattering is intended as an introduction to further, much
wider and specialized references. And the (more expanded) subsections on neutron
diffraction are aimed to help the reader to connect, in particular, with later chapters.
Several sections and subsections offer updated information (for instance, neutron
holography) and, even, new material (a new formulation of the extinction theorem,
in a simple context). The total number of sections of this chapter is nine. Several
developments, omitted from the main text, have been included as exercises with
solutions. For a general presentation, the generic term slow neutrons is employed to
cover the rather wide range from ultracold neutrons to epithermal ones. Upon com-
ing to specific studies, the energy ranges involved are specified; in particular when
focusing on thermal neutrons.

xv
xvi Introduction

Sanz presents new formalisms for the study of slow neutron diffraction and inter-
ferences, with an account of neutron trajectories in Chapter 2. At low energies, as
any other matter wave, neutrons exhibit very distinctive features, such as diffraction,
interference, and entanglement. Diffraction and interference, on the one hand, are
observed in single-particle conditions, while entanglement arises in the case of spin-
correlated pairs of neutrons. This chapter focuses on these fundamental aspects of
neutron matter waves, providing a wide perspective on the experimental and theo-
retical work developed within the areas of neutron diffraction/scattering and neu-
tron interferometry, where such aspects and their applications have been extensively
studied. This includes a revision of issues related to quantum measurement problem,
such as Bell-type measurements and the more recent issue of weak measurements.
The chapter contains five sections.
An introduction to the confined propagation of slow neutron in thin waveguides
(sizes about 1 μm and somewhat smaller) is offered in Chapter 3, by Molina et al.,
with particular attention to possible improvements, applications, and feasibility. The
total internal reflection phenomenon (studied in Chapter 1) gives the fundamentals
for these waveguides with small transverse cross sections (either thin fibers or thin
planar films), having air or Titanium at the core, and a clad formed by appropriate
materials, as glass and silica, among others. Previous conjectures in the last decades
are summarized. Two important seminal experiments are studied (which have trig-
gered further experimental routes): (i) with polycapillary glass fibers (in 1992) and
(ii) with thin planar films (in 1994). Recent proposals for confined propagation and
possible applications, based upon thin planar films (ii) are considered; recent ongo-
ing mathematical implementations and numerical simulations are discussed. This
chapter has six sections.
Chapter 4, authored by Ströbl, focuses on the very active topic of neutron optical
devices and the current development in various nuclear technologies. The introduc-
tion provides the basic principles of neutron imaging as a technique in material sci-
ence and industrial non-destructive testing applications. Focus is first on the two
fundamental constituents of imaging, spatial resolution and contrast, how they are
achieved and what their basics are, leading up to the information that can be pro-
vided and retrieved from neutron imaging. This includes parallels and complemen-
tarities with other transmission imaging methods and concludes with an overview
of traditional and state-of-the-art applications. The chapter contains three sections.
Chapter 5 by Pleshanov is dedicated to quite a modern and appealing topics
based upon neutron spin optics (NSO), with discussions on current perspectives.
NSO is a new direction in polarized neutron instrumentation. It is based on quantum
aspects of the interaction of neutrons with magnetically anisotropic layers. It opens
new possibilities for spin manipulations and may lead to numerous innovations in
neutron techniques. Advantages of NSO: compactness (miniaturization unlimited);
zero-field option (no external fields are required, guide fields are optional); multi-
functionality (handling spectrum, divergence, and spin manipulations at the same
time); new possibilities and solutions, including the beam hyperpolarization and spin
3D-manipulators. All these subjects are presented and discussed in the six sections
of this chapter.
Introduction xvii

The last chapter, Chapter 6 by Porras, concentrates on quite interesting and active
applications of neutron optics in biomedicine, namely, the so-called Boron Neutron
Capture Therapy (BNCT) and related techniques. In addition to the well-known
application of neutron scattering to structural biology, here is a very relevant applica-
tion of neutrons to health sciences: BNCT, a promising experimental form of radio-
therapy, which is facing a new era with renewed projects and under active research.
The chapter contains six sections.
All chapters have the corresponding references. The book ends with a subject
index.
As a final and general comment, this book has been conceived and designed for
readers having a background as scientists and technologists and with an interest in
expanding their knowledge in the field of nuclear physics, by enhancing a particu-
lar attention to neutron physics, neutron optics, its fundamentals, and related tech-
nologies. The diversity in presentation illustrates the conceptual richness of neutron
optics. Students in areas like physics and nuclear engineering could benefit from the
reading of the chapters. This will give an opportunity to authors and readers to share
the updating topics on this relevant and promising branch of physical science.
Section I
An Introductory Approach to the
Foundations of Neutron Optics
 1 Neutron Optics:
Fundamentals
Ramón F. Álvarez-Estrada and Maria L. Calvo

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction: Some Historical Background and Contents.................................4
1.2 General Aspects of Neutron Physics.................................................................6
1.2.1 Properties of the Neutron....................................................................... 6
1.2.2 Some Important Properties of Slow Neutrons....................................... 7
1.2.3 Detection of Slow Neutrons................................................................... 8
1.2.4 Artificial Sources for Neutrons............................................................ 10
1.2.4.1 Nuclear Reactors................................................................... 11
1.2.4.2 Small and Medium Accelerators.......................................... 12
1.2.4.3 Spallation Sources................................................................. 12
1.2.5 Moderated, Collimated and Quasi-Monochromatic
Slow Neutron Beams........................................................................... 13
1.2.6 Some Miscellaneous Aspects of Neutron Physics............................... 14
1.3 Description and Quantum Mechanical Properties of Slow Neutrons............. 16
1.3.1 Schrödinger Equation, Coherent Wave and Its Propagation............... 16
1.3.1.1 Cross Sections by Individual Atomic Nuclei........................ 18
1.3.1.2 Approximate Justification of the Slow Neutron
Optical Potential V ( x ): The Coherent Wave.........................20
1.3.2 Linear Coefficient for Slow Neutron Absorption................................24
1.3.3 Refractive Index for Slow Neutrons....................................................25
1.4 Pure States and Statistical Mixtures for Slow Neutrons..................................25
1.4.1 Pure States and Neutron Interferometry Experiments........................25
1.4.2 Statistical Mixtures of Slow Neutron Beams: Density Matrix............ 29
1.4.3 Approximate Formulas for Pure States and Statistical Mixtures........ 30
1.5 Reflection and Refraction of Slow Neutrons................................................... 32
1.5.1 Reflected and Refracted States for an Ideal Planar Surface
of Discontinuity: Fresnel Formulas..................................................... 32
1.5.2 Total Internal Reflection of Slow Neutrons......................................... 35
1.5.3 Ultracold Neutrons.............................................................................. 35
1.6 Magnetic Interactions of a Slow Neutron........................................................ 36
1.7 Some Applications of Thermal Neutrons........................................................ 38
1.7.1 Neutron Scattering by a Medium........................................................ 38
1.7.2 Neutron Diffraction............................................................................. 42
1.7.2.1 Introduction to the Dynamical Theory
of Neutron Diffraction.......................................................... 42

3
4 Advances in Neutron Optics

1.7.2.2 Approximation with One Amplitude.................................... 45

1.7.2.3 Approximation with Two Amplitudes (Bragg and Laue).......... 47
1.7.3 Neutron Diffraction by Crystals: Some Applications.......................... 50
1.7.3.1 Application of Bragg Diffraction to Produce
Monochromatic Beams of Slow Neutrons............................ 50
1.7.3.2 Application of Laue Diffraction to Neutron Interferometry....... 51
1.7.4 Comparison Between Slow Neutron Diffraction
and X-Ray Diffraction......................................................................... 53
1.7.5 Neutron Holography............................................................................ 54
1.7.5.1 Introduction: General Overview........................................... 54
1.7.5.2 Atomic-Resolution Slow Neutron Holography..................... 59
1.7.6 Effects of Gravity on Slow Neutrons: The Principle
of Equivalence at the Quantum Level................................................. 63
1.8 The Extinction Theorem: A New Approach.................................................... 65
1.8.1 A Qualitative Discussion..................................................................... 65
1.8.2 The New Approach Illustrated in a Simple Case................................66
1.9 Conclusion and Final Comments..................................................................... 69
1.10 Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
1.11 Exercises.......................................................................................................... 70
1.12 Solutions to Exercises...................................................................................... 71
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76

1.1 INTRODUCTION: SOME HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

AND CONTENTS
The existence of the neutron was experimentally established by J. Chadwick in 1932
[1] (see Figure 1.1). That fundamental discovery was the culmination of other impor-
tant researches (by W. Bothe and H. Becker, I. Curie, H. C. Webster, P. I. Dee, I. Curie
and F. Joliot, F. Perrin, N. Feather, E. Majorana, W. Heisenberg and D. Iwanenko);
see, for instance, Ref. [2] for a historical account. Experiments in 1936 pro-
vided adequate indication that crystalline materials diffracted slow neutrons: see
Ref. [3] for a readable historical account. Systematic researches by E. Fermi and W. H.
Zinn, started in 1944, had put neutron optics on firm grounds: their experiments, using
a collimated beam of thermal neutrons from a nuclear reactor, provided evidence of
mirror reflection [3–6, 25]. Since then, a whole variety of experiments have established
several optical-like effects for slow neutrons (with associated de Broglie wavelength at
an interval of about 1 Å). A number of researchers (G. E. Bacon, B. Brockhouse, L. M.
Corliss, J. M. Hastings, W. C. Koehler, C. G. Shull, M. K. Wilkinson, E. O. Wollan, …)
in various institutions made important contributions in developing and employing neu-
tron diffraction in order to analyze the atomic structure of matter (say, locations of the
atoms and their dynamics). In particular, B. Brockhouse and C. G. Shull were awarded
the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physics for their works on those subjects.
We shall not offer here a broad presentation of neutron optics: for comprehensive
views about it, the reader should proceed to other sources [2, 3, 5–8]. We shall limit
to treat in certain detail and for the sake of a basic understanding, some general
Neutron Optics: Fundamentals 5

To pump

Paraffin target

Neutrons Protons
To Oscillo-
Amplifier graph

Ionization
Chamber
Polonium Beryllium
α source

FIGURE 1.1 The experimental discovery of the neutron: Chadwick’s device (Courtesy of
and copyright Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, UK). Upper subfigure. A
source containing Po (polonium) emits α particles which, after nuclear reactions in the Be
(beryllium) target, give rise to an unknown electrically neutral radiation (solid arrow). The
unknown neutral radiation goes through a paraffin target, enters an ionization chamber and
generates, in the latter, further nuclear reactions which give rise to protons that, in turn, are
detected. The detection of the protons was accomplished by means of an amplifier and an
oscillograph. The paraffin target contains H, Li, Be, B, and N. The unknown neutral radiation
emitted by the Be target was consistently interpreted as a beam of neutrons.

aspects of neutron physics and neutron optics (including some discussions of a few
recent topics. The omissions of certain material will be justified, because it will be
treated in other chapters of this book. See, for instance, comments in Section 1.9).
The specific contents of this chapter are as follows: Section 1.2 outlines various
general aspects of neutron physics [2, 7, 9]. Section 1.3 summarizes wave propaga-
tion of slow neutrons, using quantum mechanics and yielding the basic effective
optical potential acting on them. Section 1.4 deals with quantum-mechanical
probabilistic issues, namely, pure states and statistical mixtures for slow neutrons.
Section 1.5 discusses reflection and refraction of slow neutrons. Section 1.6 outlines
some minimum essentials of magnetic interactions of slow neutrons due to their
spin: the active and expanding field of neutron spin optics will be treated at consider-
able length in Chapter 5 (some specific aspects, like spin polarization control and
spin filters, being treated, from another perspective, in Chapter 4). In search for
some further completeness, Section 1.7 treats various developments with thermal
6 Advances in Neutron Optics

neutrons, concentrating mostly on their dynamical diffraction by crystals and some

applications (in particular, neutron holography). Neutron diffraction and interfer-
ence, exploiting their analogies with the corresponding phenomena with light, as
well as entanglement and related issues from deeper quantum-mechanical standpoints
will be studied in Chapter 2. Section 1.8 deals with the extinction theorem and intro-
duce a new approach to it in a simple context, in connection with Section 1.5. Section
1.9 contains the conclusions and some discussions. Some calculations, omitted from
the main text, are presented as exercises, together with solutions for them.

1.2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF NEUTRON PHYSICS

1.2.1 Properties of the Neutron
The neutron (denoted by n) is one of the constituents of atomic nuclei. Its mass is
mn = 939.57MeV/c 2, its spin is  / 2 (thereby being half-integral), its magnetic moment
is µ n = −1.913µ N and it is electrically neutral. We remind that 1MeV = 10 6 eV (1 eV
denoting one electron-volt), c (= 2.998 × 1010 cm ⋅ s−1 ) is the speed of light in vacuum,
 (= 6.58 × 10 22 MeV ⋅ s) is Planck’s constant and µ N =  e / (2m p c) is one nuclear
magneton. In turn, s denotes one second, e = 1.602 × 10 −19 coulomb is the proton
electric charge and m p = 938.27MeV/c 2 is the proton mass. Many experiments
appear to indicate that the neutron has a vanishing electric dipole moment: more spe-
cifically, experimental upper bounds on its magnitude are of order 3.0 × 10 −26 e ⋅ cm :
for a slightly improved bound (− 0.21 ± 1.82 × 10 −26 e ⋅ cm), see Ref. [10].
The neutron is not strictly elementary—rather, it is composed by other three more
elementary or fundamental entities, named quarks. Quarks have fractional electric
charges. Specifically, the neutron is a bound system of one certain type of quark with
electric charge +(2 / 3) e (named quark u) and of two other quarks, each with electric
charge −(1 / 3) e (named quark d) [2, 9]. The overall electric charge of the neutron, as
a bound system (due to strong interactions) of those three charged entities, vanishes
consistently. All phenomena to be dealt with in this chapter take place at ranges of
energies and at length scales such that each of the neutrons involved behaves as an
elementary particle (its composedness not becoming manifest)—this is the point of
view to be followed here. That is, we shall disregard completely and consistently the
fact that the neutron be composed by other more fundamental entities.
The neutron is unstable, its lifetime being 886.7 s. All neutron phenomena
(in particular, the travels of slow neutrons along various, eventually macroscopic,
distances) treated in this chapter occur during time intervals shorter than its lifetime.
Accordingly, one can disregard the neutron instability as a reliable approximation
and, hence, one can treat it as a stable particle (as if it had an infinite lifetime).
A discussion about the influence of gravity on slow neutrons, moving on the sur-
face of the Earth with differences of height not exceeding one m (which will always
be the case here), will be given in Subsection 1.7.6.
Let us consider a nonrelativistic neutron with kinetic energy EK and de Broglie
wavelength λ dB . They are related through EK = (2 π)2 / (2mn λ dB 2
) . In a rather strict
sense, a neutron is named “thermal” if it has EK  0.025 eV and λ dB  1.8 Å.
If a thermal neutron moves through a material medium at thermodynamic
Neutron Optics: Fundamentals 7

equilibrium at absolute temperature T = 293 K (20°C, say, room temperature),

then one has, consistently, 0.025 eV = (3 / 2) K B T , K B = 1.38 × 10 −23 m 2 kg−2 K −1
being Boltzmann’s constant.
Various specific names are usually attributed to nonrelativistic neutrons according to
the ranges of their kinetic energy, although there does not seem to exist unique (unani-
mously accepted) conventions. Thus, in a less strict sense, neutrons with EK ranging
from about 0.003 eV up to about 0.4 or 0.5 eV are also named “thermal.” Optical-
like phenomena with slow neutrons having EK smaller than about 0.03 eV are also
of considerable interest; such neutrons are denoted generically as cold. In a some-
what more strict sense, neutrons also receive the following more specific names: cold
(5 × 10 −5 eV ≤ EK < 0.025 eV), very cold (5 × 10 −5 eV > EK > 2 × 10 −7 eV) and ultra-
cold ( EK < 2 × 10 −7 eV) [2]. Neutrons with EK in the range 0.4 − 0.5 eV to 0.1 and,
even, to a few tens keV are usually called epithermal (1 keV = 10 3 eV). In a general
sense, we shall refer to ultracold, cold, thermal, and epithermal neutrons as “slow.”
Neutrons with EK in the range just above the epithermal one, up to about 200 keV are
named intermediate energy ones. Neutrons with kinetic energy in the range 200 keV up
about 10 MeV are referred to as fast. One usually refers to neutrons with EK larger than
10 MeV as high energy ones. Throughout this chapter, we shall have in mind thermal
neutrons (in both strict and non-strict senses). However, various results for other slow
neutrons (ultracold, epithermal, etc.) and even fast ones will also be mentioned.
The basic quantum-mechanical analysis for thermal neutrons, including the
basic optical potential, will also hold for slow neutrons (in particular, for epi-
thermal ones), except, at most, for a few specific details. For this reason, we
shall frequently replace “thermal neutrons” by “slow neutrons” in the quantum-
mechanical studies.

1.2.2 Some Important Properties of Slow Neutrons

We shall overview very briefly a few reasons supporting the interest and importance
of slow neutrons [2, 7, 9].

• The de Broglie wavelength for (strictly) thermal neutrons with EK  0.025 eV

(namely, λ dB = 1.8 Å) has the same order of magnitude as the spacings
between two neighboring atoms in a typical crystal. This allows for a beam
of (strictly) thermal neutrons, going through a crystal lattice, to give rise to
interference and diffraction phenomena, as already displayed in researches
at early stages. See Figures 1.7, 1.10, and 1.11. Then, by analyzing the result-
ing diffraction patterns, such thermal neutrons allow to explore interatomic
spacings and structure in crystals. In this application, thermal neutrons do
a job similar (or, as qualified below, complementary) to the one X-rays do.
More generally, slow neutrons with 0.1 ≤ λ dB ≤ 20 (in Å) have proved to be
quite adequate and very useful in order to study correlations among atoms
and among magnetic subdomains in condensed matter.
• Slow neutron with energies EK in the range 10 −2 to 10 −1 eV enable to analyze
molecular vibrations, while those with EK about 10 −6 eV allow for explor-
ing certain slow dynamics of polymers (their reptation).
8 Advances in Neutron Optics

• Slow neutrons can penetrate into various materials, without being absorbed
appreciably along a certain limited depth and without producing significant
modifications in the former. In comparison with slow neutrons, and on the
opposite side, X-rays turn out to be more strongly absorbed and rather destruc-
tive. See Subsection 1.7.4. Then, that (relatively) nondestructive character of
slow neutrons makes them quite convenient for (i) the experimental study of
several properties and behaviors of biological matter, (ii) the determination
of the composition of small samples of certain materials without producing
appreciable damage in them (neutron activation analysis), (iii) the processes
of making images of objects with neutrons (neutron imaging), which refer
to a collection of nondestructive testing methods, exploiting the penetration
and attenuation properties of neutrons to investigate the internal structure of
the imaged objects. See Figure 3.2. Chapter 4 is devoted to neutron imaging.
• Slow neutrons which have penetrated into matter beyond some depth, could,
at a later stage, be eventually absorbed through suitable nuclear reactions
occurring at certain localized domains. In certain cases, those nuclear reac-
tions can be relatively nondestructive but in other cases, they turn out to be
certainly destructive. In the case of biological matter (human tissue), the
damage produced by those nuclear reactions can be beneficial in order to
kill tumor cells (therapies based on neutron capture). See Figure 3.18. Since
that fact has enormous interest, an updated account of that active and inter-
disciplinary application of slow neutron physics will be given in Chapter 6.

1.2.3 Detection of Slow Neutrons

As the neutron is electrically neutral, its detection is not direct but it proceeds indi-
rectly as follows [2, 9]. Arrangements are made so that the neutron to be detected
gives rise to some nuclear reaction. The detection of some suitably chosen final prod-
uct (a charged particle or a photon, γ) in that nuclear reaction constitutes an indirect
detection of the initial neutron. See Figure 1.1.
Recall that ZA X denotes a nucleus of chemical species X, with atomic number Z
and mass number A (i.e., with Z protons and A − Z neutrons). For the sake of brevity,
our notations will not distinguish between the atomic nucleus and the atom which
contains it: either the former or the latter will be understood and, so, easily deduced
from the context if required.
The variety of neutron detectors is quite wide and, so, we shall limit ourselves
here to quote some of them.
6
3 Li (with abundance 7.4%) captures and absorbs thermal neutrons with high prob-
ability. Thus, reasonable amounts (say, widths of about several mm) of 63 Li may be
sufficient to provide protection from slow neutrons. On the other hand, natural lith-
ium (say, the mixture of isotopes of this element naturally occurring and found) has
an absorption probability for thermal neutrons about an order of magnitude smaller.
Natural boron (B) and, in particular, cadmium (Cd) absorb thermal neutrons strongly.
Three different (standard) detection procedures are based, respectively, upon
the nuclear reactions n +105 B → α + 3 Li (in proportional counters, containing boron
7

trifluoride), n + 3 Li → α +1 H (in spark counters) and n + 32 He → p +13 H (neutrons

6 3
Neutron Optics: Fundamentals 9

bombarding helium-3, in proportional counters). 13 H denotes tritium. The subsequent

detections of the outgoing charged particles (the α particle or the proton, p) in the
counters provide the indirect detection of the neutron which triggered the corre-
sponding nuclear reaction.
Gas proportional detectors containing a suitable nuclide with high neutron cross sec-
tion (like helium-3 or lithium-6 or boron-10 or uranium-235) allow to detect neutrons.
Another procedure, with important applications, is based on “activation” reac-
tions induced by incoming beams of slow neutrons on suitable targets. Examples of
such reactions are: n + 55
25 Mn (manganese) → γ + 25 Mn, n + 79 Au (gold) → γ + 79 Au,
56 197 198

and n + 27 Co (cobalt) → γ + 27 Co. We remind that 25 Mn, 79 Au, and 27 Co in the tar-
59 60 55 197 59

gets are the isotopes found in nature, with abundances about 100% in each case.
Each of those reactions gives rise to isotopes (56 198 60
25 Mn, 79 Au, and 27 Co, in the above
examples) which are radioactive, with lifetimes ranging from minutes to days. These
isotopes decay, returning to their ground states (or to less excited ones), and, in so
doing, they emit various radiations (electrons, photons, etc.) which are detected. The
activity A (i.e., the number of those products emitted by the radioactive isotopes
in the targets and counted by suitable detectors, per unit time) is measured. A useful
approximate formula for A (in counts per second) is [9]

mσF0
A  [1 − exp(−λt )]. (1.1)
A

Here, F0 is the flux of incoming slow neutrons (measured in neutrons/(cm 2 ⋅ s)). See
Subsections 1.4.1 and 1.4.2 for discussions and interpretations of neutron fluxes. m
and A are the mass (in grams) and the mass number of the element (isotopes found in
nature) subject to neutron bombardment, respectively. σ is the cross section for slow
neutron capture by that element. λ is the decay constant for the decay of the isotope
formed by the neutron capture and t is the duration of the neutron bombardment.
In a typical application of “activation” reactions to neutron detection, such reac-
tions allow for measuring, specifically, the flux ( F0 ) of the incoming neutron beam,
without introducing significant perturbations in the latter. Thus, a thin target of a
suitable material is exposed to the neutron beam to be measured. After some reason-
able time, the irradiated thin target is removed from the beam and the γ radioactiv-
ity of the corresponding radioactive isotopes induced by the captured neutrons is
analyzed subsequently in suitable counters. Specifically, the activity A is measured.
The value of F0 follows from Eq. (1.1), if the remaining quantities in it are known.
The technique is applied typically to beams of thermal and epithermal neutrons. A
wide variety of materials have been employed for the thin target: in particular, 5525 Mn,
197 59 113
79 Au, 27 Co, 48 Cd (cadmium), etc.
Certain selected elements provide further options for neutron detection through
activation. For instance (in shorted notations for elements and reactions): iron
(56 Fe(n, p)56 Mn) , aluminum (27 Al(n, α)24 Na), silicon (28 Si(n, p)28 Al) . Those ele-
ments are suitable because they have extremely large cross sections for the capture
of neutrons within a very narrow energy band.
These “activation” detections are related to the so-called neutron activation anal-
ysis to be discussed in Subsection 1.2.6, which has important applications.
10 Advances in Neutron Optics

1.2.4 Artificial Sources for Neutrons

We shall provide a short survey of various small, medium, and large sources of slow
neutron beams [2, 9].

• A source of α particles (say, the fully ionized nucleus 42 He, helium), pro-
duced, for instance, in α decay of another nuclei, and a beryllium target,
through the nuclear reaction α + 94 Be → n +12 6 C, give rise to neutrons with
EK about 5 MeV. 12 6 C denotes a carbon nucleus. This reaction, which gives
rise to a neutron source at a laboratory scale, was precisely the one which
led to the discovery of the neutron [1]. A typical α-beryllium neutron source
may give rise, approximately, to 30 neutrons for every one million incom-
ing α particles. In turn, the corresponding emission rates range from 10 6 to
108 neutrons per second. See Figure 1.1 [1].
• Photons ( γ ), previously emitted in the decay of some adequate radioisotope
(like 124 Sb, antimony), give rise to photo-nuclear reactions like, for instance,
γ + 94 Be → n + 84 Be. The neutrons so produced have EK smaller than 1 MeV.
• Californium 98 ( 252
)
Cf is a source of neutrons. 98 252
Cf suffers spontaneous
252
nuclear fission, which gives rise to fast neutrons. The half-life of 98 Cf is
2.6 years; his implies that, as a neutron source emitting in the beginning
10 7 to 10 9 neutrons per second, it may require a relatively frequent replace-
ment. We shall comment later in Subsection 1.2.6 on one recent application
of this type of source.

Just to confirm the ubiquitous interest of neutron sources, we quote shortly the fol-
lowing new project for a source of high-energy neutrons (to be constructed in the near
future). The projected very large fusion reactor after International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor (ITER) (namely, the future Demonstration Reactor or DEMO,
which should produce electric energy) will require that its first inner wall be able
to support very intense fluxes of high-energy neutrons. Materials for that first inner
wall have to be tested, validated, and qualified. The latter processes, in turn, have
motivated the project of a unique neutron source with energy spectrum and flux
tuned to test possible materials for the first wall when that fusion reactor will be
operational. This project, at the European level, of a neutron source is called DONES
(DEMO Oriented Neutron Source). DONES is based on a deuteron (d) accelerator
(40 MeV, 125 mA in continuous wave (CW) mode, with 5 MW beam average power).
Deuterons hit, with a rectangular beam size (approximately 20 cm × 5 cm), a liquid
Li (lithium) screen target flowing at 15 m/s to dissipate the beam power and gener-
ating a flux of neutrons of 1018 m −2 s−1 with a broad peak at 14 MeV through strip-
ping nuclear reactions, thereby reproducing the expected conditions of fusion power
plants. Materials will be irradiated by the neutron beam as close as possible to the Li
target to obtain damage rates. See: https://www.euro-fusion.org/programme/demo/
There are three very important artificial sources of neutrons to be treated in
the following three subsections. Due to their relevance, they will also be consid-
ered in Chapter 3 (briefly), Chapter 4, and Chapter 6 (in connection with neutron
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great objection to being advised or directed—dictated to, as I said,
and I frequently took the opposite course to that which was
suggested to me, out of sheer obstinacy and determination to have
my own way."

Ned glanced at Frank, and Frank on his part looked steadfastly at

the fire.

"So I kept on my way," continued the squire, "and we soon entered

the swamp. The road was sufficiently wide, and very smooth and
even. The moon shone gloriously, making the trees and bushes
appear as if covered with diamonds, and checkered the road with
light and shade, as some great tree now and then threw its branches
over the track."

"John's house was situated nearly in the middle of the long swamp,
in a little open space, where there was a rise of ground and few
acres of excellent land, which he had cleared and got under some
kind of cultivation. As we drove by, we saw by the dancing, flickering
light in the window that he had got a great fire. It shone through the
uncurtained glass clear across the road, and as we passed, John
himself came to the door. I pulled up for a moment, and asked him
how his wife was."

"'She is very bad,' he answered, shaking his head. 'Nothing will

persuade her that she does not hear the wolves, and I had to make
up a great roaring fire to satisfy her. I just came to the door to see if
there was any sound to be heard, but I can't make out anything more
than common.'"

"I felt Carry give a little start at the mention of wolves. As we drove
on, the dog began to bark furiously, now and thou breaking into a
long, doleful howl. We heard him for a long time as we drove through
the swamp."

"'The old dog means to have the last word,' said I. 'He makes more
noise than a dozen wolves. I don't believe he thinks us very
respectable characters, Carry.'"
"Carry did not answer. Her flow of conversation seemed to have
been suddenly stopped by John's words, and as she put back her
veil I could see that she was listening. I confess I heartily wished that
we had gone by the other road, though nothing would have made me
acknowledge it. Nevertheless, I grew more and more uncomfortable
every moment, and I drove as fast as I could. To add to my
annoyance, the horse began to prick up his ears and show signs of
restiveness, and finally broke into a gallop."

"'What ails the brute!' I exclaimed, using, I am afraid, rather a hard

word. But Carry laid her hand on my arm."

"'Hush, Harry! For mercy's sake, don't swear! Listen!'"

"I listened, and the cold sweat broke out on my forehead, for I heard
the howling of the wolves as plainly as I now hear the roaring of the
wind."

"What was it like?" asked Agatha, drawing somewhat nearer to

Frank.

"Like no sound you ever heard. Perhaps a little like the long-drawn
howl of a hound, but a great deal more wild and doleful. At first I
could not tell whether the sound was behind or before us; but by
listening a moment, I satisfied myself that our enemies at present
were all in the rear, though evidently in hot pursuit, as the sounds
grew louder every moment. Our lives depended upon our being able
to reach the edge of the swamp before they came up with us, or,
failing that, to attain some place of comparative safety near at hand.
I could think of but two. One was an old log-house which stood by
the side of the road in an abandoned clearing. I had once been in it,
and I know that the walls were in tolerably good repair, if there were
only doors and windows but how that was I could not remember. The
other was a strong, low growing oak tree, which stood a little beyond
the clearing."

"I whipped up Charley and he flew like the wind. I think if he had
been fresh we should have kept our distance without much trouble.
But he had already been driven a good way, and after a little, he
began to be distressed. Still I pushed on, for it was our only hope. In
a few moments—it could have been but a few, though it seemed an
age—we reached the house, and I saw, to my horror, that the
windows and a part of the roof were gone, end the door was off its
hinges and lay flat on the ground."

"I believe I gave a little groan on seeing this, for Carry said, in a low
voice—she had not said a word before:"

"'We are lost, then! Oh, my poor mother!'"

"'No, no!' I cried. 'There is the oak tree a little further on. Courage,
Carry, we will cheat them yet!' I shouted to Charley to encourage
him, and the noble fellow made a new effort. I could see our
pursuers coming on behind us, and evidently gaining ground."

"At last we made a little turn, and there was the great oak, stretching
its low short branches over the road. It was but an instant's work to
spring from the cutter."

"'Up, up, Carry, for your life!' I said. 'They are upon us!'"

"Carry, as I said, was small and wonderfully active. Dropping her

heavy cloak, she sprang from the ground like a cat, and caught the
limb. I pushed her from below, and she raised herself to the bough,
where she clung securely. I followed her only just in time, for before I
was fairly in the tree the head of the nearest wolf appeared round the
turn in the road. Charley, relieved from our weight, bounded forward
like a deer, and, as I looked after him, I saw with delight that he had
freed himself from the cutter. The wolves were close upon him, and
one of them actually sprang upon his flunk, but a well-directed kick
sent him howling backwards with a broken leg."

"The instant the other wolves saw that their comrade was disabled,
they set upon him after their fashion, which gave both Charley and
ourselves a respite. I was not without hope that he would reach
home in safety, and I knew that if he did, he would give the alarm.
Grandfather would perceive that some accident had happened, and
come out at once to see what was the matter. I proposed to Carry
that we should climb higher in the tree, and thus place ourselves in e
position at once more comfortable and more secure. I could see by
the moonlight that she was pale as death, but no old hunter could be
cooler or more collected. She managed her movements so well that
in a few moments she was seated in perfect safety among the upper
branches of the tree, where the trunk served at once to shelter her
from the wind and support her arm and shoulder."

"'Now, Carry,' said I, 'we are safe, so far as the wolves are
concerned. The only danger now is from the cold. You must make up
your mind that you will not go to sleep.'"

"'Sleep!' said she, shuddering. 'I don't feel as though I should ever
sleep again, much less here!'"

"'You don't know how you will feel when you are chilled through,' I
replied. 'If we can only stand it till daylight, we shall be safe, at any
rate. What time is it now?'"

"Carry looked at her watch. It was half-past nine. 'A long, long night
is before us!' said she, sighing. 'I fear we shall never be able to stand
it through, but I will do my best to keep awake. May God have mercy
on us!'"

"'Amen!' said I, fervently, and that amen was the first real prayer I
ever said in my life."

"Many another first prayer has been made under like

circumstances," remarked the clergyman; "and, alas! Many a last
one also. But go on with your story, sir."

"The wolves still hung over the remains of their dead comrade at
some little distance," continued the squire, "and I thought I might
venture down to secure one of the buffalo robes and Carry's cloak,
which lay on the ground. Without telling Carry what I was about to
do, I bade her sit still and make no noise, while I carefully descended
from branch to branch and dropped softly upon the ground. I threw
the skin and the cloak up on the branch."

"But the snow was cold and creaked under my feet. One of the
wolves looked round, and in a moment the whole pack were upon
me. I was too quick for them, however. As I swung myself upon the
branch, I had the satisfaction of dealing the nearest wolf a kick with
my heavy cowhide boot which would not have disgraced a mule. In
another moment I was safe at Carry's side with my prize, which was
worth more than its weight in gold to us at that moment, for the
weather was growing very cold. I wrapped Carry in her cloak, and
would have given her the whole of the skin; but she insisted upon my
sharing it, and finding, upon examination, that the bough was strong
enough to bear a dozen men safely, I drew close to her side and put
my arm round her waist."

"More than a dozen wolves were now assembled round the foot of
the tree, howling and yelling as they looked up at us. Every now and
then one of them would give a leap upward, as if to secure his
supper at any rate. How thankful I felt when I remembered that
wolves cannot climb!"

"Cannot they climb?" asked Ned.

"No, no more than a dog. If they could climb as well as run, few
creatures could escape from them. The wind had now risen a little,
and it was very cold, so that in spite of the buffalo skin, we shivered
from head to foot. I looked at Carry, and I perceived that her eyes
closed every now and then."

"'Carry,' said I; 'you are growing sleepy!"

"'I know it,' she replied, rousing herself. 'It seems very strange, but I
believe, if I were sure of not falling, I should go to sleep in a
moment.'"

"'And never wake again in this world!' said I. 'Don't you know that the
sleep which comes from cold ends only in death? You must keep
awake, whatever happens!'"

"'I will,' said she. And in a moment she began to sing the 'Gloria in
Excelsis.' I had often admired her singing before, and since then I
have heard that magnificent old chant in grand churches and
cathedrals at home and abroad, but I never heard it sound so
wonderfully and gloriously pathetic as it did that night, ringing among
the trees of the swamp as she sang: 'Thou who takest away the sins
of the world, have mercy upon us!'"

The squire paused for a moment and wiped his spectacles.

"It made me cry at first; for I thought she might be singing the angels'
song in another world before Christmas morning shone upon this.
But presently I recovered myself a little and joined my voice to hers.
For more than two hours we sat there in the tree, singing chants and
hymns and repeating parts of the Church service. We knew plenty of
songs, but we did not feel like singing them then."

"'This is Christmas Eve,' said Carry, at last. 'Can you realize it,
Harry?'"

"I did realize it, bitterly enough. 'Yes,' said I; 'and all our folks—yours
and mine—are enjoying it at home, never thinking of us!'"

"'Perhaps they do think of us,' said Carry softly. 'And at any rate,
Harry, God thinks of us.'"

"'Why don't He help us, then?' I thought, rebelliously enough, and

then the thought crossed me that I had never in my life asked Him
honestly to help me—never, in fact, felt the need of His help. I had
always felt sufficient to myself, and it was this very self-sufficiency
which had brought us into all this trouble."

"'Carry,' said I, half-choking, 'do say that you forgive me for bringing
you into this scrape.'"
"'There is nothing to forgive,' replied Carry. 'It was not your fault. You
did not know anything about the wolves.'"

"'I did! I did!' I cried. 'Mr. Jones warned me not to come by this road,
but I thought I knew best. Oh, Carry, can you forgive me?'"

"Carry was silent for a moment. 'I forgive you,' said she; 'but, Harry,
let this be a lesson to you!'"

"Notwithstanding all our exertions to keep warm and wakeful, we

began to be very much overcome with the cold. I tried to say my
prayers, to confess my sins, and to pray for my poor mother and
sisters, but my head was growing confused, and I could think of
nothing distinctly. Carry was now quite silent, but I could see that her
lips moved. Suddenly she gave such a violent start that I thought she
was going to fall."

"'Take care!' said I. 'Sit still!'"

"'Harry!' said she, whispering, as if afraid the wolves would overhear

her, 'Harry, I heard a shot!'"

"'Some tree cracking with the frost,' said I."

"'It was a rifle shot!' said she, positively. 'There, again!'"

"I heard it this time—the unmistakable sharp crack of a rifle—and

then a distant shout."

"'Safe! Safe!' I cried, exultingly. 'They have taken the alarm and have
come out to look for us!'"

"I put my two fingers in my mouth and gave a loud, shrill whistle—a
peculiar whistle, which my grandfather and I had agreed upon as a
signal when he was needed at the mill. It was answered by another
shout, and presently I saw through the trees the red light of torches
and lanterns. The wolves took to flight as they approached, and we
were saved."
"It had turned out as I had hoped. Once free from incumbrance,
Charley had gained on his pursuers and reached the open country
where they dared not follow him. He took the straight road home as
a matter of course, and came clattering round to the back door."

"'There are the children, at last!' remarked my grandfather, rising;

but, just as he was about opening the door, Peter, the black man,
came in, looking decidedly startled, and as pale, my grandfather said
afterwards, as could possibly be expected of as black as his hat."

"'I'se afraid something has happened to the young folks, boss,' said
he. 'Charley has come home by hisself without the cutter, and a
great bite on his flank. I'se dreadful afraid something bad has
happened.'"

"'You are right, Peter, something bad has happened!' said my

grandfather, examining the home. 'I am afraid this means wolves!
We must raise the neighbors at once and go out to look for the poor
children. Run and ring the mill bell as hard as you can, while I saddle
the horses.'"

"The jingling bell soon called together all the men of the settlement.
Horses were brought out, guns loaded, and torches lighted, and they
set out to look for us with but little hope of finding us alive."

"Trembling and exhausted, we were helped down from our perch.

But we were both too weak to sit on horseback, and the men were
obliged to construct litters to carry us home. Seeing Carry laid upon
hers was the last thing I remembered for many days."

"The Christmas service took place, and was well attended, but
neither Carry nor myself were among the congregation. I was laid up
with a fever and as crazy as a loon, as they say, for three weeks.
When I recovered, they told me that I had acted over again all the
scenes I had passed through, sometimes whipping the horse, and
then encouraging Carry or singing hymns and chants. I was very
weak and unwell all the rest of the winter, and quite unable to work,
so I had plenty of time to think; and, I trust, my thinking was to good
purpose."

"From that time forward we had service and preaching every two
weeks in the schoolhouse. The next spring my grandfather built a
neat little church, and the Bishop paid us a visit. Carry and I were
among the persons confirmed, and I trust we have been able to lead
the rest of our lives according to that beginning. Carry had a terrible
cold and lost her voice, so that she was never able to sing
afterwards. And that, children, was the very longest Christmas eve I
ever spent in my life."

CHAPTER III.
THE OLD LADY'S STORY.
"BUT you had a pretty good Christmas tree, sir, after all," remarked
Herbert.

The squire laughed. "Why, yes, my son, we could hardly have had a
better, under the circumstances."

"How would you have liked that for an adventure, Ned?" asked
Herbert, turning to Edward. "That was strange and unexpected
enough to suit you!"

"I shouldn't like it at all," replied Ned, decidedly. "I like pleasant
adventures."

"Unluckily, my dear, it is not easy to find adventures which are

pleasant and dangerous at the same time," remarked the clergyman.
"One is seldom able to enjoy the sublime and beautiful when one is
cold, hungry, and in danger of breaking one's neck or being eaten up
alive."

"But come, grandmother, it is your turn," said the squire. "Turn and
turn-about, you know."

"O yes, do please, grandmamma!" chimed in May and Annie. "Your

stories are so nice!"

"Very well, I will tell you a story," said the old lady, smiling; "but I
must inform you beforehand that there are no adventures in it,
though the incidents which I am about to relate occurred at an early
date in the settlement of New York State. We will call it, if you please:

"MY AUNT DEAN'S CARPET."

"I must begin by telling you that all the main incidents of my story are
quite true."

"That is nice," whispered Agatha. "I love true stories."

The old lady smiled, and went on as follows:

"My great-aunt married Mr. James Dean, and moved out to

Westmoreland, Oneida county, when that part of the country was
quite new. Mr. Dean had been the United States agent for the
Oneida and Stockbridge Indians during the Revolutionary war, and it
was mainly by his influence that those tribes were kept faithful to the
American interests, while most of the tribes making up the great
Iroquois nation went over to the British."

"Mr. Dean grew up among the Indians. When he was ten years old,
his father took him into New York State and left him with the
Oneidas, that he might acquire a thorough knowledge of their
manners and language. It was a severe ordeal for the little white boy
at first, as all the Indian lads maltreated him and he had no one to
take his part. But after a time he was adopted by an old squaw, who
gave him such efficient protection that he was quite secure from his
persecutors. After a time a missionary, the Rev. Mr. Kirkland,
represented to them the great advantage they would reap from
having with them an educated white man who should be firmly
attached to their interests, and this induced them to send young
James to school at Dartmouth, where he received an admirable
education."

"My uncle met with abundance of adventures among the Indians, but
I will only relate one, which will illustrate Mr. Dean's firmness and
presence of mind. At one time during the Revolution—I do not know
the exact date—a deputation was sent from the Oneida Indians to
their friends in Canada to try to induce them to espouse the
American interests, or rather remain neutral, which was all that any
one asked of them."
"Why was it that so many Indians went over to the side of the British
during the war?" asked Frank.

"The reason was a very simple one," replied the scholar. "The British
authorities offered a liberal bounty for scalps, and were in no wise
particular as to the age or sex of the person from whom the scalp
was taken. In a rare and very interesting book, called the 'Annals of
Tryon County,' is given a full account of the matter, with a list or
invoice of scalps, showing the number of infants' scalps, scalps of
mothers, &c. These facts excited great indignation in England, and
were spoken of in the House of Commons as they deserved; all of
which did not prevent the same savage allies being employed again
in the war of 1812."

"It was thought necessary," continued the old lady, "that James, or,
as he was familiarly called, Jemmy Dean, should accompany the
deputation, and he consented to do so, though at the imminent risk
of his life; for there was not one of the hostile Indians who would not
have given his best horse and ride to have the scalp of Jemmy Dean
hanging at his belt, so much was he feared and hated by them. His
hair and skin, however, were as dark as an Oneida's. He had a
perfect acquaintance with their language and all their customs; and,
disguised with paint and blanket, he accompanied his friends on their
expedition, passing for a half-breed, of which there were a great
many among the Indians. The ambassadors reached their
destination in safety, and Jemmy, as one of the principal personages
of the company, was admitted to share the lodge and blanket of the
hostile chief."

"In the course of the night the chief entered into conversation with
his guest, endeavoring to persuade him to employ his influence with
the Oneidas in bringing them over to the British. He ascribed their
backwardness to Jemmy Dean, that white villain, as he called him,
who persuaded them into acting contrary to their true interests; and,
becoming violently excited as he went on, he started up from his
couch, drew his knife, and showed, by various significant gestures,
what he would do to the said Jemmy, if he caught him. Little did he
imagine that that very Jemmy Dean was lying by his side, with his
hand on the haft of his knife, that he might be ready to defend his life
if it became necessary. By degrees, the chief calmed down and went
to sleep, but my uncle, as may be imagined, got very little rest. He
had no fears of betraying himself, but the Canada Indians, in the true
spirit of savage hospitality, had made their guests as drunk as
possible; and he feared that some of his companions, under the
influence of whiskey, might let out the secret, in which case his life
would not have been worth an hour's purchase. However, the secret
was kept, and Jemmy Dean and his companions next morning took
their departure in safety."

"My uncle had many adventures during the war, but he passed
through them all in safety. At the close of the struggle, he married my
aunt, Miss Lydia Camp, and settled in the midst of his large landed
property in Westmoreland, Oneida county. As it was his object to
draw settlers round him, he disposed of a great deal of his land at a
very cheap rate, and the consequence was that he had many
neighbors so poor as often to be in want of the actual necessaries of
life."

"My aunt Dean was a very beautiful woman, of remarkably decided

character and strong intellect. She had received a fine education,
and had a great fondness for books and study, while she cared little
for fashion or display of any kind. Above all, she was a most diligent
student of her Bible, and was given to interpreting the practical
precepts of the Gospel more literally than is altogether the fashion
nowadays. She was apt to give to him that asked of her, and from
him that would borrow she turned not away. To do good and to
distribute, she forgot not; and it may easily be guessed that, living in
the midst of such a population, she had abundant opportunities of
reducing her principles to practice."

"She was surgeon, physician, apothecary, and nurse to all the poor
people for many miles round, and neither white man nor Indian ever
appealed to her in vain. But it was not only to the body that she
ministered. Many a sorrowful soul had been comforted by her, many
an ignorant one enlightened, many a wanderer led into the way of
peace. There was not a man, woman, or child in Westmoreland that
did not love and revere Madam Dean, or that would not have done
her any service in their power."

"My uncle's business as member of the Assembly and Indian Agent

took him often to Albany, New York, and Philadelphia. On one
occasion, as he was going down to New York, he proposed to his
wife that, as their new house was completed and they could well
afford the expense, he should purchase a carpet for the parlor and
bring it home with him."

"'Well,' said my aunt, 'I should be very glad to have one. A carpet
does more towards furnishing a parlor than anything else one can
put into it, so far as comfort is concerned. It will make our room seem
much more cosy and homelike when cold weather comes.'"

"My aunt glanced round with some complacency at the neatly

finished and well-furnished apartment, and in her mind's eye saw the
white boards already covered with a warm-colored carpet."

"It was thus settled that my uncle should bring home a carpet, and
the color and quality were agreed upon. My uncle considered the
matter as disposed of, but the next night, as they were seated by the
fire (for it was at a time of year when a bright blaze was comfortable
in the evening), my aunt adverted to the carpet again."

"'Mr. Dean,' said she, laying down her knitting for a moment, 'I have
been thinking about that carpet again.'"

"'Well,' said my uncle, rather absently, and without looking up, for he
had got hold of his favorite newspaper, only ten days old, and was
absorbed in its perusal."

"'And I rather think I have changed my mind about it,' continued

Madam Dean, altering a little the position of her knitting sheath."
"'Indeed!' said her husband, looking a little surprised, for my aunt
was not apt to change her mind upon slight grounds. 'But perhaps
you would prefer something else than the carpet?'"

"'I do not care anything about a carpet as a matter of display,' said

my aunt, resuming her work. 'It is only as a matter of comfort that I
want one at all.'"

"'Well, my dear, what then?'"

"'And a carpet spun and woven at home would be quite as

comfortable, though not as handsome, as one brought from New
York.'"

"'And not as expensive,' remarked my uncle; 'but you need not deny
yourself on that account.'"

"'I was not considering the expense,' replied my aunt. 'What I thought
was this: that by having my carpet spun and woven at home I could
give employment and a means of subsistence to some of the poor
women about us, whose families, I fear, will have hard work to get
through the winter with any degree of comfort.'"

"'I thought there was some such idea at the bottom of the matter,'
said my uncle, smiling in his turn. 'But please yourself, my dear. For
my own part, I shall be as well satisfied with the homespun carpet as
with the handsomest one over imported; and I fully agree with you as
to the desirableness of finding employment for our poor neighbors.
But how will you manage the matter?'"

"'I shall call them together and give out the wool,' replied Madam
Dean. 'They can take it to their own homes, and spin and double and
twist it, and when they bring it home, I can pay them either in money
or anything else they may happen to want.'"

"Mr. Dean agreed with his wife that the plan was an excellent one,
and, some days after his departure for New York, she proceeded to
put it into execution. She prepared her stores of wool, and, calling
her neighbors together, she explained to them that she wanted it
spun, requesting each woman to take home such an amount of the
wool as she thought she could manufacture within the appointed
time."

"'What in the world are you going to do with so much yarn, madam
Dean?' asked Bethiah Coffin, who had three little children, and a
husband bed-ridden with rheumatism. 'I shouldn't think you could
ever use it in your own family!'"

"It is not for cloth, but for a carpet,' explained my aunt. 'I am going to
have a carpet made for the floor of my new parlor, which, you see, is
quite large. I do not think there will be too much wool for the
purpose.'"

"'A carpet! You don't say so!' said old Mrs. Davis. 'I haven't seen a
carpeted floor since I came to York State. Old Madam Childs, in
Pittsfield, where I came from, had carpets on her best rooms, but
they were boughten ones, brought from England before the war.'"

"'All this nice wool for a carpet, just to cover the floor and be walked
on!' said Bethiah, holding up her hands. 'What a waste!'"

"'Do you think so?' asked my aunt, smiling.

"'Well, it ain't my business, I know,' replied Bethiah, blushing; 'but if

your blankets were as thin as mine, Madam Dean, you might think
so too. You see, they were not new when I had 'em. They were some
that my mother-in-law gave me—my own folks were all killed down
to Wyoming and our house burned—and he has been sick so much
that they have come to a great deal of wear. I'm afraid they won't be
of much use this winter, for our house is dreadful cold!'"

"'My blankets are good enough,' said Mrs. Givens. 'I had three pairs
of new ones when I was married. But I haven't a yard of flannel in
the house except what this baby has on, and that is none of the
thickest. How the others are to keep warm I don't know, unless I
keep them in bed night and day.'"
"'I thought you had some sheep, Mrs. Givens,' observed my aunt."

"'We did have about a dozen that we drove all the way from
Massachusetts, but the painters * killed them all but two last spring,
and two sheep don't go far towards clothing such a family as mine!'"

"'Very true,' said my aunt. 'You have a large family, Mrs. Givens.'"

* Panthers, or cougars.

"'Seven boys, and all fir—s—t-rate ones, though I say it that

shouldn't,' replied Mrs. Givens, with motherly pride and a look of
mingled love and admiration at number seven—a stout, rosy little
tow-head of ten months old, who sat on the floor contentedly sucking
his thumb."

"'That is a good capital with which to begin a new country,' remarked

my aunt."

"'That's a fact, Madam Dean. It was our boys more than anything
else that brought us out here. But Jacob, the eldest, is only twelve
this fall, and he has been having the ague pretty badly. But I don't
feel to complain, for it is the first sickness of any account we have
ever had among them.'"

"'I am sure you ought to be thankful, Mrs. Givens,' said poor Bethiah,
with a sigh. 'I know one ought not to murmur, but I do feel like it,
when I look at my poor husband, helpless on his back, and no one
but me to do anything. If it wasn't for Madam Dean and the
neighbors, I don't know what would become of us. And when I think
how we are to get through this winter, I feel as if I should like to curl
up in a hollow log like the bears, and not come out till spring.'"

"'Oh, you mustn't be downhearted, Bethiah!' said old Mrs. Davis,

kindly. 'My sons, David and Jonathan, calculate to clear that lower
piece of land for you this winter, and get it into corn in the spring. It is
one great comfort of a new country that nobody need want for
firewood.'"
"And my husband said only last night that he had laid out to kill your
pigs and ft up your house a little before winter,' said Mrs. Barker.
'He's a master hand at such jobs. But about the wool, Madam
Dean?'"

"'I have been thinking,' said my aunt, who had been standing over
the bundles of wool apparently in deep meditation while this
conversation was going on—'I have been thinking that I would about
as soon have a rag-carpet, after all.'"

"'A rag-carpet is very comfortable,' remarked Mrs. Davis; 'and if you

have real nice rags, I don't know but it is as handsome as any other,
unless you come to a regular English or Turkey carpet.'"

"'I have abundance of rags, if they were only ready,' continued Mrs.
Dean. 'There are all Mr. Dean's old coats and cloaks, and a great
deal more besides. Suppose, instead of the wool, you take home the
old clothes, and cut and sew them into carpet-rags for me. Then
when you bring them home, I will let you have the wool, and you can
make it into blankets or whatever else you want.'"

"The proposal was received with great approbation, and my aunt felt
fully rewarded for any sacrifice she might have made when she
marked the glances of satisfaction which the poor women cast at the
piles of wool, each probably calculating how many yards of cloth or
flannel would come to her share."

"'When shall we come for the rags?' asked Bethiah Coffin."

"'Why, let me see. This is Friday. You may come for the rags on
Monday next, and I hope you will all make your calculations to stay
to supper.'"

"The company departed, and Madam Dean betook herself to her

store-room to see if she could find a pair of thick blankets and a
coverlet for Bethiah Coffin; and, having succeeded in her search,
she repaired to her garret and other repositories of cast-off garments
to get together the materials for her carpet-rags. She soon collected
a large pile of old coats, military and civil, cloaks, waistcoats,
petticoats, and other articles of wearing apparel, enough to clothe a
regiment, besides a scarlet cloak and riding-habit of her own, which
she calculated would serve to variegate and enliven her carpet very
nicely.

"Monday came, and with it all the neighboring matrons, some with
babies and some without, but all dressed in their best, to do honor to
Madam Dean's tea-party. Mrs. Barker wore an English print gown
which had been her mother's very best before the Revolution, and
from the amplitude of skirts in those days was easily made over into
some resemblance to the prevailing fashion. But old Mrs. Davis quite
eclipsed her with a purple damask gown and a real thread lace on
the border of her cap. Poor Bethiah had nothing better for the
occasion than a home-made pressed flannel, which, though far from
new, was perfectly neat and whole, and looked very respectable
along with her nice homespun lawn kerchief and apron."

"My aunt possessed that happy style of manner which sets all sorts
of people at their ease at once and draws out to view the best side of
everybody. Though highly cultivated herself, she found no difficulty in
entering cordially and easily into conversation with her simple
neighbors, merely because she took a sincere interest in them. The
afternoon passed away pleasantly in lively and social chat, and tea
was served at an early hour, that the visitors might be able to return
home in time to attend to the milk and do other necessary 'chores'
about house. After tea was over, the visitors were conducted into my
aunt's bedroom, where were deposited the old clothes which had
been destined for conversion into a new carpet."

"'What a beautiful habit!' said Bethiah Coffin, taking up the scarlet

riding-habit before mentioned. 'I guess, Madam Dean, you used to
wear this when you were slimmer than you are now.'"

"'You are right,' replied my aunt, smiling, and perhaps sighing a little.
'I used to wear that habit when I was quite a young girl.'"
"'It seems almost a pity to cut it into rags,' continued Bethiah, holding
the skirt up to the light. 'There is not a hole in it, and these stains
might easily be cut out in making it over. If you had a little girl, you
might make it over into a nice frock and cloak for her.'"

"'True,' said my aunt; 'but I have no children, you know.'"

"'I rather guess you were thinking of your own little girls, Bethiah,'
said plain-spoken old Mrs. Davis."

"Bethiah blushed almost as red as the cloth she hold, but made no
reply."

"'I can't blame her if she was,' said Mrs. Givens. 'I was just thinking
of about the same thing—how nicely I could make over these
breeches for my Jacob. The poor boy's knees have been out so long
that he is ashamed to show himself. By the way, Madam Dean, is it
really true what the children say, that we are to have a minister at
last?'"

"'I am happy to say it is quite true,' replied my aunt. 'Mr. Dean has
found an excellent young gentleman who is willing to come among
us and preach the Gospel. We shall have service next Sunday in the
schoolhouse, and I hope you will all come and bring your children.'"

"'I can't bring mine till they are fixed up a little,' replied Mrs. Givens.
'There is not one of them fit to be seen.'"

"Nor I!' said Bethiah. 'I don't know but it is wrong, but I can't bear the
thought of having my girls go to church in rags.'"

"Two or three others excused themselves on the same ground. My

aunt knew well that these were not mere empty apologies, for she
was in the habit of going about among her neighbors a great deal,
and was well acquainted with their circumstances. She excused
herself for a few minutes and slipped into the next room, from which
she could overhear the conversation which went on over the cast-off
garments, as they were taken up and examined one by one."