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DAVID HUDDART & TIM STOTT
Adventure
Tourism
Environmental
Impacts and
Management
Adventure Tourism
David Huddart • Tim Stott
Adventure Tourism
Environmental Impacts and
Management
David Huddart Tim Stott
Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool John Moores University
Liverpool, UK Liverpool, UK
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their wives, Silvia and Debbie for their
patience and tolerance for understanding that it takes many hours to compile
a book such as this. Over many years the Outdoor Education students of
Liverpool John Moores University have provided an inspiration for the
authors in many ways. David Huddart would like to thank Emeritus Professor
Michael Hambrey; Verena Starke of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie
Institution of Washington; Soffia Kristin Jonsdottir of Visit Myvatn; Thomas
Olsen of North Safari Outfitters, Kangerlussuaq and Ralf Rolestshek for per-
mission to use some of their visual material to considerably enhance the text.
Tim Stott would like to thank his son Ewan Stott for providing a significant
number of the photographs used in the chapters on the Andes and Australia.
v
Contents
vii
viii Contents
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 6.10 Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida,) The smallest of the Arctic
seals which is common in the Hudson BayN�������������������� 165
Fig. 6.11 Pingos near Tuktoyoyaktuk������������������������������������������������ 167
Fig. 6.12 The view from the top of Montana Mountain,
Carcross����������������������������������������������������������������������� 171
Fig. 6.13 Annual Counts of recorded Pleasure Craft in the
Canadian Arctic, Vessel Count 1990–2012. From
NORDREG Data���������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Fig. 6.14 Beechey Island graves of crewman from the 1845
Franklin Northwest passage expedition ���������������������������� 176
Fig. 7.1A Malaspina Glacier in south-east Alaska���������������������������� 184
Fig. 7.1B Agassiz glacier, Libby glacier and Agassiz Lakes ������������ 184
Fig. 7.2 Augustine Volcano, view from the west, January
12th 2006 �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Fig. 7.3 Black Bear�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
Fig. 7.4 Brown Bears at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park,
Alaska�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 194
Fig. 7.5 Dall Sheep lambs on Alaskan clif�������������������������������������� 196
Fig. 7.6 Caribou on Tundra ������������������������������������������������������������ 200
Fig. 7.7 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) feeding on whale
carcase�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Fig. 7.8A Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) at Auke
Bay marina, near Juneau���������������������������������������������������� 206
Fig. 7.8B Juvenile Kittletz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus breviros-
tris), Kachemak Bay, Alaska���������������������������������������������� 206
Fig. 7.9 Killer Whales off the south side of Unimak Island,
eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska���������������������������������������� 210
Fig. 7.10 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Brook Range, with
tundra shrub willow ���������������������������������������������������������� 217
Fig. 7.11 Impacts of Off-Road vehicles on the study segment of
the Tanada Lake Trail (Wrangell-St. Elias National
Park and Preserve, Alaska). a) Partly vegetated trail
unvegetated trail on mineral soil b) Unvegetated trail
on organic soils with ponding c) Trail stream crossing
and channel initiation point with mineral soil d) Trail
stream crossing and channel initiation point with
organic soil and underlain by shallow permafrost ���������� 225
Fig. 7.12 Mt. McKinley, North America’s highest mountain������������ 231
Fig. 8.1 Himalayas�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Fig. 8.2 K2. Photo by Vittorio Sella on the 1909 Italian
expedition ������������������������������������������������������������������� 243
Fig. 8.3A Everest from the Rongbuk valley in 1921. Photo by
George Mallory������������������������������������������������������������������ 244
Fig. 8.3B Everest from the Rongbuk glacier, 9th November
2005 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
Fig. 8.4 Himalayas mosaic. Taken from the International Space
Station, 28th January 2004������������������������������������������������ 245
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 10.7E Safari vehicles in the Maasai Mara keep in touch with
each other by radio. When a good sighting is made by
one vehicle (in this case it was a cheetah), the others in
the area are called in, thus concentrating damage to soil
and vegetation and causing additional stress to the
animal�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 346
Fig. 11.1A Physical map of Australia�������������������������������������������������� 357
Fig. 11.1B Political map showing the countries of Australia which
has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland
(QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria
(VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major
mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory
(ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT)���������������������������� 357
Fig. 11.2A The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family
Macropodidae (macropods, meaning “large foot”)����������� 360
Fig. 11.2B The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal
herbivorous marsupial native to Australia�������������������������� 360
Fig. 11.2C Kookaburras are terrestrial tree kingfishers native to
Australia and New Guinea, found in habitats ranging
from humid forest to arid savanna, as well as in subur-
ban areas with tall trees or near running water������������������ 360
Fig. 11.2D The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is
a megabat native to Australia �������������������������������������������� 360
Fig. 11.3A Physical features map of New Zealand������������������������������ 362
Fig. 11.3B Map of New Zealand regions (coloured) with territorial
authorities delineated by black lines���������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.3C The Lady Knox Geyser in Wai-O-Tapu Thermal area in
New Zealand’s Taupo Volcanic Zone, 27 km south of
Rotorua������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 362
Fig. 11.3D The Hooker Valley in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park
contains a popular walking track which is 5 km long�������� 362
Fig. 11.3E Milford Sound is a fiord in the SW of New Zealand’s
South Island within Fiordland National Park, Milford
Sound Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World
Heritage site ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.3F Abel Tasman National Park is a New Zealand national
park located between Golden Bay and Tasman Bay at
the north end of the South Island �������������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.4 Sydney Harbour Bridge, where tourists are guided to the
134 m “summit”���������������������������������������������������������������� 368
Fig. 11.5A Fraser Island is considered to be the largest sand island
in the world������������������������������������������������������������������������ 369
Fig. 11.5B Fraser Icon Tours 4WD bus taking tourists along its west
coast beach ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 369
Fig. 11.5C Fraser Island’s sandy tracks require 4WD vehicles to get
around�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 369
Fig. 11.5D Sand Island Safaris – a typical adventure tourism
company on Fraser Island�������������������������������������������������� 369
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 11.5E Fraser Island dingoes are reputedly some of the last
remaining pure dingoes in Eastern Australia �������������������� 369
Fig. 11.6 Falls Creek Alpine Resort is an alpine ski resort in north
eastern Victoria, catering mainly for beginner/intermedi-
ate skiers and boarders ������������������������������������������������������ 372
Fig. 11.7 Shark cage diving from Port Lincoln off South
Australia������������������������������������������������������������������������� 372
Fig. 11.8A Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is one of Australia’s
most recognisable natural landmarks, great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people������������������������������������ 374
Fig. 11.8B Kata Tjuta, also known as The Olgas, are rock forma-
tions 25km west of Uluru which has great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people������������������������������������ 374
Fig. 11.8C Formerly it was popular to climb to the top of Uluru as
can be seen by the light coloured erosion mark in this
photo���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 374
Fig. 11.8D Today visitors are respectfully requested not to climb the
rock to respect the wishes of the Anangu people�������������� 374
Fig. 11.9 Sky dive over Mission Beach, Queensland������������������������ 375
Fig. 11.10A A typical day cruise to the Great Barrier Reef (from
Cairns). This cruiser has a glass bottom and some have a
glass tank which allows guests to have a semi-submarine
experience�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.10B Scuba divers prepare for their dive onto the coral reef���������376
Fig. 11.11A White water rafting is one of New Zealand’s top
attractions�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11B Jet boats on the Shotover River near Queenstown…. one
of the area’s top attractions������������������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.11C Whale watching cruise setting off from Kaikoura, 180
km north of Christchurch �������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11D Sperm whale spotted off Kaikoura������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.11E A guided sea kayak tour in the Marlborough Sound,
Abel Tasman National Park ���������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11F Zorbing (globe-riding or orbing), seen here at Rotorua,
NZ, is the recreation or sport of rolling downhill inside
an orb, generally made of transparent plastic�������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11G Fox Glacier sign���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11H Fox Glacier was one of the few glaciers in the world to
be advancing between 1985 and 2009. In 2006 the
average rate of advance was about a metre a week. Since
then there has been a significant retreat ���������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11I Sign for the AJ Hackett Ledge Swing above
Queenstown, NZ���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11J The AJ Hackett Kawarau Bridge Bungee Jump,
Queenstown NZ ���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11K Paragliding over Queenstown, NZ ������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.12A Dolphins Up Close vessel in Akaroa Harbour ������������������ 379
xxvi List of Figures
xxix
xxx List of Tables
tion would lose its competitiveness and tourists nue from a trip goes to airlines, hotels and other
would go somewhere else. international companies. In contrast, in adven-
ture travel 70–80% of the revenue goes to local
communities; while 65.5% of total travel expen-
1.2 lobal Figures for Tourism
G diture per adventure travel remains in the desti-
and the Adventure Sector nations or destination the traveller has visited.
Not long afterward the situation was such that Dr. Mateer and Mr.
Hayes addressed to the trustees of the endowment a paper in which
a suggestion was made that under certain conditions the fund raised
by Dr. Happer should be turned over to the Shantung College. In that
paper there was a frank statement of their attitude as to English.
They were entirely willing to introduce that language, but only under
such conditions that it could not seriously alter the character and
work of the institution. The paper is too long for introduction here. It
will suffice to quote from a letter sent by Dr. Mateer at the same time
to one of the secretaries of the Board, and dated February 9, 1891:
During the period of his service in this capacity the college not only
did well in its regular work; it also made some important advances.
The total attendance was one hundred and eighty-one, and a class
of ten was graduated at commencement. At Tengchow he had
always valued the literary societies very highly, and these now
received a fresh impetus. Several rooms of the new Science Hall
were brought into use; two additional rows of dormitories were built,
one for college and personal teachers and workmen, and one for
students; not to mention lesser matters.
Nevertheless he found his official position in certain ways very
uncomfortable. Some of the reasons of this were casual to the
internal administration, and cannot now be appreciated by outsiders,
and are not worth airing here. Others were of a more permanent
nature, and had to do with the future conduct and character of the
institution. The question of English had been for a while hushed to
sleep; but it was now awake again, and asserted itself with new
vigor. In a letter dated December 19, 1907, he said: “I am strongly in
favor of an English School, preferably at Tsinan fu, but I am opposed
to English in the college. It would very soon destroy the high grade of
scholarship hitherto maintained, and direct the whole output of the
college into secular lines.” His fear was that if English were
introduced the graduates of the institution would be diverted from the
ministry and from the great work of evangelizing the people to
commercial pursuits, and that it would become a training school of
compradors and clerks. Later the intensity of his opposition to the
introduction of English was considerably modified, because of the
advantage which he perceived to be enjoyed in the large union
meetings, by such of the Chinese as knew this language in addition
to their own. He saw, too, that with the change of times a knowledge
of English had come to be recognized as an essential in the new
learning, as a bond of unity between different parts of China, and as
a means of contact with the outside world. Looking at the chief
danger as past, he expressly desired that the theologues should be
taught English. At any rate he had been contending for a cause that
was evidently lost. At this writing the curriculum of the college offers
five hours in English as an optional study for every term of the four
required years; and also of the fifth year. Dr. Mateer, besides, was
not fully in sympathy with a movement that was then making to
secure a large gift from the “General Education Fund” for the
endowment of the institution. In the letter just quoted he says: “The
college should be so administered by its president and faculty as to
send some men into the ministry, or it fails of its chief object. I am in
favor of stimulating a natural growth, but not such a rapid and
abnormal growth as will dechristianize it. I do not believe in the
sudden and rapid enlargement of the plant beyond the need at the
time. It would rapidly secularize the college and divert it entirely from
its proper ideal and work.” These questions were too practical, and
touched the vitals of the institution too deeply, to be ignored by
earnest friends on either side. Some things as to the situation are so
transparent that they can be recognized by any person who looks at
it from not too close a point of view. The entire merits of the
argument were in no case wholly on one side; and as a
consequence it is not surprising that wise and good men differed as
they did; and the only decisive test is actual trial of the changes
advocated by the younger men. It is also perfectly plain that in this
affair we have only another instance of a state of things so often
recurring; that is, of a man who has done a great work, putting into it
a long life of toil and self-sacrifice, and bringing it at length to a point
where he must decrease and it must increase; and where in the very
nature of the case it must be turned over to younger hands, to be
guided as they see its needs in the light of the dawning day. He can
scarcely any longer be the best judge of what ought to be done; but
even if he were, the management must be left for good or ill to them.
That evidently is the fight in which Dr. Mateer came ultimately to see
this matter. He courageously faced the inevitable. In this, as in all
other cases, no personal animosity was harbored by him toward
anyone who differed from him.
October 27, 1907, he wrote to an associate on the Mandarin
Revision Committee: “I have now dissolved myself from the
management of the college, and shall have very little to do with it in
the future. It has cost me a great deal to do it, but it is best it should
be so. I am now free from any cares or responsibility in educational
matters.” In a letter to Secretary Brown, dated December 21, 1907,
he said: “In view of the circumstances I thought it best to resign at
once, and unconditionally, both the presidency and my office as
director. I have no ambition to be president, and in fact was only
there temporarily until another man should be chosen. I did not wish
to be a director when I could not conscientiously carry out the ideas
and policy of a majority of the mission. It was no small trial, I assure
you, to resign all connection with the college, after spending the
major part of my missionary life working for it. It did, in fact, seriously
affect my health for several weeks. I cannot stand such strains as I
once did.”
One of the striking incidents of his funeral service at Tsingtao was
the reading of the statistics of the graduates of the Tengchow
College, including the students who came with the college to Wei
Hsien. These have since been carefully revised and are as follows:
Total receiving diplomas, 205; teachers in government schools, 38;
teachers in church schools, 68; pastors, 17; evangelists, 16; literary
work, 10; in business, 9; physicians, 7; post-office service, 4; railroad
service, 2; Y. M. C. A. service, 2; customs service, 1; business
clerks, 2; secretaries, 1; at their homes, 6; deceased, 22. These
graduates are scattered among thirteen denominations, and one
hundred schools, and in sixteen provinces of China. About two
hundred more who were students at Tengchow did not complete the
course of studies.
The institution since its removal has continued steadily to go
forward. The large endowment that was both sought and feared has
not yet been realized, and consequently the effect of such a gift has
not been tested by experience; but other proposed changes have
been made. A pamphlet published in 1910 reports for the college of
arts and sciences an enrollment of three hundred and six students,
and in the academy, eighty. The class which graduates numbers
seventeen, all of whom are Christians. Down to that year there had
been at Wei Hsien among the graduates no candidates for the
ministry, but during 1910, under the ministration of a Chinese pastor,
a quiet but mighty religious awakening pervaded the institution, and
one outcome has been a vast increase in the number of candidates
for the ministry or other evangelistic work. The pamphlet already
quoted speaks of more than one hundred of the college students
who have decided to offer themselves for this work. It is
appropriately added that “such a movement as this amongst our
students inspires us with almost a feeling of awe.... Our faith had
never reached the conception of such a number as the above
simultaneously making a decision.” It has recently been decided to
bring all the departments of the university to Tsinan fu, the provincial
capital.
In the theological college at Tsingchow fu, according to the last
report, there were eleven students in the regular theological
department and one hundred and twenty-eight in the normal school.
In the medical college at Tsinan fu there were thirteen young men.
The aggregate for the whole university rises to five hundred and
thirty-eight. On the Presbyterian side this all began with those six
little boys, in the old Kwan Yin temple, in the autumn of 1864, at
Tengchow. To-day it is a university, and is second to no higher
institution of learning in China.
It is said that Dr. Mateer never led in prayer, either public or
private, that he did not most earnestly ask that the Lord would raise
up Chinese Christian men, who as leaders would bring many to
Christ. His prayers during the forty-five years of his missionary life
are receiving a wonderful answer at Wei Hsien and at Tsingchow fu.
XII
WITH APPARATUS AND MACHINERY