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DAVID HUDDART & TIM STOTT

Adventure
Tourism
Environmental
Impacts and
Management
Adventure Tourism
David Huddart • Tim Stott

Adventure Tourism
Environmental Impacts and
Management
David Huddart Tim Stott
Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool John Moores University
Liverpool, UK Liverpool, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-18622-7    ISBN 978-3-030-18623-4 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: David Merron Photography/gettyimages

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank their wives, Silvia and Debbie for their
patience and tolerance for understanding that it takes many hours to compile
a book such as this. Over many years the Outdoor Education students of
Liverpool John Moores University have provided an inspiration for the
authors in many ways. David Huddart would like to thank Emeritus Professor
Michael Hambrey; Verena Starke of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie
Institution of Washington; Soffia Kristin Jonsdottir of Visit Myvatn; Thomas
Olsen of North Safari Outfitters, Kangerlussuaq and Ralf Rolestshek for per-
mission to use some of their visual material to considerably enhance the text.
Tim Stott would like to thank his son Ewan Stott for providing a significant
number of the photographs used in the chapters on the Andes and Australia.

v
Contents

1 What Is Adventure Tourism?����������������������������������������������������������   1


1.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
1.2 Global Figures for Tourism and the Adventure Sector ������������   2
1.3 Consumer Trends����������������������������������������������������������������������   2
1.4 Adventure Tourism��������������������������������������������������������������������   2
1.4.1 Growth in Demand��������������������������������������������������������   5
1.5 Ecotourism��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   6
1.6 Other Popular Forms of Tourism that Share Characteristics
with Adventure Tourism������������������������������������������������������������   7
1.7 Concluding Remarks����������������������������������������������������������������   8
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   9
2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica �������������������������������������������������� 11
2.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 11
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism������������������������������������������������ 12
2.3 Growing Numbers�������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
2.4 A Summary of IAATO Member Antarctic Tourism Trends������ 17
2.5 Types of Tourism���������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
2.5.1 Cruise Ship Tourism������������������������������������������������������ 18
2.5.1.1 Industry Self-Regulation�������������������������������� 19
2.5.2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica���������������������������������� 21
2.5.3 Land-Based Commercial Tourism�������������������������������� 22
2.5.4 Last Chance Tourism���������������������������������������������������� 23
2.5.5 Wildlife Tourism ���������������������������������������������������������� 23
2.5.6 Unique Environment Tourism�������������������������������������� 24
2.5.7 Luxury Tourism������������������������������������������������������������ 24
2.5.8 Market Diversification�������������������������������������������������� 25
2.6 Impacts of Antarctic Adventure Tourism���������������������������������� 25
2.6.1 Tourism Effects on Penguins �������������������������������������� 26
2.6.2 Whale Behavioural Modification in the Presence of
Whale-Watching Vessels (See Further Discussion
in Fox 2014)������������������������������������������������������������������ 28
2.6.2.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������� 28
2.6.2.2 Is Anthropogenic Noise a Problem?�������������� 30
2.6.2.3 Collisions with Whales���������������������������������� 30
2.6.2.4 Potential Benefits to Whales from Antarctic
Tourism���������������������������������������������������������� 30

vii
viii Contents

2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations������������������������������������������ 31


2.6.4 Organisms that are Transported to Antarctica:
Invasion by Non-Indigenous Species���������������������������� 32
2.6.5 Ship Accidents�������������������������������������������������������������� 34
2.6.6 Visitor Impacts on Historical and Archaeological Sites�� 34
2.7 The Management of Antarctic Tourism������������������������������������ 37
2.7.1 The Role of IAATO������������������������������������������������������ 37
2.7.2 Governance and Regulations���������������������������������������� 39
2.7.2.1 The Antarctic Treaty System�������������������������� 39
2.7.2.2 The Madrid Protocol (1991)�������������������������� 39
2.7.2.3 Compliance and Enforcement������������������������ 40
2.7.3 The Polar Code ������������������������������������������������������������ 41
2.7.4 Difficulties in Reaching Agreement in a
Consensus-Based System��������������������������������������������� 43
2.7.5 Lack of Gatekeeper Mechanisms���������������������������������� 44
2.7.6 Visitor Rights���������������������������������������������������������������� 45
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 46
3 The Arctic Islands: Svalbard and Iceland ������������������������������������ 51
3.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 51
3.2 The Arctic Islands �������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
3.2.1 Svalbard������������������������������������������������������������������������ 53
3.2.1.1 Adventure Tourism Environmental Impacts
in Svalbard ���������������������������������������������������� 56
3.2.1.2 Environmental Impacts on Vegetation ���������� 58
3.2.1.3 Introduction of Seeds and Alien Plant
Species ���������������������������������������������������������� 59
3.2.1.4 Environmental Impacts on Fauna������������������ 59
3.2.1.5 Environmental Impact of Snowmobiles�������� 63
3.2.1.6 Tourism Impacts on Arctic Foxes������������������ 64
3.2.1.7 Environmental Impacts on Historical Sites
and Cultural Remains������������������������������������ 65
3.2.1.8 Geological Sites �������������������������������������������� 67
3.2.2 Management of Outdoor Recreation, Tourism and
the Environment in Svalbard���������������������������������������� 68
3.2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Tourism in Svalbard������ 71
3.3 Adventure Tourism in Iceland�������������������������������������������������� 72
3.3.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������ 72
3.3.2 Types of Adventure Tourism in Iceland������������������������ 77
3.3.2.1 Horse-Based Tourism������������������������������������ 77
3.3.2.2 Hiking and Trampling Pressure �������������������� 80
3.3.2.3 Off-Road Vehicle Impacts������������������������������ 81
3.3.2.4 Introduction of Invasive Plants���������������������� 82
3.3.3 Glacier Tourism������������������������������������������������������������ 84
3.3.4 Diving and Snorkelling ������������������������������������������������ 86
3.3.5 Wilderness Tourism������������������������������������������������������ 87
3.3.6 Volcanic Tourism���������������������������������������������������������� 88
3.3.7 Whale-Watching Tourism �������������������������������������������� 90
Contents ix

3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in


North-West Iceland ������������������������������������������������������ 92
3.3.9 Management of the Outdoor Recreational Impacts������ 94
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 96
4 Adventure Tourism in the Russian Arctic�������������������������������������� 101
4.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 101
4.2 Regional Areas of Interest for Adventure Tourism ������������������ 102
4.3 Tourist Numbers������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104
4.4 Tourism to the Franz Josef Land Archipelago and Novaya
Zemyla�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 106
4.4.1 Problems Related to the Development of Tourism
in FJL���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
4.4.2 Entry Permits���������������������������������������������������������������� 111
4.4.3 Remoteness and Logistics�������������������������������������������� 113
4.4.4 High Price of Cruises���������������������������������������������������� 114
4.4.5 Lack of Qualified Personnel and Lack of Research������ 114
4.4.6 Chaotic System of Visits ���������������������������������������������� 114
4.4.7 Lack of Ship Infrastructure ������������������������������������������ 115
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
5 Adventure Tourism in Greenland�������������������������������������������������� 121
5.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 121
5.2 Environmental Impact of Adventure Tourism�������������������������� 126
5.3 Examples of the Potential Development of Wildlife Viewing
around Kangerlussuaq�������������������������������������������������������������� 127
5.3.1 Peregrine Falcon Viewing �������������������������������������������� 127
5.3.2 Other Adventure Tourism Developments in
Kangerlussuaq�������������������������������������������������������������� 136
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 138
6 Adventure Tourism in the Canadian Arctic���������������������������������� 141
6.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 141
6.2 Definition of the Arctic in Canada�������������������������������������������� 142
6.3 Tourism Numbers���������������������������������������������������������������������� 144
6.3.1 North West Territory Tourism Numbers ���������������������� 145
6.3.2 Tourism Numbers in the Yukon������������������������������������ 148
6.3.3 Tourist Numbers in Nunavut���������������������������������������� 148
6.3.4 The Strengths/Weaknesses/Opportunities/Threats
Facing Nunavut Tourism���������������������������������������������� 148
6.4 Impacts of Adventure Tourism on Wildlife������������������������������ 149
6.4.1 Polar Bear Hunting ������������������������������������������������������ 149
6.4.2 Polar Bear Viewing ������������������������������������������������������ 154
6.4.3 Musk Oxen: Giardia in Musk Oxen on Banks Island �� 157
6.5 Marine Mammals and the Potential Effects of Adventure
Tourism ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 158
6.5.1 Beluga Whales (Delphinapterus leucas)���������������������� 159
6.5.2 Conflicts with Traditional Inuit Beluga Hunting and
Adventure Tourism������������������������������������������������������� 161
6.5.3 Human Impacts on Narwhal (Monodon monocerus)���� 163
x Contents

6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals


(Phoca groenlandica) �������������������������������������������������� 164
6.5.5 Recreational Impacts on Birds�������������������������������������� 165
6.6 Impacts on Terrestrial Vegetation���������������������������������������������� 166
6.7 Aboriginal (Indigenous) Tourism���������������������������������������������� 167
6.8 Canadian Arctic Pleasure Craft Tourism���������������������������������� 171
6.8.1 Management Concerns Regarding Pleasure Craft
Travel in the Canadian Arctic as Identified by
Survey of Interviewees�������������������������������������������������� 172
6.9 Canadian Arctic Cruise Tourism ���������������������������������������������� 174
6.10 Maintenance of Archaeological Sites���������������������������������������� 175
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 178
7 Adventure Tourism in Alaska �������������������������������������������������������� 183
7.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 183
7.2 Adventure Tourism Impacts on Wildlife���������������������������������� 187
7.2.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������ 187
7.2.2 American Black Bears (Ursus americanus) and
Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)������������������������������������������ 188
7.2.2.1 Black Bears (Ursus americanus) ������������������ 189
7.2.2.2 Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)�������������������������� 189
7.2.2.3 Winter Recreation and Brown Bears�������������� 192
7.2.2.4 Bear-Viewing Tourism ���������������������������������� 194
7.2.2.5 Management Approaches to Lessening the
Recreational Impacts on Bears���������������������� 195
7.3 Recreational Impacts on Dall Sheep (Ovis dalli)���������������������� 195
7.4 Winter Recreation Disturbances on Ungulates: Elk (Cervus
canadensis), Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), Musk Oxen
(Ovibos moschatus), White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus
virginianus), Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and
Moose (Alces alces)������������������������������������������������������������������ 196
7.4.1 Recreation Impacts on Mountain Caribou in British
Columbia and by Extension in Alaska�������������������������� 199
7.4.1.1 Snowmobiling������������������������������������������������ 199
7.4.1.2 Heli-Skiing���������������������������������������������������� 201
7.4.1.3 Snow-Cat Skiing�������������������������������������������� 201
7.4.1.4 Backcountry Skiing or Ski Touring �������������� 201
7.4.1.5 Management Recommendations and
Potential Guidelines �������������������������������������� 201
7.4.1.6 Caribou Response to Recreational Aircraft��� 202
7.4.1.7 Caribou Response to Tourist Buses �������������� 202
7.5 Recreational Impacts on Bird Populations�������������������������������� 203
7.5.1 Impacts of Recreational Boating on Bald Eagles
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) ������������������������������������������ 203
7.5.2 Impacts on Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus
bachmani) �������������������������������������������������������������������� 204
7.5.3 Impacts of Boating and Campgrounds on Marbled
Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) �������������������� 205
7.5.4 Impacts of Cruise Ships in Glacier Bay, Alaska, on
Murrelet Populations���������������������������������������������������� 205
Contents xi

7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts���������� 207


7.7 Recreational Effects on Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) ������������ 209
7.8 Recreational Impact on Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina)���������� 210
7.9 Recreational Impacts Caused by Camping ������������������������������ 212
7.9.1 Hiking Trampling Pressure on the Tundra�������������������� 213
7.9.2 Informal Trails in the Arctic Wildlife Refuges ������������ 216
7.9.3 Invasive Plants Spread along Trails������������������������������ 220
7.10 Impacts of Recreational All-Terrain, Off-Road Vehicles,
with Particular Reference to the Wrangell-St. Elias
National Park and Preserve ������������������������������������������������������ 222
7.11 Impacts of Helicopter-Supported Recreation���������������������������� 226
7.11.1 Impacts on Wildlife������������������������������������������������������ 226
7.11.2 Impact on Mountain Goats������������������������������������������� 227
7.11.3 Other Wildlife �������������������������������������������������������������� 228
7.11.4 Wildlife Impact Mitigation ������������������������������������������ 229
7.11.5 Impacts on Recreational Cabins and Rural Areas�������� 229
7.11.6 Impacts on Recreationists and Recreation Areas���������� 230
7.12 Impact of Climbing on Mount McKinley: Human Waste and
Faecal Bacteria�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 230
7.13 Recreational Impacts of Sport Fishing�������������������������������������� 232
7.14 Recreational Gold-Panning Impacts ���������������������������������������� 233
7.15 Some Recreational Impacts on Native Human Populations ���� 233
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 235
8 Adventure Tourism in the Himalayas�������������������������������������������� 241
8.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 241
8.2 Types of Adventure Tourism ���������������������������������������������������� 243
8.3 Numbers Taking Part in Adventure Tourism in the
Himalayas �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247
8.3.1 India������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 247
8.3.2 Nepal ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247
8.3.2.1 Mountaineering in Nepal ������������������������������ 249
8.3.2.2 History of Climbing in Nepal������������������������ 249
8.3.2.3 Trekking �������������������������������������������������������� 252
8.3.3 Bhutan �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 253
8.4 Rafting, Canyoning and Bungee Jumping�������������������������������� 253
8.5 Religious and Cultural Tourism������������������������������������������������ 255
8.5.1 Types of Religious Tourism������������������������������������������ 255
8.5.1.1 Pilgrimages���������������������������������������������������� 255
8.5.1.2 Monastery Visits and Guest Staying�������������� 255
8.5.1.3 Missionaries �������������������������������������������������� 256
8.5.1.4 Importance of Religious Tourism in Nepal���� 256
8.5.2 An Example of Religious Tourism from Sikkim���������� 256
8.5.3 The Impact of the Earthquakes (2015) on the Tourism
Sector of Nepal ������������������������������������������������������������ 257
8.6 Environmental Impacts Related to Tourism and in Particular
Adventure Tourism�������������������������������������������������������������������� 257
8.6.1 Trail Erosion ���������������������������������������������������������������� 257
8.6.2 Introduction of Non-Native Plants�������������������������������� 259
xii Contents

8.6.3 Waste Issues������������������������������������������������������������������ 260


8.6.4 Disposal of Human Waste�������������������������������������������� 262
8.6.4.1 Human Waste Disposal: An Example of
Bio-Toilets in the Himalayas ������������������������ 264
8.6.4.2 The Mount Everest Biogas Project���������������� 264
8.7 Deforestation���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 265
8.7.1 The Theory of Himalayan Environmental
Degradation������������������������������������������������������������������ 266
8.7.1.1 What is the Reality of this Environmental
Degradation?�������������������������������������������������� 266
8.8 Impacts of Recreational Fishing ���������������������������������������������� 268
8.9 Ski Developments and Potential Environmental Damage�������� 272
8.10 Attempts to Manage Tourism���������������������������������������������������� 273
8.10.1 Banning of Tourism and the Development of Eco
Development Committees�������������������������������������������� 273
8.10.2 Khangchendzonga Conservation Committee���������������� 275
8.10.3 Zero-Waste Trekking���������������������������������������������������� 276
8.10.4 Ecotourism Service Providers Association of
Yuksam (ESPAY)���������������������������������������������������������� 277
8.10.5 Environmental Education Activities ���������������������������� 277
8.11 Bhutan’s Tourism Development Policy������������������������������������ 278
8.12 The Annapurna Conservation Area Project������������������������������ 278
8.12.1 Management Approaches and Objectives �������������������� 279
8.12.2 Institutional Arrangements�������������������������������������������� 280
8.12.3 Challenges�������������������������������������������������������������������� 281
8.13 Codes of Conduct, Ethical Codes and Minimum-Impact
Codes for Tourists and Expeditions������������������������������������������ 282
8.13.1 The Nanda Devi Declaration���������������������������������������� 284
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 286
9 The Andes ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291
9.1 Definitions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 292
9.1.1 Geography of the Andes����������������������������������������������� 293
9.1.2 Geology of the Andes��������������������������������������������������� 293
9.1.2.1 Orogeny���������������������������������������������������������� 293
9.1.2.2 Volcanism������������������������������������������������������ 294
9.1.2.3 Ore Deposits and Evaporates ������������������������ 294
9.1.3 Climate and Hydrology of the Andes��������������������������� 294
9.1.4 Glaciers of the Andes���������������������������������������������������� 295
9.1.5 Flora of the Andes�������������������������������������������������������� 295
9.1.6 Fauna of the Andes�������������������������������������������������������� 297
9.1.7 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in the Andes������������������������������������������������������������������ 297
9.2 Adventure Tourist Attractions in the Andes������������������������������ 300
9.2.1 Venezuela���������������������������������������������������������������������� 300
9.2.2 Colombia���������������������������������������������������������������������� 300
9.2.2.1 The Cocora Valley������������������������������������������ 302
9.2.2.2 Trek to Ciudad Perdida���������������������������������� 302
Contents xiii

9.2.3 Ecuador ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 302


9.2.3.1 Mount Chimborazo���������������������������������������� 302
9.2.3.2 Hike the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador������������������ 303
9.2.3.3 The Galapagos Islands ���������������������������������� 303
9.2.4 Peru ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 306
9.2.4.1 The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu�������������������� 306
9.2.4.2 The Salkantay Trek���������������������������������������� 306
9.2.4.3 Colca Canyon and the Andean Condors�������� 306
9.2.4.4 Huascarán and Yungay ���������������������������������� 306
9.2.5 Bolivia�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
9.2.5.1 Lake Titicaca�������������������������������������������������� 307
9.2.5.2 Salar Uyuni���������������������������������������������������� 309
9.2.5.3 Death Road Mountain Bike Tour ������������������ 309
9.2.6 Chile������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 309
9.2.6.1 Torres del Paine National Park���������������������� 309
9.2.6.2 The Atacama Desert�������������������������������������� 312
9.2.7 Argentina: Aconcagua�������������������������������������������������� 312
9.3 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in the Andes���� 312
9.3.1 Aconcagua Case Study ������������������������������������������������ 314
9.3.1.1 Visitor Numbers �������������������������������������������� 314
9.3.1.2 Visitor Impacts on Trails and Vegetation ������ 314
9.3.1.3 Human Waste on Aconcagua ������������������������ 317
9.3.2 Tourist Threats to Birds and Breeding
Andean Condors����������������������������������������������������������� 318
9.4 Management and Education������������������������������������������������������ 319
9.4.1 Trails, Soil and Vegetation�������������������������������������������� 320
9.4.2 Human Waste���������������������������������������������������������������� 321
9.4.3 Birds������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 321
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 322
10 East Africa���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325
10.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325
10.2 Top Ten Adventure Tourism Attractions in East Africa���������� 327
10.2.1 Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya�������������������� 327
10.2.2 Omo River Region, Ethiopia������������������������������������ 330
10.2.3 Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda���������������������������� 330
10.2.4 Zanzibar, Tanzania���������������������������������������������������� 331
10.2.5 Serengeti National Park, Tanzania���������������������������� 331
10.2.6 Watamu, Kenya �������������������������������������������������������� 331
10.2.7 Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania���������������� 332
10.2.8 Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ���������������������������������� 333
10.2.9 Lalibela, Ethiopia������������������������������������������������������ 335
10.2.10 Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya�������������������������� 336
10.3 Other Important East Africa Adventure Tourism
Attractions Not in This Top Ten List�������������������������������������� 337
10.3.1 Murchison Falls National Park �������������������������������� 337
10.3.2 Kidepo Valley National Park������������������������������������ 337
10.3.3 The Rwenzori Mountains������������������������������������������ 337
xiv Contents

10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda������������������������������������������������������������ 338


10.3.5 Mount Kenya National Park�������������������������������������� 338
10.3.6 Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe������������������������������������������ 338
10.4 Environmental Impact������������������������������������������������������������ 338
10.4.1 Wildlife Safaris �������������������������������������������������������� 347
10.4.1.1 Balloon Flights in the Maasai Mara�������� 349
10.4.1.2 The Mountain Gorilla������������������������������ 349
10.5 Management and Education���������������������������������������������������� 350
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 352
11 Australia and New Zealand������������������������������������������������������������ 355
11.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
11.2 Definitions������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 356
11.2.1 Australia�������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
11.2.1.1 Geography of Australia���������������������������� 357
11.2.1.2 Geology of Australia�������������������������������� 358
11.2.2 Climate and Hydrology of Australia ������������������������ 359
11.2.3 Flora and Fauna of Australia������������������������������������ 359
11.2.4 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in Australia���������������������������������������������������������������� 360
11.2.5 Tourism in Australia�������������������������������������������������� 361
11.2.6 New Zealand ������������������������������������������������������������ 361
11.2.6.1 Geography of New Zealand�������������������� 362
11.2.6.2 Geology of New Zealand������������������������ 363
11.2.6.3 Climate and Hydrology of
New Zealand�������������������������������������������� 364
11.2.6.4 Flora and Fauna of New Zealand������������ 364
11.2.6.5 Population, Human Activity and
Economy in New Zealand ���������������������� 365
11.2.6.6 Tourism in New Zealand ������������������������ 365
11.3 Adventure Tourist Attractions in Australia and
New Zealand �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 366
11.3.1 Australia�������������������������������������������������������������������� 366
11.3.1.1 Climb the Sydney Harbour Bridge���������� 366
11.3.1.2 Four-Wheel Drive on Fraser Island,
Queensland���������������������������������������������� 366
11.3.1.3 Sail in the Whitsundays, Queensland������ 368
11.3.1.4 Jet Boat Through the Horizontal Falls,
Western Australia������������������������������������ 368
11.3.1.5 Snorkel with Whale Sharks at Ningaloo
Reef, Western Australia �������������������������� 369
11.3.1.6 The Twelve Apostles, Victoria���������������� 370
11.3.1.7 Kayak Katherine Gorge (Nitmiluk
National Park), Northern Territory���������� 370
11.3.1.8 Surf the Jungle at Cape Tribulation,
Queensland���������������������������������������������� 370
11.3.1.9 Drive the Gibb River Road, Western
Australia�������������������������������������������������� 371
Contents xv

11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,


New South Wales ���������������������������������� 371
11.3.1.11 Raft the Franklin River, Tasmania �������� 371
11.3.1.12 Travel the Oodnadatta Track, South
Australia������������������������������������������������ 371
11.3.1.13 Ski or Snowboard at Falls Creek������������ 371
11.3.1.14 Dive with Great White Sharks in Port
Lincoln �������������������������������������������������� 371
11.3.1.15 Visit Uluru (Ayers Rock) and
the Olgas������������������������������������������������ 373
11.3.1.16 Sky Diving �������������������������������������������� 373
11.3.1.17 Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling on the
Great Barrier Reef���������������������������������� 373
11.3.2 New Zealand ������������������������������������������������������������ 373
11.3.2.1 Skiing and Heli-Skiing in the
Remarkables������������������������������������������ 376
11.3.2.2 Caving���������������������������������������������������� 376
11.3.2.3 White Water Kayaking and Rafting ������ 376
11.3.2.4 Swim with Dolphins������������������������������ 378
11.3.2.5 Whale Watching ������������������������������������ 378
11.3.2.6 Canyoning���������������������������������������������� 379
11.3.2.7 Jet Boating �������������������������������������������� 379
11.3.2.8 Mountain Biking������������������������������������ 379
11.3.2.9 Horse-Riding������������������������������������������ 379
11.3.2.10 Hike Through Abel Tasman National
Park�������������������������������������������������������� 380
11.3.2.11 The Fox Glacier ������������������������������������ 380
11.3.2.12 Hooker Lake/Mount Cook �������������������� 380
11.3.2.13 Hiking the Tongariro Crossing; the
Routeburn Track������������������������������������ 380
11.3.2.14 Visit Taupo Volcanic Zone and Zorb������ 380
11.3.2.15 Off-road Driving/Quad Bike Safaris������ 381
11.3.2.16 Zip Lining���������������������������������������������� 381
11.3.2.17 Bungee Jumping������������������������������������ 381
11.3.2.18 Sky Diving �������������������������������������������� 381
11.4 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in
Australia and New Zealand���������������������������������������������������� 381
11.4.1 High Mountains Case Study: Kosciuszko
and Mount Cook (Aoraki)���������������������������������������� 382
11.4.1.1 Trail Impacts�������������������������������������������� 382
11.4.1.2 Mountain Biking and Horse-Riding�������� 384
11.4.1.3 Human Waste������������������������������������������ 386
11.4.2 Impacts in the Marine Environment�������������������������� 387
11.4.2.1 Whale- and Dolphin-Watching���������������� 387
11.4.2.2 The Australian Great Barrier Reef���������� 389
11.5 Management and Education���������������������������������������������������� 392
11.5.1 Managing Trails, Soil and Vegetation ���������������������� 392
11.5.2 Managing Human Waste in High Mountains������������ 395
xvi Contents

11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching������������������ 396


11.5.4 Managing Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling���������������� 397
11.5.5 Managing Boat Tours������������������������������������������������ 397
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 399
12 Scotland�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 403
12.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 405
12.1.1 History���������������������������������������������������������������������� 405
12.1.2 Geography���������������������������������������������������������������� 406
12.1.3 Geology and Geomorphology���������������������������������� 406
12.1.4 Climate���������������������������������������������������������������������� 407
12.1.5 Flora and Fauna�������������������������������������������������������� 407
12.1.6 Population and Economy������������������������������������������ 408
12.2 Adventure Tourism in Scotland���������������������������������������������� 409
12.3 Environmental Impact������������������������������������������������������������ 410
12.3.1 Walking/Climbing: Mountain Walks/Treks,
Long Distance Trails, Rock Climbing and
Mountaineering (Including Bothies and
Camping)������������������������������������������������������������������ 410
12.3.2 Mountain Biking ������������������������������������������������������ 415
12.3.3 Downhill Skiing�������������������������������������������������������� 416
12.3.4 History and Development of Skiing in Scotland������ 416
12.3.5 Environmental Impacts of Skiing in Scotland���������� 419
12.3.5.1 Skiing Impacts on Soils and Vegetation�� 419
12.3.5.2 Skiing Impacts on Water Resources�������� 422
12.3.5.3 Ski Development Impacts on Birds and
Mammals ������������������������������������������������ 422
12.3.5.4 Scottish Skiing and Climate Change ������ 424
12.4 Wildlife and Nature Encounters���������������������������������������������� 424
12.4.1 Field Sports: Deer, Grouse, and Heather
Moorland������������������������������������������������������������������ 425
12.4.2 Impact of Recreation on Fresh Waters:
Salmon Fishing and Water Sports ���������������������������� 425
12.4.3 Whale and Dolphin Watching ���������������������������������� 426
12.5 Management and Education���������������������������������������������������� 427
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 432
13 Climate Change and Adventure Tourism�������������������������������������� 437
13.1 Principles of Climate Change ������������������������������������������������ 438
13.1.1 Glacial Periods���������������������������������������������������������� 439
13.1.2 The Present Climate�������������������������������������������������� 439
13.2 Future Climate Change ���������������������������������������������������������� 443
13.2.1 Predictions, Scenarios and Projections �������������������� 444
13.2.2 Climate Models�������������������������������������������������������� 446
13.2.3 Principal Findings of the UN Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report
(AR5)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 446
13.3 Effects of Climate Change on Participation Numbers������������ 450
Contents xvii

13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure


Tourism ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 452
13.4.1 Sea Level Rise and Coastal Adventure Tourism ������ 454
13.4.2 Future Climate Change and Mountaineering
Adventure Tourism���������������������������������������������������� 456
13.4.2.1 Moving Towards Mountains Without
Snow and Ice?������������������������������������������ 456
13.4.2.2 The Future of Mountaineering
Adventure Tourism���������������������������������� 458
13.4.3 Snow Sports: Skiing and Snow Boarding ���������������� 460
13.4.3.1 Impacts of Future Projected Climate
Change���������������������������������������������������� 460
13.4.3.2 Do Ski Resorts Need to Become
‘Greener’ for Tourism to Become
Sustainable?�������������������������������������������� 463
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 466
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 471
List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Antarctica���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12


Fig. 2.2 Ocean Endeavour in Paradise Harbour�������������������������������� 13
Fig. 2.3A Map referencing the 25 most popular Landing Sites during
the 2014–2015 season on the Antarctic Peninsula ������������������14
Fig. 2.3B Landsat image showing the Transantarctic Mountains,
East and West Antarctica and sea areas�������������������������������� 14
Fig. 2.4A Emperor Penguins, the only animals to breed on
Antarctica���������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Fig. 2.4B Adélie Penguin�������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Fig. 2.4C Gentoo Penguin�������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Fig. 2.4D Adelie penguins and tourist zodiac at Bourdin Island �������� 15
Fig. 2.5 Blue Whale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Fig. 2.6 Weddell Seal. A Weddell Seal at a breathing hole �������������� 31
Fig. 2.7 Tourist zodiac and a pair of leopard seals in Mikkelsen
Harbour�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Fig. 2.8A Inside Scott’s Discovery Hut at McMurdo Sound �������������� 36
Fig. 2.8B Provisions brought by Shackleton at Cape Royds �������������� 36
Fig. 2.8C Cape Royds historic hut built by Shackleton’s expedition
1907–1909��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Fig. 2.9A Abandoned British base at Port Lockroy before
renovation������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Fig. 2.9B Museum at Port Lockroy after Renovation�������������������������� 38
Fig. 3.1 Arctic regions���������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
Fig. 3.2 Svalbard archipelago������������������������������������������������������������ 53
Fig. 3.3 Svalbard glacier and ice bergs��������������������������������������������� 54
Fig. 3.4 Ski Touring with sledges������������������������������������������������������ 55
Fig. 3.5 Wild Camping in Svalbard with a youth group ������������������ 55
Fig. 3.6 Cruise Liner in Longyearbyen, 2001 ���������������������������������� 56
Fig. 3.7 Walrus���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Fig. 3.8 Thermal Springs along the along the Breibogen Fault�������� 68
Fig. 3.9 Iceland���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
Fig. 3.10 Eyafjallajökull, April 17th 2010. Major ash eruption���������� 73
Fig. 3.11 Katla erupting through the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap in 1918������74
Fig. 3.12 Vatnajökull showing many outlet glaciers all around the
ice cap���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Fig. 3.13A Gullfoss, 6th April 2008. The gorge of the river Hvita�������� 75

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 3.13B Dettifoss, the largest waterfall in Europe, located in


Jökulsárgljúfur National Park in North-East Iceland���������� 75
Fig. 3.14A þingvellir. Painting by þórannin þorláksson in 1900.
Showing Icelandic horses and central rift valley, with a
lake in a fissure�������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Fig. 3.14B Northern Lights near Namaskard���������������������������������������� 76
Fig. 3.15 Namafjell geothermal area�������������������������������������������������� 89
Fig. 4.1 Russian Arctic from the north of Scandinavia in the
west, through Novaya Zemyla, Franz Josef Land to the
Kamchatka Peninsula in the east���������������������������������������� 102
Fig. 4.2 Brown Bear, Kamchatka Peninsula������������������������������������ 103
Fig. 4.3 Annual Number of Tourists in Kamchatka������������������������ 104
Fig. 4.4A The Uzon and Geyzernaya calderas, Kamchatka�������������� 105
Fig. 4.4B Volcanoes of Kamchatka���������������������������������������������������� 105
Fig. 4.5A Franz Josef Land���������������������������������������������������������������� 106
Fig. 4.5B Novaya Zemyla, July 29th 2003���������������������������������������� 106
Fig. 4.6 Russian Nuclear Icebreaker Arktika, 26th March 2006�������109
Fig. 4.7 Artist’s Depiction of the Snow-covered Hut in which
Nansen and Johansen spent the winter of 1895–6 ������������ 109
Fig. 5.1 South-West Greenland. Glaciated terrain, rugged scenery
and fjords �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Fig. 5.2 Hvalsey Church, the best preserved church in South-
West Greenland������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
Fig. 5.3 Peregrine Falcons. Drawn by John James Audubon for
the book Birds of America, 1827–1838 ���������������������������� 127
Fig. 5.4 Musk ox herd, near Kangerlussuaq������������������������������������ 129
Fig. 5.5 Wildlife Management Zones around Kangerlussuaq�������� 130
Fig. 5.6 Concession Areas in the Municipality Plan appendix no
7 areas for trophy hunting in Kangerlussuaq �������������������� 131
Fig. 5.7 Musk ox Populations in Greenland������������������������������������ 133
Fig. 5.8 Hunting zones around Kangerlussuaq ������������������������������ 135
Fig. 5.9 Ice-Cap Tours, north of Kangerlussuaq ���������������������������� 137
Fig. 5.10 Dog-Sledding Tours. Dog-sled musher from
Quqertarsuq ������������������������������������������������������������������� 137
Fig. 6.1 Arctic Region �������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
Fig. 6.2 Baffin Island���������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Fig. 6.3 Ellesmere Island���������������������������������������������������������������� 144
Fig. 6.4A Utsingi Point, the eastern arm of the Great Slave Lake,
eastern edge of the proposed Thaydene-Nene National
Park������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 146
Fig. 6.4B Nahinni National Park Reserve, North West Territories,
Virginia Falls (Nailicho)���������������������������������������������������� 146
Fig. 6.5 Nunivak musk oxen in defensive formation���������������������� 147
Fig. 6.6 Polar Bear�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Fig. 6.7 Polar Bear statue in Churchill, Manitoba�������������������������� 155
Fig. 6.8 Beluga Whale�������������������������������������������������������������������� 159
Fig. 6.9 White Whale and Narwhal (lower image) ������������������������ 164
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 6.10 Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida,) The smallest of the Arctic
seals which is common in the Hudson BayN�������������������� 165
Fig. 6.11 Pingos near Tuktoyoyaktuk������������������������������������������������ 167
Fig. 6.12 The view from the top of Montana Mountain,
Carcross����������������������������������������������������������������������� 171
Fig. 6.13 Annual Counts of recorded Pleasure Craft in the
Canadian Arctic, Vessel Count 1990–2012. From
NORDREG Data���������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Fig. 6.14 Beechey Island graves of crewman from the 1845
Franklin Northwest passage expedition ���������������������������� 176
Fig. 7.1A Malaspina Glacier in south-east Alaska���������������������������� 184
Fig. 7.1B Agassiz glacier, Libby glacier and Agassiz Lakes ������������ 184
Fig. 7.2 Augustine Volcano, view from the west, January
12th 2006 �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Fig. 7.3 Black Bear�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
Fig. 7.4 Brown Bears at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park,
Alaska�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 194
Fig. 7.5 Dall Sheep lambs on Alaskan clif�������������������������������������� 196
Fig. 7.6 Caribou on Tundra ������������������������������������������������������������ 200
Fig. 7.7 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) feeding on whale
carcase�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Fig. 7.8A Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) at Auke
Bay marina, near Juneau���������������������������������������������������� 206
Fig. 7.8B Juvenile Kittletz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus breviros-
tris), Kachemak Bay, Alaska���������������������������������������������� 206
Fig. 7.9 Killer Whales off the south side of Unimak Island,
eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska���������������������������������������� 210
Fig. 7.10 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Brook Range, with
tundra shrub willow ���������������������������������������������������������� 217
Fig. 7.11 Impacts of Off-Road vehicles on the study segment of
the Tanada Lake Trail (Wrangell-St. Elias National
Park and Preserve, Alaska). a) Partly vegetated trail
unvegetated trail on mineral soil b) Unvegetated trail
on organic soils with ponding c) Trail stream crossing
and channel initiation point with mineral soil d) Trail
stream crossing and channel initiation point with
organic soil and underlain by shallow permafrost ���������� 225
Fig. 7.12 Mt. McKinley, North America’s highest mountain������������ 231
Fig. 8.1 Himalayas�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Fig. 8.2 K2. Photo by Vittorio Sella on the 1909 Italian
expedition ������������������������������������������������������������������� 243
Fig. 8.3A Everest from the Rongbuk valley in 1921. Photo by
George Mallory������������������������������������������������������������������ 244
Fig. 8.3B Everest from the Rongbuk glacier, 9th November
2005 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
Fig. 8.4 Himalayas mosaic. Taken from the International Space
Station, 28th January 2004������������������������������������������������ 245
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal������������������������������ 252


Fig. 8.6 Earthquakes in 2015 in Nepal. Epicentres marked by
stars, including the 1833 and 1934 earthquakes���������������� 258
Fig. 9.1 Map of South America showing the Andes running along
the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific
coast) of the continent�������������������������������������������������������� 292
Fig. 9.2A Paron Lake in Huascaran National Park, Peru with
Pirámide peak (5885 m) and it’s glaciers in the back-
ground�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 296
Fig. 9.2B Glacier flowing east from Nevado Huascarán Sur (6,768
m), Peru������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 296
Fig. 9.3A Local shepherd tends her alpaca a valley adjacent to
Huayna potosi (6088 m) near Tuni Lake, La Paz,
Bolivia ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 298
Fig. 9.3B Chincilla living in moraines at 4900m of the Huayna
potosi West glacier near Tuni Lake, La Paz, Bolivia �������� 298
Fig. 9.3C Flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes) at
Salar de Uyuni, amid the Andes in southwest Bolivia,
the world’s largest salt flat ������������������������������������������������ 298
Fig. 9.3D A hummingbird comes to a feeding station ���������������������� 298
Fig. 9.4A Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel, located in
the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru, on a mountain
ridge 2,430 m (7,970 ft) above sea level���������������������������� 301
Fig. 9.4B La Paz, Bolivia’s seat of government, is the highest
capital city in the world, at an elevation of approxi-
mately 3,650 m (11,975 ft)������������������������������������������������ 301
Fig. 9.5A The Quilotoa is a water-filled caldera and the most
western volcano in the Ecuadorian Andes ������������������������ 304
Fig. 9.5B Hiking the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador���������������������������������� 304
Fig. 9.6A Memorial gardens at Yungay to the 20 000 people killed
in the 1970 Ancash earthquake������������������������������������������ 308
Fig. 9.6B Christ statue at Yungay, memorial to the 20000 people
killed in the 1970 Ancash earthquake�������������������������������� 308
Fig. 9.7A Vehicle track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �������������������������������������������������� 310
Fig. 9.7B Railway track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �������������������������������������������������� 310
Fig. 9.7C Four wheel drive excursions take tourists around the Salar
de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat in Bolivia�������������������310
Fig. 9.8 International tourism receipts of Latin America (in
billions of US dollars) from 2010 to 2017, sorted by
sub-region�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 313
Fig. 9.9 Impacts of recreational use on different environmental
components that have been assessed in the Andes region
(in grey) including the number of studies in relation to
the more general conceptual model of recreation impacts
on the natural environment developed by Wall and
Wright (1977)�������������������������������������������������������������������� 314
List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 9.10A The number of tourists visiting Aconcagua region during


thirteen consecutive tourist seasons ���������������������������������� 315
Fig. 9.10B Mountaineering activity by type: climbing, short and
long trekking���������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
Fig. 10.1 A: Cheetah, B: Eland, C: Elephant, D: Giraffe, E:
Hippotamus, F: Hyena, G: Two female lions with cub
(right), H: Male lions, I: Vultures, J: Warthog, K: Water
buffalo, L: White Rhinoceros, M: Zebra, N: Thompson’s
Gazelle, O: Impala, P: Ostrich ������������������������������������������ 328
Fig. 10.2 A balloon floats above the Serengeti ecosystem���������������� 332
Fig. 10.3A Trekkers on the Rongai route, Kilimanjaro����������������������� 334
Fig. 10.3B View of Kilimajaro summit from 3500m on the Rongai
route ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 334
Fig. 10.3C Giant groundsel (Dendrosenecio kilimanjari) is found
on the middle slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro���������������������� 334
Fig. 10.3D The rapidly retreating Furtwängler Glacier is near
Kilimanjaro’s summit�������������������������������������������������������� 334
Fig. 10.3E Kilimanjaro’s Uhuru Peak (5893 m) is the highest
summit on Kibo’s crater rim���������������������������������������������� 334
Fig. 10.4 Lake Nakuru National Park is best known for its
thousands, sometimes millions of flamingos nesting
along the shores������������������������������������������������������������������ 336
Fig. 10.5A Overnight campsite (camp 1) on the Rongai route
showing vegetation damage and soil compaction�������������� 341
Fig. 10.5B Camp 4 on the upper Rongai route. Note the two
permanent buildings, toilets (right) and their proximity
to the lake�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 341
Fig. 10.5C Trail damage at Horombo Huts on the Marangu route,
Kilimanjaro������������������������������������������������������������������������ 341
Fig. 10.5D A section of managed trail on the lower part of Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�������������������������������������������������������������� 341
Fig. 10.5E A typical section of un-managed trail on the Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�������������������������������������������������������������� 341
Fig. 10.5F Kibo camp/huts at 4700m, the last camp before trekkers
make their summit attempt������������������������������������������������ 341
Fig. 10.6A Whitewater rafting on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342
Fig. 10.6B Damage to river bank soil and vegetation at a kayak and
raft access point on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342
Fig. 10.7A Balloon flight at dawn on the Maasai Mara, Kenya�������� 346
Fig. 10.7B Tractor and trailer being used to manoeuvre a balloon
on the Masai Mara, Kenya������������������������������������������������ 346
Fig. 10.7C Post balloon flight breakfast being prepared for guests
on the Maasai Mara, Kenya. Note the number of
vehicles������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 346
Fig. 10.7D Typical on the Maasai Mara safari vehicle. Note how
close it gets to the lions in left of photograph������������������ 346
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 10.7E Safari vehicles in the Maasai Mara keep in touch with
each other by radio. When a good sighting is made by
one vehicle (in this case it was a cheetah), the others in
the area are called in, thus concentrating damage to soil
and vegetation and causing additional stress to the
animal�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 346
Fig. 11.1A Physical map of Australia�������������������������������������������������� 357
Fig. 11.1B Political map showing the countries of Australia which
has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland
(QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria
(VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major
mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory
(ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT)���������������������������� 357
Fig. 11.2A The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family
Macropodidae (macropods, meaning “large foot”)����������� 360
Fig. 11.2B The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal
herbivorous marsupial native to Australia�������������������������� 360
Fig. 11.2C Kookaburras are terrestrial tree kingfishers native to
Australia and New Guinea, found in habitats ranging
from humid forest to arid savanna, as well as in subur-
ban areas with tall trees or near running water������������������ 360
Fig. 11.2D The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is
a megabat native to Australia �������������������������������������������� 360
Fig. 11.3A Physical features map of New Zealand������������������������������ 362
Fig. 11.3B Map of New Zealand regions (coloured) with territorial
authorities delineated by black lines���������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.3C The Lady Knox Geyser in Wai-O-Tapu Thermal area in
New Zealand’s Taupo Volcanic Zone, 27 km south of
Rotorua������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 362
Fig. 11.3D The Hooker Valley in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park
contains a popular walking track which is 5 km long�������� 362
Fig. 11.3E Milford Sound is a fiord in the SW of New Zealand’s
South Island within Fiordland National Park, Milford
Sound Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World
Heritage site ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.3F Abel Tasman National Park is a New Zealand national
park located between Golden Bay and Tasman Bay at
the north end of the South Island �������������������������������������� 362
Fig. 11.4 Sydney Harbour Bridge, where tourists are guided to the
134 m “summit”���������������������������������������������������������������� 368
Fig. 11.5A Fraser Island is considered to be the largest sand island
in the world������������������������������������������������������������������������ 369
Fig. 11.5B Fraser Icon Tours 4WD bus taking tourists along its west
coast beach ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 369
Fig. 11.5C Fraser Island’s sandy tracks require 4WD vehicles to get
around�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 369
Fig. 11.5D Sand Island Safaris – a typical adventure tourism
company on Fraser Island�������������������������������������������������� 369
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 11.5E Fraser Island dingoes are reputedly some of the last
remaining pure dingoes in Eastern Australia �������������������� 369
Fig. 11.6 Falls Creek Alpine Resort is an alpine ski resort in north
eastern Victoria, catering mainly for beginner/intermedi-
ate skiers and boarders ������������������������������������������������������ 372
Fig. 11.7 Shark cage diving from Port Lincoln off South
Australia������������������������������������������������������������������������� 372
Fig. 11.8A Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is one of Australia’s
most recognisable natural landmarks, great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people������������������������������������ 374
Fig. 11.8B Kata Tjuta, also known as The Olgas, are rock forma-
tions 25km west of Uluru which has great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people������������������������������������ 374
Fig. 11.8C Formerly it was popular to climb to the top of Uluru as
can be seen by the light coloured erosion mark in this
photo���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 374
Fig. 11.8D Today visitors are respectfully requested not to climb the
rock to respect the wishes of the Anangu people�������������� 374
Fig. 11.9 Sky dive over Mission Beach, Queensland������������������������ 375
Fig. 11.10A A typical day cruise to the Great Barrier Reef (from
Cairns). This cruiser has a glass bottom and some have a
glass tank which allows guests to have a semi-submarine
experience�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.10B Scuba divers prepare for their dive onto the coral reef���������376
Fig. 11.11A White water rafting is one of New Zealand’s top
attractions�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11B Jet boats on the Shotover River near Queenstown…. one
of the area’s top attractions������������������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.11C Whale watching cruise setting off from Kaikoura, 180
km north of Christchurch �������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11D Sperm whale spotted off Kaikoura������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.11E A guided sea kayak tour in the Marlborough Sound,
Abel Tasman National Park ���������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11F Zorbing (globe-riding or orbing), seen here at Rotorua,
NZ, is the recreation or sport of rolling downhill inside
an orb, generally made of transparent plastic�������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11G Fox Glacier sign���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11H Fox Glacier was one of the few glaciers in the world to
be advancing between 1985 and 2009. In 2006 the
average rate of advance was about a metre a week. Since
then there has been a significant retreat ���������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11I Sign for the AJ Hackett Ledge Swing above
Queenstown, NZ���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11J The AJ Hackett Kawarau Bridge Bungee Jump,
Queenstown NZ ���������������������������������������������������������������� 376
Fig. 11.11K Paragliding over Queenstown, NZ ������������������������������������ 376
Fig. 11.12A Dolphins Up Close vessel in Akaroa Harbour ������������������ 379
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 11.12B Swimmers enter the water with snorkels to ‘swim


with Hector’s dolphins’ in Akaroa Harbour, South
Island, NZ������������������������������������������������������������������� 379
Fig. 11.13 One of the principal management responses to deal with
all these visitors on Mt Kosciuszko has been hardening
of tracks������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 383
Fig. 11.14A A 24-h mountain biking event taking place in Victoria,
Australia���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 385
Fig. 11.14B Soil compaction and vegetation damage resulting from a
mountain biking event in Victoria, Australia �������������������� 385
Fig. 11.15 The spread of disease by has been a general concern in
Australia for some time. Here travellers are being asked
to help prevent a fruit fly outbreak by placing fruit in this
bin before they enter the Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone ���������� 387
Fig. 11.16A Scuba Diving, both for certified and introductory divers
is an option on most tourist cruises������������������������������������ 391
Fig. 11.16B Many cruises include snorkelling as an option������������������ 391
Fig. 11.17 Typical minimal impact bushwalking sign in Australia ��������393
Fig. 11.18A Mt Warning in New South Wales is a popular destination
for walkers������������������������������������������������������������������������� 394
Fig. 11.18B The author standing on the ring of raised metal walk-
ways referred to by Pickering and Buckley (2003) on the
summit of Mt Warning, New South Wales������������������������ 394
Fig. 11.19 Pohatu Marine Reserve Sign. A marine reserve is a type
of marine protected area that has legal protection against
fishing or development������������������������������������������������������ 396
Fig. 12.1 The location of Scotland���������������������������������������������������� 405
Fig. 12.2 Participation in mountain recreation activities in the last
year by John Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of
Scotland members compared to local residents ���������������� 411
Fig. 12.3 Mountains visited for recreation in the last year by John
Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of Scotland
members���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 411
Fig. 12.4 The spatial distribution of adventure tourism business in
Scotland in 2003���������������������������������������������������������������� 412
Fig. 12.5A Location of Scotland’s five ski resorts ������������������������������ 417
Fig. 12.5B The funicular railway on Cairngorm mountain was
opened in 2001������������������������������������������������������������������ 417
Fig. 12.5C Ski tow on Cairngorm mountain with Cairngorm summit
in the background�������������������������������������������������������������� 417
Fig. 12.5D The Lecht ski resort, near Tomintoul, Scotland ���������������� 417
Fig. 12.6 Ski demand in Scotland 1980–1998���������������������������������� 419
Fig. 12.7 Survey of landowners: Uses of the land���������������������������� 427
Fig. 13.1 Variation with time of the Vostok ice core isotope
temperature record, Antarctica, as a difference from the
modern surface temperature value of -55.5 oC������������������ 441
List of Figures xxvii

Fig. 13.2 Global temperature anomaly based on the instrumental


record of global average temperatures as compiled by
NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies�������������������� 441
Fig. 13.3 The history of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra-
tions as directly measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii ������������ 442
Fig. 13.4 Recent Sea Level Rise. Sea level rise is caused primarily
by two factors related to global warming: the added
water from melting ice sheets and glaciers and the
expansion of seawater as it warms ������������������������������������ 443
Fig. 13.5 This image shows two graphs of changes in glacial and
ice cap mass balance for large regions (Europe, the
Andes, the Arctic, Asian high mountains, North West
USA and South West Canada, Alaska and coast moun-
tains, and Patagonia). Graph (a) shows cumulative mean
specific mass balances of glaciers and ice caps, and (b)
cumulative total mass balances of glaciers and ice caps
(Dyurgerov and Meier, 2005)�������������������������������������������� 444
Fig. 13.6 Arctic sea ice extent as of February 3, 2016, along with
daily ice extent data for four previous years���������������������� 445
Fig. 13.7 Confidence levels are a combination of level of agree-
ment and evidence�������������������������������������������������������������� 445
Fig. 13.8 Patterns of temperature (left column) and percent
precipitation change (right column) for the CMIP3
models average (first row) and CMIP5 models average
(second row), scaled by the corresponding global
average temperature changes �������������������������������������������� 448
Fig. 13.9 Projections of annual mean GMST 1986–2050������������������ 449
Fig. 13.10 Maps of multi-model results for the scenarios RCP2.6,
RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 in 2081–2100 of average
percent change in mean precipitation�������������������������������� 449
Fig. 13.11 Time series of global mean sea level (deviation from the
1980–1999 mean) in the past and as projected for the
future���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 450
Fig. 13.12 Summary of climate change impacts and process
linkages within the mountain cryosphere�������������������������� 457
Fig. 13.13 Schematic view of mountain systems and processes
addressed in this paper ������������������������������������������������������ 458
Fig. 13.14 (Top) Northern Hemisphere (NH) spring (March to April
average) relative snow-covered area (RSCA) in CMIP5
(Bottom) NH diagnosed near-surface permafrost area in
CMIP5, using 20-year average monthly surface air
temperatures and snow depths ������������������������������������������ 461
Fig. 13.15 Reduction in the number of ski days and the percentage
closure of ski resorts in various regions as a function of
temperature increase���������������������������������������������������������� 462
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure������ 4


Table 3.1 People Ashore, Landing sites and Longyearbyen overnights������ 57
Table 3.2 Wear on vegetation in square metres, London, Kongsfjorden ���� 67
Table 3.3 Recreation Purchased by Tourists whilst in Iceland 2016
(figures in %)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77
Table 3.4 Possible Environmental Impacts of Horse-Riding and
Horse-Keeping������������������������������������������������������������������������ 78
Table 3.5 Trail degradation �������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
Table 3.6 Glacier Tourism around the south margin of Vatnajökull ������ 85
Table 3.7 Environmental Damage that Visitors Notice�������������������������� 88
Table 4.1 Number of Ships and Passengers to Franz Josef Land,
2000–2013���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Table 5.1 Tourist Air Passengers into Greenland (After Visit
Greenland 2016)�������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Table 5.2 Cruise Ship Statistics 2017 (After Visit Greenland 2017)�������125
Table 5.3 Musk Ox Kills 2010–2012 in Greenland (Adapted from
Olsen, 2015)�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135
Table 6.1 NWT Growth of Tourism and Market Sectors Involved ������ 145
Table 6.2 National Park Visitation in the NWT������������������������������������ 147
Table 6.3 Visitation to the Yukon. Adapted from Tourism Yukon
2016 End of Year Report ������������������������������������������������������ 148
Table 6.4 The Polar Bear Conservation Hunt: Economic Attributes�������151
Table 6.5 Harvest Quotas for Nunavut (NU) and the Inuvialiut
Settlement Region (ISR) and the number of Polar Bears
killed in Canada 2008–9 to 2014–15������������������������������������ 152
Table 6.6 Number of Cruise Ships present in the Canadian Arctic������ 174
Table 6.7 Iceberg Counts from the Canadian Ice Service Fall
Survey 2000–2007���������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Table 7.1 Participation Rates for Popular Outdoor Recreation
Activities in Alaska compared with the average for
the USA (Source from the 1994–5 NSRE Survey) �������������� 186
Table 8.1 Tourist Figures for Sikkim for the period 2011–2014���������� 247
Table 8.2 International Arrivals in Nepal 1990–1997 and % change
per year���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 248
Table 8.3 Numbers in Nepal Tourism 2000–2016�������������������������������� 248
Table 8.4 The Adventure Tourist Arrivals to Nepal in 1988 by
country���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 249

xxix
xxx List of Tables

Table 8.5 Annual Trekking and Mountaineering Numbers for Nepal


1993–2017���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 249
Table 8.6 Number of Climbers granted Permits and Royalties for
2017 for selected Mountains, where the grand total of
climbers was 2240 and the royalties $3,894,158������������������ 250
Table 8.7 Litter Deposited by Trekkers in 1988 in kg�������������������������� 260
Table 8.8 Tourists in the Lidder Valley, Kashmir���������������������������������� 263
Table 9.1 Countries of the Andes, their capital cities, population and
population density, Gross Domestic Product and Percentage
of the population with less than $2 per person per day�������� 300
Table 10.1 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�������������������������������������������������������������������� 326
Table 10.2 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�������������������������������������������������������������������� 326
Table 10.3 Top Ten Adventure Tourism attractions in East Africa as
listed by https://www.tripsavvy.com/������������������������������������ 327
Table 10.4 List of adventure tourism activities (after Buckley, 2006)
with their relevance to East Africa indicated (+ very
relevant; - of some relevance; o not relevant) ����������������� 339
Table 10.5 Summary of the major findings relating to recreational
motorboat activities (adapted from Whitfield and Becker,
2014)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
Table 11.1 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by
international and domestic tourists in 2008
(source: Simmons, 2013, p. 345)��������������������������������������� 367
Table 11.2 Examples of research in Australia and New Zealand
concerned with the environmental impacts of hiking,
horse riding and adventure races������������������������������������������ 386
Table 11.3 Whale watching numbers in Australia 1991-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.162)�������������������������������� 388
Table 11.4 Whale watching numbers in New Zealand 1994-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.186).������������������������������� 388
Table 12.1 List of Adventure Tourism Activities������������������������������������ 410
Table 12.2 Response and recovery (after 3 months-8 years) of 4
montane heath communities on Cairngorm in relation to
variation in intensity of trampling (0–240 tramples)������������ 413
Table 12.3 Management practices adopted by���������������������������������������� 428
Table 13.1 Proxy indicators of climate-related variables������������������������ 440
Table 13.2 Changes in total outdoor recreation participants between
2008 and 2060 across all activities and scenarios ���������������� 451
Table 13.3 Changes in total outdoor recreation days between 2008
and 2060 across all activities and scenarios�������������������������� 453
Table 13.4 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by international
and domestic tourists in 2008������������������������������������������������ 454
What Is Adventure Tourism?
1

at least two of the following three elements:


Chapter Summary physical activity, natural environment and cul-
This chapter considers a definition of adven- tural immersion. While the definition of adven-
ture tourism that includes physical activity, ture tourism only requires two of these
the natural environment and cultural immer- components, trips incorporating all three would
sion. Both hard and soft adventure can be give tourists the fullest adventure tourism experi-
important. The trends and numbers involved ence. For example, the World Tourist Organisation
in this tourism area are discussed, including (2014) in its Global Report on Adventure Tourism
the growth in demand. Other types of often suggests that a trip to Peru involving trekking
related niche tourism types are considered (physical activity) along the Machu Picchu trail
and defined, such as ecotourism, wildlife (natural environment) and genuine interaction
tourism, sustainable and responsible tourism. with local residents and/or indigenous peoples
(cultural immersion) would be an excellent
example. A similar example would be Nand Raj
Jat in Uttarakhand (India) which incorporates all
1.1 Introduction three elements, including a twenty-day trek along
Himalayan trails, an interaction with local resi-
Tourism is one of the most rapidly growing eco- dents and an opportunity to watch and take part
nomic sectors in the world, and adventure tour- in local religious practices.
ism is one of its fastest growing categories. As Between 2010 and 2014, the adventure tour-
travellers seek new and different experiences, ism industry grew by 195% and the adventure
adventure tourism continues to grow in popular- segment of this is enjoying rapid growth, but
ity (Wicker 2017). Increasingly, countries in all globally it remains a relatively small player in the
stages of economic development are prioritising industry. The adventure tourism industry is also
adventure tourism for development and market helping to raise awareness of sustainability, the
growth, because they recognise its ecological, need to support local communities and promote
cultural and economic value. social responsibility. These values help to secure
To date no definition of adventure tourism the future of the sector. Adventure tourism practi-
exists in the United Nations World Tourism tioners and policymakers adhere to sustainable
Organisation (UNWTO) literature, but the environmental practices because they know that
Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) without pristine natural environments and
defines adventure tourism as a trip that includes meaningful cultural experiences, their destina-

© The Author(s) 2020 1


D. Huddart, T. Stott, Adventure Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4_1
2 1 What Is Adventure Tourism?

tion would lose its competitiveness and tourists nue from a trip goes to airlines, hotels and other
would go somewhere else. international companies. In contrast, in adven-
ture travel 70–80% of the revenue goes to local
communities; while 65.5% of total travel expen-
1.2  lobal Figures for Tourism
G diture per adventure travel remains in the desti-
and the Adventure Sector nations or destination the traveller has visited.

Tourism accounts for 30% of all services and one


in eleven jobs in the global economy, and in 2010 1.4 Adventure Tourism
the global value for the adventure market
amounted to more than US$614 billion. By 2013, When applied in a tourism context the term
this figure had tripled to more than US$1843 bil- adventure tourism embraces all types of com-
lion. The growth in turnover comes from an mercial outdoor tourism where there is a signifi-
increase in the number of adventure tourists, as cant excitement element involved, but it is a
42% of all tourists participate in one or more broad term: Buckley (2006) lists at least forty
adventure activities in the course of their holiday, activities involved in adventure tourism. It is a
and an overall increase in the amount of money term that is not easily defined, as different peo-
spent per holiday. Currently 69% of all adventure ple have different perceptions of what might be
tourists come from Europe, North America and considered an adventure. It involves adventurous
South America, but this will change in the future. travel where there is exploration and physical
In 2014, 53% of all adventure travellers were exertion, and the travel has a perceived or real
women and 47% were men; they were generally risk involved; the adventure tourists often step
well educated, with 37% of adventure travellers outside their comfort zone and experience a rush
spending four years or more in tertiary education or flow (Buckley 2012). However, it has to cater
and more than 11% having a professional qualifi- for differences in clientele, as there will be dif-
cation. They were also financially well off, with ferent expectations, different physical abilities,
an average income approximately US$45,500. different likes and dislikes and different psycho-
logical make-ups involved. The experience is not
about taking risks or pushing personal boundar-
1.3 Consumer Trends ies, and it is important for participants to know
and respect their personal limits whilst they are
When we split adventure travel into ‘hard’ and in unfamiliar regions. Adventure tourism is
‘soft’ categories, a pattern emerges. Travellers closely related to nature-based tourism (Buckley
in the soft category (for example, non-extreme et al. 2003), and there is also an overlap with
activities, cruise tourism, cultural activities, ecotourism. Adventure tourism is ‘nature tour-
community involvement and guided tours) ism with a kick, nature tourism with a degree of
spent about US$825 per trip. In comparison, on risk taking and physical endurance’ (Christ et al.
a global level, non-adventure tourists spend 2003). It focuses on doing, whilst the other cat-
about US$430 per person per holiday (exclud- egories mentioned often focus on seeing. There
ing travel costs). This is about 40% less than the is a wide range of outdoor recreation activities
amount spent by adventure tourists, who also packaged as commercial adventure tour prod-
spend more money in local communities— ucts, ranging from hiking trips to expensive and
where the economic impact is more tangible. equipment-­intensive tours involving expedition
More extreme adventure travellers only spend cruise ships and helicopters. The activity can be
about US$338 per trip (excluding travel costs), part of independent travel, where the travellers
but spend significantly more money on gear and provide the adventurous experience for them-
equipment that they require for their holiday. In selves through the use of fixed site facilities,
mass tourism, approximately 80% of the reve- such as ski resorts, where there is a retail and
Another random document with
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One of the things on which the members of the mission laid stress
in their request for the elevation of the school to the rank and title of
a college was that it already had “a good collection of philosophical
and chemical apparatus, believed to be the largest and best-
assorted collection in China.” Dr. Mateer also was accustomed to
speak of this apparatus with a pride that was an expression, not of
vanity, but of satisfaction in a personal achievement, that was
eminently worth while. For instance, in his letter to his college
classmates in 1897, he said: “I have given some time and
considerable thought and money to the making of philosophical
apparatus. I had a natural taste in this direction, and I saw that in
China the thing to push in education was physical science. We now
have as good an outfit of apparatus as the average college in the
United States,—more than twice as much as Jefferson had when we
graduated; two-thirds of it made on the ground at my own expense.”
It was a slow, long job to produce it. Early in his career as a teacher
in the Tengchow school he had little need of apparatus because the
pupils were not of a grade to receive instruction in physics; but it was
not very long until he recorded his difficulty, for instance, in teaching
pneumatics without an air pump. Some of his instruction at that
general period was given to a class of students for the ministry. He
was always careful to let it be known that his school was in no
degree a theological seminary; he held it to be vital to have it
understood that it was an institution for what we would call secular
instruction, though saturated through and through with Christianity.
But again and again throughout his life he took his share in teaching
native candidates for the ministry; and before the college proper
afforded them opportunity to study western science he was
accustomed to initiate these young men into enough knowledge of
the workings of nature to fit them to be better leaders among their
own people. Thus, writing in his Journal, February, 1874, concerning
his work with the theological class that winter, he said:

I heard them a lesson every day,—one day in philosophy


[physics] and the next in chemistry. I went thus over optics
and mechanics, and reviewed electricity, and went through
the volume on chemistry. I practically gave all my time to the
business of teaching and experimenting, and getting
apparatus. I had carpenters and tinners at work a good part of
the time. I got up most of the things needed for illustrating
mechanics, and a number in optics; also completed my set of
fixtures for frictional electricity, and added a good number of
articles to my set of galvanic apparatus. With my new battery I
showed the electrical light and the deflagration of metals very
well. The Ruhmkorff coil performed very well indeed, and
made a fine display. I had an exhibition of two nights with the
magic lantern, using the oxyhydrogen light. In chemistry I
made all the gases and more than are described in the book,
and experimented on them fully. They gave me no small
amount of trouble, but I succeeded with them all very well. I
made both light and heavy carbureted hydrogen, and
experimented with them. Then I made coal gas enough to
light up the room through the whole evening. Altogether I
have made for the students a fuller course of experiments in
philosophy or chemistry than I saw myself. They studied well
and appreciated very much what they saw. I trust the issue
will prove that my time has not been misspent. I have learned
a great deal myself, especially in the practical part of
experiment-making. It may be that I may yet have occasion to
turn this knowledge to good account. I have also gathered in
all a very good set of apparatus, which I shall try to make
further use of.

It was in this way that the collection was begun. As he added to it


in succeeding years, every piece had a history that lent it an
individual interest. Much of it continued to be produced by his own
hand, or at least under his own superintendence, and at the expense
of himself, or of his friends, who at his solicitation contributed money
for this use. Some of the larger and more costly articles were
donated by people to whom he appealed for help, and therefore
peculiar personal associations clustered about them. For instance,
when home on his first furlough, he met Cyrus W. Field, on a voyage
to Europe, and interested him in the Tengchow School. After
reaching China again, he wrote a letter to Mr. Field and solicited from
him the gift of a dynamo. In the course of some months a favorable
response was received; and, eventually, that dynamo rendered most
valuable service in lighting the buildings. Two friends, whose
acquaintance he had made in the United States,—Mr. Stuart, of New
York, and Mrs. Baird, of Philadelphia,—gave him money to buy a
ten-inch reflecting telescope, with proper mountings and
accompaniments; and when, as so often happens in such matters,
there was a considerable deficit, his “Uncle John” came to the relief.
In ordering through an acquaintance a set of telegraph instruments
he explained that the Board was not furnishing the means to pay for
it, but that it was purchased with his own money, supplemented by
the gifts of certain friends of missions and education.
This must suffice as to the history of that collection of apparatus. It
is, however, enough to show why he had so much pride in it.
It was in 1895 that he laid down the headship of the college. He
took this step all the more readily because in his successor, Rev. W.
M. Hayes, now of Tsingchow fu, he had entire confidence as to both
character and ability. On his arrival in China Mr. Hayes was
immediately associated with Dr. Mateer in the school, and showed
himself to be a thoroughly kindred spirit. He continued at the head of
the college until 1901, when he resigned his position in order to start
for the governor of the province a new college at Tsinan fu. It may
not be out of place to add here that the governor at that time was
Yuan Shih K’ai, a man of large and liberal views, and that there was,
as to the new college he was founding, in the requirements nothing
that made it improper for a Christian and a minister of the gospel to
be at the head of it. It is due to Mr. Hayes to say that in accepting
this position he was confident that he had the approval of nearly all
the missionaries associated with him. However, it was not very long
until Yuan was transferred to the viceroyalty of the province of Chi-li,
which dominates Peking, and a successor took his place in
Shantung, who was of a different mind, and who introduced such
usages into the new institution that Mr. Hayes felt conscientiously
bound to lay down his office. He is now one of the instructors in the
theological department of the Shantung Christian University, into
which the college at Tengchow has been merged.
In the request of the members of the mission for the elevation of
the Tengchow school to the rank and title of a college one of the
articles specifically left the ultimate location of the institution an open
question. The main objection to Tengchow was its isolation. It is
away up on the coast of the peninsula that constitutes the eastern
end of the province, and it is cut off from the interior by a range of
rather rugged hills in the rear. Though a treaty port, its commerce by
sea has long been inconsiderable, and gives no promise of increase.
At the time when that request was made, it is likely that some,
though signing, would have preferred that the college should be
removed down to Chefoo. To any project of that sort Dr. Mateer was
inflexibly, and with good reason, opposed; and it never assumed
such strength as to give him much apprehension. Along in the later
“eighties” and in the early “nineties” the question of location again
arose in connection with the Anglo-Chinese college which Dr. A. P.
Happer, of the Presbyterian missions in China, undertook to found.
He progressed so far as to raise a considerable sum of money for
endowment and had a board appointed for the control. The project at
no stage received the hearty support of Dr. Mateer, though, of
course, so long as it did not threaten hurt to his own college or the
ideas which it represented he did not make any fight against it. Dr.
Happer had long been a missionary in southern China, and was
beyond question earnestly devoted to his work; his idea was that by
means of the Anglo-Chinese college he would raise up an efficient
native ministry for the churches. The conviction of Dr. Mateer was
that, so far as this result is concerned, the institution, by the very
nature of the plan, must be a comparative failure. English was to be
given a large place in the curriculum, and for students it was to draw
especially on such as could pay their own way. In a long letter dated
March 18, 1887, called out by the question of the location of the
proposed college, and signed by Dr. Mateer and Mr. Hayes, they
frankly expressed to one of the secretaries of the Board their
reasons for believing so strongly that an institution conducted on the
plan proposed could not realize the main object which its founder
sought. They had found it necessary years before, in the Tengchow
College, to meet the question as to the introduction of English, and
the decision was in favor of using Chinese alone in the curriculum;
and so long as the school remained in charge of Mateer and Hayes,
they rigidly excluded their own native tongue. When the Tengchow
school was just emerging into the Tengchow College, Dr. Mateer
thus expressed his convictions on that subject:

If we should teach English, and on this account seek the


patronage of the officers and the rich, no doubt we could get
some help and countenance. We would be compelled,
however, to give up in good measure the distinctively religious
character of the school. We would get a different class of
pupils, and the religious tone of the school would soon be
changed in spite of us. Another result would also be almost
inevitable, namely, the standard of Chinese scholarship would
fall. The study of English is fatal to high acquisition in the
Chinese classics. We would doubtless have great trouble in
keeping our pupils after they were able to talk English; they
would at once go seeking employment where their English
would bring them good wages. Tengchow, moreover, is not a
port of foreign residents, but rather an isolated and inland city,
and it would not be a good place to locate a school in which
teaching English is made a prominent feature.

His observation since had served to confirm him in the conviction


of years before, and in the letter to a secretary of the Board, Hayes
united with him in stating clearly and forcibly their joint opinion on the
subject.
In casting about for a location for the Anglo-Chinese college, the
choice narrowed down so that it lay between Canton, Nanking,
Shanghai, and Tientsin. Chefoo was mentioned, but not seriously
considered, yet even the possibility of location there, although
remote, was so important a matter to the Shantung College that it
compelled the men at the head of that institution to be on the alert so
long as the question was undetermined. By and by Dr. Happer
became disposed to turn over the management of his projected
college to some other person, and he wrote to Dr. Mateer, sounding
him as to the vacancy, should it occur. The scheme at that time
seemed to be to locate the new institution at Shanghai, and to unite
with it the Shantung College; and in a long letter in response, written
January 9, 1890, Dr. Mateer went very candidly over the entire
situation. Among other things he said:

It will be necessary, however, to settle the policy of the


college, and also its headship, before making any definite
move. Whoever undertakes to make English and self-support
prominent features, and then aims at a Christian college, has,
as things are at present in China, a difficult contract on his
hands. I for one do not feel called to embark in such an
enterprise, and my name may as well be counted out.... Nor
can the school at Tengchow be moved away from Shantung.
We might go, and the apparatus might be moved; but not the
pupils. It is futile to talk of them or any considerable number of
them coming to Shanghai; nor will pupils go from central
China north to be educated save in exceptional cases. The
distance and the expense are both too great. Each section of
China must have its own schools.

Not long afterward the situation was such that Dr. Mateer and Mr.
Hayes addressed to the trustees of the endowment a paper in which
a suggestion was made that under certain conditions the fund raised
by Dr. Happer should be turned over to the Shantung College. In that
paper there was a frank statement of their attitude as to English.
They were entirely willing to introduce that language, but only under
such conditions that it could not seriously alter the character and
work of the institution. The paper is too long for introduction here. It
will suffice to quote from a letter sent by Dr. Mateer at the same time
to one of the secretaries of the Board, and dated February 9, 1891:

There are one or two things I want to say in a less formal


way. One is that in case our proposition in regard to English is
not satisfactory, you will take care that the proposed school is
not located in Chefoo as a rival of the college in Tengchow. It
would be nothing short of suicidal for the Board to allow such
a proceeding, and would be a great wrong, both to myself and
to Mr. Hayes. We do not propose to engage in such a contest,
but would at once resign, and seek some other sphere of
labor. Again, I wish to call your attention to what is the real
inwardness of our plan for English; namely, to teach it in such
a way, and to such parties only, as will insure its being used in
literary and scientific lines. We will not teach English merely to
anyone, nor teach it to anyone who wants merely English. We
will teach it to men, not to boys. Lastly, Mr. Hayes and I have
for several years had in mind the idea of a post-graduate
course in applied science, and have been waiting for my visit
home to push it forward; and even if the present endowment
scheme fails, we will still feel like pushing it, and introducing
some English as already indicated.

Nothing came of the suggestion that the money should be turned


over to the Shantung institution.
Dr. Mateer still continued to help in the college at Tengchow, as he
had time and opportunity. Early in the “nineties,” and after the
movement just considered had failed to materialize, he solicited from
the Board the privilege of seeking to raise an endowment fund, but at
that time he was unable to secure their consent. At the beginning of
1900 the Board changed their attitude, and authorized an effort to be
made to secure contributions for this purpose. Of course, in order to
be successful in this undertaking, a satisfactory plan for the control
of the college was a necessity; and as to this Dr. Mateer was
consulted, and he gave his opinions freely. His preference was
expressed for a charter giving the endowment a separate legal
status, but providing that the members of the Board of Foreign
Missions, acting in this distinct capacity, should be the trustees. The
general oversight of the institution he thought should be assigned to
a “Field Board of Directors,” composed of members of the Shantung
Mission. This was not a scheme that entirely satisfied him. The
specter, on the one hand, of a diversion of the college into a school
for teaching English, and, on the other, of making it a theological
seminary, would not altogether down; but in the ultimate appeal to
the members of the Board of Foreign Missions he recognized a
safeguard that was not likely to prove inadequate. When he was on
furlough in 1903, he spent a considerable part of his time in soliciting
permanent funds for the college, then already removed to its present
location; but he was unable to secure much aid. Ada was with him;
and she says of his experience in this work, “He was so accustomed
to success in whatever he undertook that it was hard for him to bear
the indifference of the rich to what seemed to him so important.”
The transfer of the college to another location was a question that
would not permanently rest. So long as it was whether it should go
from Tengchow to Chefoo, or be swallowed up in another more
pretentious institution at Shanghai, and not yet in existence, it was
comparatively easy to silence the guns of those who talked removal.
But at the opening of the twentieth century, even out there in north
China, important changes indirectly affecting this problem had
occurred. The missions had been strengthened by a number of new
men, who came fresh from the rush of affairs in the United States,
and eager to put their force into the work in China in such a way that
it would tell the most. Even China itself was beginning to awake from
the torpor of ages. In Shantung the Germans were building railroads,
one of them right through the heart of the province, on by way of Wei
Hsien to the capital, and from that point to be afterward connected
with Tientsin and Peking. It is not strange that, under the new
conditions, the young members of the mission especially should
desire to place the college which loomed up so largely and
effectually in the work to which they had consecrated their lives
where it could be in closer touch with the swarming millions of the
land and with the movements of the new times. February 26, 1901,
Dr. Mateer wrote to the Board:

At a meeting of the Shantung Mission it was voted to


remove the Tengchow College to Wei Hsien, and then give up
the Tengchow station. Being at Shanghai, engaged in the
translation work, I was not able to be present at the mission
meeting, and it seems incumbent on me to say something on
a matter of so much importance, and that concerns me so
much.... First, with reference to the college. The major part of
my life has been given to building up the Tengchow College,
and, of course, I feel a deep interest in its future. As you can
easily imagine, I am naturally loath to see it moved from the
place where Providence placed it; and to see all the toil and
thought given to fitting up the buildings, with heating, lighting,
and the other appliances go for nothing; as also the loss of
the very considerable sums of money I have myself invested
in it. The Providence which placed the college in Tengchow
should not be lightly ignored, nor the natural advantages
which Tengchow affords be counted for nothing. It is not
difficult to make out a strong case for Wei Hsien, and I am not
disposed to dispute its advantages, except it be to question
the validity of the assumption that a busy commercial center
is necessarily the best place to locate a college. In view of the
whole question, it seems to me that unless an adequate
endowment can be secured—one which will put the college
on a new basis—it will not pay the Board to make the sacrifice
involved in moving the college to Wei Hsien.... However, I
would rather go to Wei Hsien than be opposed strongly at
Tengchow.

On that part of his contention he lost; and it would be useless now


to try to ascertain the respective merits of the two sides to that
question. The second part of the letter just cited discussed the
abandonment of Tengchow as a mission station. The plan of those
who took the affirmative of this debate was to leave that city to the
Southern Baptists, who almost forty years before had preceded the
Presbyterians a few weeks in a feeble occupation, but who had been
entirely overshadowed by the development of the college. For the
retention of the station Dr. Mateer pleaded with his utmost fervor and
eloquence. Though the decision remained in uncertainty while he
lived, and the uncertainty gave him much anxiety, large gifts, coming
since, from a consecrated layman, have rendered the retention of
the Tengchow station secure. The wisdom of the decision is
vindicated by present conditions. At the close of 1909 the station
reported a city church with three hundred members; a Sabbath
school which sometimes numbers five hundred pupils; thirty out-
stations with about five hundred members; twenty-four primary
schools, giving instruction to three hundred and sixteen boys and
girls, and taught by graduates of the higher schools of the station; a
girls’ high school with an average enrollment of forty-six pupils, and
for the year then closing having twelve graduates, nearly all of whom
became teachers; a boys’ high school with an attendance of forty,
and sending up a number of graduates to the college at Wei Hsien or
to other advanced institutions, and having a normal department with
a model primary department; and also a helpers’ summer school;
besides other machinery for reaching with the gospel the three
millions of people gathered in the neighborhood of Tengchow. Nor
has the work of the Presbyterians in the least hampered that of the
Southern Baptists.
The actual removal of the college was not effected until the
autumn of 1904. In the interval between the time when it was
determined to take this step and when it was actually accomplished
a number of important things affecting the course of Dr. Mateer’s life
occurred. Mr. Hayes, as elsewhere stated, resigned the presidency;
and Rev. Paul D. Bergen, who had come out to the mission in 1883,
was chosen in his place. Dr. Mateer had been so closely associated
with Mr. Hayes, and had such complete confidence in him, that the
resignation came almost like a personal bereavement; but he rose
nobly out of the depths, and wrote home to the Board: “Mr. Bergen is
clearly the best man that our missions in Shantung afford for the
place. He is very popular with the Chinese, which is much in his
favor. The time is as auspicious as it is important. Educational affairs
are taking a great boom, and it looks as if Shantung was going to
lead the van. If it is properly supported the college should do a great
work.” During the interval here covered Dr. Mateer came to the
United States on his third and last furlough, reaching China again in
the autumn of 1903, and bringing with him some substantial fruits of
his efforts for the college.
On his arrival he was confronted by another great problem as to
the institution. A combination had already been almost effected by
the American Presbyterians and the English Baptists in Shantung for
a union in the work of higher education in the province. The matter
had already gone so far that, although he feared that the scheme
would bring about such radical changes as to endanger the real
usefulness of the institution, yet he made no serious opposition, and
it went steadily forward to consummation. Under the plan adopted
the Shantung Christian University was established; and provision
was made for a joint maintenance of three distinct colleges in it, each
at a different location, chosen because of mission and other
conditions—a college of arts and science at Wei Hsien, a theological
college at Tsingchow fu, and a medical college at Tsinan fu. The plan
also provides for a university council, to which is committed the
general control of the institution, subject, of course, to certain
fundamental regulations; and of this body Dr. Mateer was one of the
original members. The first meeting was held at Tsingchow fu near
the end of 1903. Writing to one of the secretaries of the Board of
Missions concerning this, he said: “All were present. Our meeting
was quite harmonious. We elected professors and discussed and
drew out some general principles relating to the curriculum and the
general management. Theoretically things seem quite promising; the
difficulty will come in practical administration. The buildings at Wei
Hsien are all up to the first floor. There should be no difficulty in
getting all ready by next autumn, at which time the college ought by
all means to be moved.” Early the next summer he wrote: “I started
to Wei Hsien about a month ago, overland. I spent over two weeks
taking down and packing my goods, and so forth, including
workshop, boiler, engine, dynamo, and so forth. I found it quite a
serious undertaking to get all my miscellaneous goods packed up,
ready for shipment on boats to Wei Hsien.... I remained in Wei Hsien
twenty-four days, unpacking my effects, getting my workshop in
order, and planning for the heating and lighting outfit.” In the same
letter he expressed himself as follows concerning the theological
college at Tsingchow fu: “It was certainly understood at the meeting
of the directors last winter that it was to be much more than a
theological seminary in the strict sense of the word. It was
understood, in fact, that it would have two departments,—a training
school and a theological seminary proper. In this way only can the
full measure of our needs be supplied.... With this organization it is
not unlikely that the school at Tsingchow fu will be larger than the
college at Wei Hsien.”
This narrative as to Dr. Mateer and the Shantung College is now
approaching its close, and most readers probably will prefer that, so
far as practicable, the remainder of it shall be told in his own words.
December 21, 1904, he wrote to a friend: “The college is now fully
moved to Wei Hsien, and has in it about a hundred and twenty
students. The new buildings are quite fine,—much superior to those
we had in Tengchow. Mrs. Mateer and I have moved to Wei Hsien to
live and will make this our home. We are living in the same house
with my brother Robert, making all one family. This arrangement
suits us very well. I am not teaching in the college, but I would not
feel at home if I were away from it. I hope it has a great future.” In his
report for himself and wife, for the year 1904-05, he says: “The
greater part of the autumn was spent in overseeing the building and
fitting up of a workshop, and in superintending the setting up of a
new thirty-two horse-power steam boiler for heating and lighting the
college, together with a system of steam piping for the same; also
the setting up of engine and dynamo and wiring the college for
electric lights. I also set up a windmill and pump and tank, with pipes
for supplying the college and several dwelling houses with water. I
also built for myself and Mrs. Mateer a seven-kien house in Chinese
style, affording a study, bedroom, storeroom, box room, and coal
room.” This little, narrow, one-story house constituted their home
during the rest of his life in Wei Hsien, though they still look their
meals with the other family. They sometimes called this house “the
Borderland,” for only a narrow path separated them from the small
foreign cemetery at the extreme corner of the compound. In
November, 1905, he wrote to one of the secretaries of the Board:
“The college is, of course, delighted at the prospect of a Science
Hall. I take some credit for having prepared the way for this gift from
Mr. Converse.” In his report for the year 1906 he said: “During the
early part of the winter I spent considerable time, planning,
estimating, and ordering supplies for the lighting, heating, and water
supply of the new Science Hall at Wei Hsien.”
We are at length face to face with the last stage in the active
connection of Dr. Mateer with the college. February 26, 1907, he
wrote to one of the secretaries of the Board of Missions:

I returned three days ago from the meeting of the College


Directors at Tsingchow fu. The meeting was prolonged and a
very important one. A number of important and embarrassing
questions were before us.... You will hear from others, of
course, and from the minutes, that Dr. Bergen resigned the
presidency of the college, and that in our inability to find a
successor I was asked to take the position temporarily, until
other arrangements could be made, and Dr. Bergen was
asked to remain as a professor, which he agreed to do. This
provided for the teaching, and makes it possible for me to
take the presidency without doing much teaching, which I
could not do under present conditions.

During the period of his service in this capacity the college not only
did well in its regular work; it also made some important advances.
The total attendance was one hundred and eighty-one, and a class
of ten was graduated at commencement. At Tengchow he had
always valued the literary societies very highly, and these now
received a fresh impetus. Several rooms of the new Science Hall
were brought into use; two additional rows of dormitories were built,
one for college and personal teachers and workmen, and one for
students; not to mention lesser matters.
Nevertheless he found his official position in certain ways very
uncomfortable. Some of the reasons of this were casual to the
internal administration, and cannot now be appreciated by outsiders,
and are not worth airing here. Others were of a more permanent
nature, and had to do with the future conduct and character of the
institution. The question of English had been for a while hushed to
sleep; but it was now awake again, and asserted itself with new
vigor. In a letter dated December 19, 1907, he said: “I am strongly in
favor of an English School, preferably at Tsinan fu, but I am opposed
to English in the college. It would very soon destroy the high grade of
scholarship hitherto maintained, and direct the whole output of the
college into secular lines.” His fear was that if English were
introduced the graduates of the institution would be diverted from the
ministry and from the great work of evangelizing the people to
commercial pursuits, and that it would become a training school of
compradors and clerks. Later the intensity of his opposition to the
introduction of English was considerably modified, because of the
advantage which he perceived to be enjoyed in the large union
meetings, by such of the Chinese as knew this language in addition
to their own. He saw, too, that with the change of times a knowledge
of English had come to be recognized as an essential in the new
learning, as a bond of unity between different parts of China, and as
a means of contact with the outside world. Looking at the chief
danger as past, he expressly desired that the theologues should be
taught English. At any rate he had been contending for a cause that
was evidently lost. At this writing the curriculum of the college offers
five hours in English as an optional study for every term of the four
required years; and also of the fifth year. Dr. Mateer, besides, was
not fully in sympathy with a movement that was then making to
secure a large gift from the “General Education Fund” for the
endowment of the institution. In the letter just quoted he says: “The
college should be so administered by its president and faculty as to
send some men into the ministry, or it fails of its chief object. I am in
favor of stimulating a natural growth, but not such a rapid and
abnormal growth as will dechristianize it. I do not believe in the
sudden and rapid enlargement of the plant beyond the need at the
time. It would rapidly secularize the college and divert it entirely from
its proper ideal and work.” These questions were too practical, and
touched the vitals of the institution too deeply, to be ignored by
earnest friends on either side. Some things as to the situation are so
transparent that they can be recognized by any person who looks at
it from not too close a point of view. The entire merits of the
argument were in no case wholly on one side; and as a
consequence it is not surprising that wise and good men differed as
they did; and the only decisive test is actual trial of the changes
advocated by the younger men. It is also perfectly plain that in this
affair we have only another instance of a state of things so often
recurring; that is, of a man who has done a great work, putting into it
a long life of toil and self-sacrifice, and bringing it at length to a point
where he must decrease and it must increase; and where in the very
nature of the case it must be turned over to younger hands, to be
guided as they see its needs in the light of the dawning day. He can
scarcely any longer be the best judge of what ought to be done; but
even if he were, the management must be left for good or ill to them.
That evidently is the fight in which Dr. Mateer came ultimately to see
this matter. He courageously faced the inevitable. In this, as in all
other cases, no personal animosity was harbored by him toward
anyone who differed from him.
October 27, 1907, he wrote to an associate on the Mandarin
Revision Committee: “I have now dissolved myself from the
management of the college, and shall have very little to do with it in
the future. It has cost me a great deal to do it, but it is best it should
be so. I am now free from any cares or responsibility in educational
matters.” In a letter to Secretary Brown, dated December 21, 1907,
he said: “In view of the circumstances I thought it best to resign at
once, and unconditionally, both the presidency and my office as
director. I have no ambition to be president, and in fact was only
there temporarily until another man should be chosen. I did not wish
to be a director when I could not conscientiously carry out the ideas
and policy of a majority of the mission. It was no small trial, I assure
you, to resign all connection with the college, after spending the
major part of my missionary life working for it. It did, in fact, seriously
affect my health for several weeks. I cannot stand such strains as I
once did.”
One of the striking incidents of his funeral service at Tsingtao was
the reading of the statistics of the graduates of the Tengchow
College, including the students who came with the college to Wei
Hsien. These have since been carefully revised and are as follows:
Total receiving diplomas, 205; teachers in government schools, 38;
teachers in church schools, 68; pastors, 17; evangelists, 16; literary
work, 10; in business, 9; physicians, 7; post-office service, 4; railroad
service, 2; Y. M. C. A. service, 2; customs service, 1; business
clerks, 2; secretaries, 1; at their homes, 6; deceased, 22. These
graduates are scattered among thirteen denominations, and one
hundred schools, and in sixteen provinces of China. About two
hundred more who were students at Tengchow did not complete the
course of studies.
The institution since its removal has continued steadily to go
forward. The large endowment that was both sought and feared has
not yet been realized, and consequently the effect of such a gift has
not been tested by experience; but other proposed changes have
been made. A pamphlet published in 1910 reports for the college of
arts and sciences an enrollment of three hundred and six students,
and in the academy, eighty. The class which graduates numbers
seventeen, all of whom are Christians. Down to that year there had
been at Wei Hsien among the graduates no candidates for the
ministry, but during 1910, under the ministration of a Chinese pastor,
a quiet but mighty religious awakening pervaded the institution, and
one outcome has been a vast increase in the number of candidates
for the ministry or other evangelistic work. The pamphlet already
quoted speaks of more than one hundred of the college students
who have decided to offer themselves for this work. It is
appropriately added that “such a movement as this amongst our
students inspires us with almost a feeling of awe.... Our faith had
never reached the conception of such a number as the above
simultaneously making a decision.” It has recently been decided to
bring all the departments of the university to Tsinan fu, the provincial
capital.
In the theological college at Tsingchow fu, according to the last
report, there were eleven students in the regular theological
department and one hundred and twenty-eight in the normal school.
In the medical college at Tsinan fu there were thirteen young men.
The aggregate for the whole university rises to five hundred and
thirty-eight. On the Presbyterian side this all began with those six
little boys, in the old Kwan Yin temple, in the autumn of 1864, at
Tengchow. To-day it is a university, and is second to no higher
institution of learning in China.
It is said that Dr. Mateer never led in prayer, either public or
private, that he did not most earnestly ask that the Lord would raise
up Chinese Christian men, who as leaders would bring many to
Christ. His prayers during the forty-five years of his missionary life
are receiving a wonderful answer at Wei Hsien and at Tsingchow fu.
XII
WITH APPARATUS AND MACHINERY

“The things most likely to be needed in China, are first, electrical


engineering, especially telegraphy, and second, civil engineering,
especially surveying and laying out of railroads. Special preparation in
one or both of these things would be very valuable. But what is more
necessary for immediate use, and as a preliminary to these things, is
a practical knowledge of scientific apparatus,—how to make and how
to use it. I have myself picked it up from books, without any instructor,
but only at a great expense of time and labor.”—letter to a
prospective teacher, October 29, 1888.

Whenever a group of the early acquaintances of Dr. Mateer talked


together about him, one thing certain to be mentioned was his
achievements with apparatus and machinery, both with the making
and with the using of them. Out in China his reputation for this was
so great that it at times came near to being a burden to him. We
have already seen that the temporary superintendence of the
mission press at Shanghai was thrust upon him, contrary to his own
preference, and because, as he expressed it in a letter at that time,
the men in control considered him a “Jack-of-all-trades,” able to do
anything at which he might be put. If they then did really think of him
as no more than a man who with machinery could do a great many
things without performing any of them thoroughly well, they did him a
great injustice, which their subsequent knowledge amply corrected.
As the years went by, and in this sphere of his multifarious activity he
rose to larger and more difficult achievements, his fame as to this
spread far and wide among both natives and foreigners. At no time,
however, did he permit his efficiency in this line to loom up in such a
form or in such a degree as to seem even to others to put his
distinctively missionary labors into the background. It is a significant
fact that in the eulogiums pronounced on him at his death this
feature of his character and work is seldom even mentioned. He was
—first, last, and all the time—a man whose life and whose abilities
were so completely and so manifestly consecrated to the
evangelization of the Chinese that when those who knew him best
looked back over the finished whole, his remarkable achievements
with apparatus and machinery scarcely arrested their attention.
Dr. Mateer himself regarded his efficiency in this sphere as due in
some measure to native endowment. He had an inborn taste and
ability for that sort of work; and stories have come down concerning
certain very early manifestations of this characteristic. It is related
that when he was a little boy he was suffering loss through the raids
made by the woodpeckers on a cherry tree laden with luscious fruit.
He pondered the situation carefully, and then set up a pole, close by,
with a nice lodging place for a bird at the top, and armed himself with
a mallet down at the foot. The woodpecker would grab a cherry, and
immediately fly to the pole in order to eat it; but a sharp blow with the
mallet would bring him from his perch to the ground. So the boy
saved his cherries. It is also related of him that when a mere boy he
had a friendly dispute with his father over the question whether a
sucking pig had the homing instinct. He maintained that it would
return to its mother under conditions that proved the affirmative; and
in order to satisfy himself, he placed a pig in a sack, and took it a
long way from its familiar haunts, and turned it loose. It had been
agreed that the result was to decide the ownership. To his delight,
immediately the pig started on a bee line for home, and never gave
up the race until it was back in its old place.
For the development and application of this natural gift he received
almost no help from others. Probably if that old workbench in the
barn at the “Hermitage” could speak, it might tell something as to
oversight and guidance of the boy by his father, in making and
repairing traps and tools for use in recreation and in work; but
beyond this he had no instruction. In his day at college a chemical or
physical laboratory was supposed to be exclusively for the professor
to prepare his experiments; the student was expected only to be a
spectator in the classroom when the experiments were shown. The
man who occupied the chair of natural philosophy at Jefferson when
we were there had a gift for supplementing his scanty outfit of
apparatus with the products of his own skill and labor, and if the
student Mateer had found his way down into the subterranean
regions where these were wrought, he and Professor Jones would
have rejoiced together in sympathetic collaboration; but no such
unheard-of violation of ancient custom occurred. In the academy at
Beaver he first turned his hand to making a few pieces of apparatus
which he craved as helps in teaching. But it was not until he reached
China that this field for his talent opened before him, and continued
to enlarge all the rest of his life. In fact, even when he was absent
from China, on his furloughs, he did not get away from his work with
apparatus and machinery. During one of his earlier furloughs, while
he was looking up everything that could be helpful to his Chinese
boys, he spent some time in the Baldwin Locomotive Works, by
special permission, in studying the construction of locomotives, so
that he might be able to make a model of one on his return to China.
In connection with this he showed such an acquaintance with the
structure of these engines that he could scarcely convince some of
the skilled mechanics that he had not been trained to the business.
Dr. Corbett wrote concerning him, after his death: “It was my
privilege to meet him at the World’s Fair at Chicago in 1893. He had
spent nearly a month there examining minutely many things of
special interest to him. As my time was limited he kindly became my
guide for a while, and gave me the benefit of his observations. We
first visited the department of electricity, which he had carefully
studied in all its various applications. We next went to Machinery
Hall, where he had spent days making drawings, measurements,
and so forth, of the most complex machinery. He seemed to
understand everything as though this had been the work of his life.”
Dr. Hayes says: “Dr. Mateer’s ability to meet exigencies was well
shown a few years ago in Wei Hsien, when suddenly the large
dynamo failed to produce a current. He unwound the machine until
he located the fault, reinsulated the wire and rewound the coil; after
which the machine furnished its current as usual.... Electrotyping
was hardly in general use in the west until he secured an outfit of
tools and taught a class of native artisans. When electric fans came
in vogue he purchased a small one as a model and proceeded to
make another.”

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