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P. Parvatha Reddy
Agro-ecological
Approaches to
Pest Management
for Sustainable
Agriculture
Agro-ecological Approaches to Pest
Management for Sustainable Agriculture
P. Parvatha Reddy
Agro-ecological
Approaches to Pest
Management for
Sustainable Agriculture
P. Parvatha Reddy
Former Director, Indian Institute
of Horticultural Research
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
This book was advertised with a copyright holder in the name of the authors in error, whereas
the publisher holds the copyright.
ISBN 978-981-10-4324-6 ISBN 978-981-10-4325-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4325-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017940270
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

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Foreword
Even though the intensive crop production practices adopted in achieving green
revolution (using heavy doses of fertilizers, indiscriminate use of pesticides and
herbicides) led to enormous gains in food production and improved world food
security, it had negative impacts on production, ecosystems, and the larger environ-
ment (causing environmental damage, pollution, reliance on fossil fuels), putting
future productivity at risk. The food production in the developing world must be
doubled, in order to feed the world’s growing population that is expected to reach
9 billion by 2050. Since there is no scope to increase the land available for cultiva-
tion, the increase in production should come from sustainable intensification of
agriculture – getting more crops out of the same amount of farmland with less envi-
ronmental impact. In order to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
(which last until 2030) set forth by the UN (to end hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture), the increased food pro-
duction should be achieved through environment-friendly and economically sus-
tainable manner.
More than 30% of crops worldwide are blemished, damaged, or destroyed by
agricultural pests – insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and disease pathogens (fungi,
bacteria, viruses). The crop losses due to pests viewed in terms of food security
would represent the equivalent of food required to feed over one billion people. For
over last five decades, chemical control has been the prevailing pest control strategy,
resulting in safety problems and ecological disruptions. Hence, there are renewed
appeals for economically acceptable, effective, and eco-friendly alternative pest
management strategies, which reduce pest damage while avoiding the cost and neg-
ative externalities associated with inorganic pesticides.
One of the emerging strategies in crop protection, “Agroecological Pest
Management”, is being recognized in the present-day context. The new paradigm
emphasizes on the incorporation of ecological principles into pest management
while ensuring high productivity and profitable harvests without causing harm to the
environment. The restructuring of the crop production system to incorporate preven-
tative ecological measures that keep organisms from reaching pest status is the long-
term pest management strategy. The use of biological processes has been given
emphasis to regulate pest populations (as an alternative to direct control via synthetic
pesticides) through the redesign of cropping systems via plant species’ spatial and
v
vi Foreword
temporal diversification, while also preserving and improving the soil health (fertil-
ity, biological activity, structure, etc.) in agroecological pest management.
The information on agroecological pest management is very much scattered, and
there is no book at present which comprehensively and exclusively deals with the
above aspects in agriculture emphasizing on food security. This book, Agro-
ecological Approaches to Pest Management for Sustainable Agriculture, outlines a
new paradigm which aims to increase productivity through increasing efficiency
and reducing waste, while conserving resources, reducing negative impacts on the
environment, and enhancing the provision of ecosystem services. The use of eco-
logically based pest management strategies can increase the sustainability of agri-
cultural production while reducing off-site consequences. The preventive strategies
rather than reactive strategies form the basis of agroecological pest management. In
order to build a farm’s natural defenses, the preventive practices based on above-
and below-ground habitat management (crop/soil management) should be given
primary focus in cropping program, followed by planned (problems not solved by
preventive practices – planned supplemental pest/soil management practices) and
reactive (problems not solved by planned practices – reactive inputs for pest
management/reduce plant stress) strategies. The book also highlights the underlying
principles and outlines some of the key management practices and technologies
required to implement agroecological pest management.
I compliment Dr. P. Parvatha Reddy for his meticulous contribution on a very
potential topic of agroecological pest management. This book will be of immense
value to the scientific community in agriculture as a whole and to those who are
involved in crop protection in particular. The material can also be used for teaching
postgraduate courses. It can also serve as a very useful reference to policymakers
and practicing farmers.
Bioversity International N.K. Krishna Kumar

G-1, B-Block, NASC Complex
DPS Marg, Pusa Campus
New Delhi, 110012 India
February 5, 2017
Preface
The green revolution (using heavy fertilization and indiscriminate use of pesticides)
during 1960s has led to enormous gains in food production and improved world
food security. However, intensive crop production has had negative impacts on pro-
duction, ecosystems, and the larger environment, putting future productivity at risk.
The world’s population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050; therefore, there will
be a need to raise food production by almost 100% in developing countries. An
estimated 80% of the required food production increases will thus need to come
from land that is already under cultivation, through higher productivity. Hence, new
and more environmentally sustainable and economic approaches are demanded and
sought to meet future societal needs.
Pests (insect and mite pests, disease pathogens, nematodes, and weeds) are the
important limiting factors in crop production and productivity. They are responsible
for significant crop losses to the extent of 26–40% of the attainable yield every year
in major food and cash crops. The present modern agricultural systems are reliant
on agrochemical inputs for pest management. Overreliance on pesticides disrupts
parasitoid and predator populations, causes outbreaks of secondary pests, exposes
farmers to serious health risks, has negative consequences for the environment,
causes development of pesticide resistance, leaves pesticide residues in food prod-
ucts, decreases effectiveness of many pesticides, adds to increased costs, and pol-
lutes the air, soil, and water. Hence, there is an immediate need for alternative pest
management strategies to overcome the above limitations, and to provide sustain-
able and eco-friendly production systems. The use of ecologically based pest man-
agement strategies can increase the sustainability of agricultural production while
reducing off-site consequences. Agroecologically based pest management makes
full use of natural and cultural practices and methods, including host resistance and
biological control. In order to stabilize the population of pest species throughout the
food web, the new designs should concentrate on managing the farm environment
through ecosystem enhancements (i.e., landscape ecology), crop attributes, or other
means.
This book, Agro-ecological Approaches to Pest Management for Sustainable
Agriculture deals with optimal resource use for pest management with high produc-
tivity and enhanced ecosystem services. This alternative paradigm has been shown
to work in many parts of the world, and is biologically and ecologically as well as
economically more efficient in producing the required outputs of goods such as
vii
viii Preface
edible and nonedible biological products and of water while at the same time taking
care of other essential ecosystem services that regulate soil, crop, and ecosystem
health, protect habitats and biodiversity, drive carbon, nutrient, and hydrological
cycles as well as conserve stocks of carbon, nutrients, and water, and protect soils
and landscapes from erosion and other forms of degradation. The important aspects
of agroecological pest management such as conservation tillage, crop residue man-
agement, addition of organic amendments, nutrient management, crop diversity,
crop rotations, cover crops, plant breeding, agroforestry, biofumigation, habitat
management, cultural approaches, push-pull strategy, cultivar mixtures, and preci-
sion agriculture are dealt in a very comprehensive manner in this book.
The book will be of immense value to scientific community involved in teaching,
research, and extension activities related to crop protection. The material can be
used for teaching postgraduate courses. It can also serve as a very useful reference
to policymakers and practicing farmers. Suggestions to improve the contents of the
book are most welcome (e-mail: reddy_parvatha@yahoo.com). The publisher,
Springer India (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi, India, deserves commendation for their pro-
fessional contribution.
Bangalore, Karnataka, India P. Parvatha Reddy

February 5, 2017
Contents
1 Agro-Ecological Pest Management – An Overview.............................. 1

1.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Ecology and Agroecology............................................................... 3
1.2.1 Ecology............................................................................. 3
1.2.2 Agroecology...................................................................... 3
1.3 Agroecological Pest Management................................................... 4
1.4 Goals................................................................................................ 4
1.5 Basis and Principles......................................................................... 5
1.6 Key Elements of Agroecological Pest Management....................... 7
1.6.1 Crop Management............................................................. 7
1.6.2 Soil Management.............................................................. 8
1.7 Benefits and Limitations.................................................................. 9
1.7.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 9
1.7.2 Limitations........................................................................ 10
1.8 Conclusions..................................................................................... 10
References.................................................................................................. 10
2 Conservation Tillage................................................................................ 13
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 13
2.2 Weed Management.......................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Stale Seed Bed + Glyphosate Strategy.............................. 17
2.2.2 Crop Rotations + Stale Seed Bed...................................... 18
2.2.3 Integrated Weed Management........................................... 18
2.3 Insect Pest Management.................................................................. 18
2.4 Disease Management....................................................................... 20
2.5 Nematode Management................................................................... 23
2.6 Nonpesticidal Management Practices............................................. 23
2.6.1 Crop Rotation.................................................................... 23
2.6.2 Field Sanitation................................................................. 24
2.6.3 Proper Planting Procedures............................................... 24
2.6.4 Irrigation Management...................................................... 24
ix
x Contents
2.6.5 Variety Selection............................................................... 25

2.6.6 Scouting and Pest Identification........................................ 25
2.7 Conclusions..................................................................................... 26
References.................................................................................................. 27
3 Crop Residue Management and Organic Amendments....................... 29
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 30
3.2 Weed Management.......................................................................... 30
3.4.1 Biofumigation................................................................... 36
3.6 Conclusions..................................................................................... 38
References.................................................................................................. 39
4 Biofumigation........................................................................................... 43
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 43
4.2 Biofumigation.................................................................................. 44
4.3 Benefits............................................................................................ 45
4.4 Modes of Utilization........................................................................ 46
4.4.1 Crop Rotation/Intercropping............................................. 46
4.4.2 Incorporation of Biofumigants.......................................... 47
4.4.3 Green Manuring Cover Crops and Trap Crops................. 47
4.4.4 Processed Plant Products.................................................. 48
4.5 Biofumigation Crops....................................................................... 48
4.5.1 Brassica Plant Species....................................................... 48
4.5.2 Non-Brassica Plant Species.............................................. 51
4.6 Pest Management............................................................................. 53
4.6.1 Diseases............................................................................. 53
4.6.2 Nematode Pests................................................................. 55
4.6.3 Weeds................................................................................ 56
4.7 Integration of Biofumigation and Solarization................................ 56
4.8 Conclusions..................................................................................... 57
References.................................................................................................. 58
5 Fertilizer Management............................................................................ 61
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 61
5.2 Macronutrients................................................................................. 63
5.2.1 Nitrogen............................................................................ 63
5.2.2 Potassium.......................................................................... 66
5.2.3 Phosphorus........................................................................ 67
5.2.4 Calcium............................................................................. 68
5.2.5 Sulfur................................................................................. 69
5.3 Micronutrients................................................................................. 69
5.3.1 Manganese........................................................................ 69
5.3.2 Zinc................................................................................... 70
5.3.3 Boron................................................................................. 70
Contents xi
5.3.4 Iron.................................................................................... 70
5.3.5 Chlorine............................................................................. 71
5.3.6 Silicon............................................................................... 71
5.4 Conclusions..................................................................................... 71
References.................................................................................................. 72
6 Agro-Forestry........................................................................................... 77
6.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 77
6.2 Effect on Pests and Natural Enemies............................................... 78
6.2.1 Insect Pests and Diseases.................................................. 80
6.2.2 Nematodes......................................................................... 84
6.2.3 Weeds................................................................................ 85
6.2.4 Natural Enemies................................................................ 85
6.3 Conclusions..................................................................................... 86
References.................................................................................................. 86
7 Cover/Green Manure Cropping............................................................. 91
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 91
7.3.1 Pollen and Nectar Source for Predators............................ 94
7.3.2 Overwintering Habitats for Generalist Predators.............. 94
7.3.3 Understory Cover Crops in Orchards................................ 95
7.5 Weed Management.......................................................................... 98
7.6 Mechanism of Pest Suppression...................................................... 102
7.6.1 Disease and Nematode Management................................ 102
7.6.2 Weed Management............................................................ 103
7.7 Conclusions..................................................................................... 103
References.................................................................................................. 103
8 Intercropping............................................................................................ 109
8.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 109
8.2.1 Floral and Nectar Resources from Intercrops................... 112
8.2.2 Shelter and Overwintering Sites....................................... 113
8.5 Weed Management.......................................................................... 118
8.5.1 Intercrop Yield and Weed Suppression............................. 120
8.5.2 Allelopathy........................................................................ 121
8.6 Mechanism of Action...................................................................... 121
8.6.1 Insect Pests........................................................................ 121
8.6.2 Diseases............................................................................. 123
8.6.3 Weeds................................................................................ 123
8.7 Conclusions..................................................................................... 127
References.................................................................................................. 127
xii Contents
9 Trap Cropping.......................................................................................... 133

9.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 133
9.2 Selection of Trap Crops................................................................... 134
9.3 Types of Trap Cropping................................................................... 135
9.3.1 Traditional Trap Cropping................................................. 135
9.3.2 Dead-End Trap Cropping.................................................. 136
9.3.3 Genetically Engineered Trap Cropping............................. 137
9.3.4 Perimeter Trap Cropping................................................... 137
9.3.5 Sequential Trap Cropping................................................. 139
9.3.6 Multiple Trap Cropping.................................................... 139
9.3.7 Push-Pull Trap Cropping................................................... 139
9.3.8 Biological Control-Assisted Trap Cropping..................... 140
9.3.9 Semiochemically Assisted Trap Cropping........................ 140
9.4 Advantages and Benefits................................................................. 141
9.4.1 Advantages........................................................................ 141
9.4.2 Benefits.............................................................................. 141
9.6 Enhancing Effectiveness of Trap Crops.......................................... 143
9.7 Conclusions and Recommendations................................................ 144
References.................................................................................................. 144
10 Companion Planting................................................................................ 149
10.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 149
10.2 Benefits............................................................................................ 150
10.3 How Does Companion Planting Work?........................................... 151
10.3.1 Disrupts Host Location by Pests....................................... 152
10.3.2 Enhance Conservation Biological Control........................ 155
10.4 Pest Management............................................................................. 155
10.4.1 Insect Pests........................................................................ 155
10.4.2 Weeds................................................................................ 156
10.4.3 Diseases............................................................................. 156
10.5 Mechanism of Action...................................................................... 156
10.6 Conclusions..................................................................................... 162
References.................................................................................................. 163
11 Habitat Management............................................................................... 165
11.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 165
11.2 Habitat Management....................................................................... 166
11.3 Intercropping and Polycultures........................................................ 168
11.3.1 Push-Pull Strategy............................................................. 168
11.3.2 Perimeter Trap Cropping................................................... 169
11.4 Cover Crops..................................................................................... 170
11.4.1 Understory Cover Cropping.............................................. 172
11.5 Crop Rotation.................................................................................. 174
11.6 Supplementary Food Resources...................................................... 175
11.6.1 Flowering Plants............................................................... 175
11.6.2 Pollen and Nectar Resources............................................. 176
Contents xiii
11.6.3 Artificial Food Supplements............................................. 176

11.6.4 Alternative Prey and Preferred Hosts................................ 177
11.7 Managing Vegetation in Field Margins........................................... 177
11.7.1 Beetle Banks..................................................................... 178
11.7.2 Hedgerows........................................................................ 178
11.7.3 Strip Highways for Habitat............................................... 179
11.7.4 Shelters (Refugee Sites).................................................... 179
11.7.5 Artificial Nesting Structures.............................................. 180
11.8 Conclusions..................................................................................... 180
References.................................................................................................. 180
12 Stimulo-Deterrent Diversion Strategy................................................... 185
12.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 185
12.2 Management of Insect Pests............................................................ 186
12.2.1 Chilo partellus on Zea mays and Sorghum vulgare.......... 186
12.2.2 Pests of Cabbage and Cauliflower.................................... 188
12.2.3 Fruit Borer on Tomato....................................................... 191
12.2.4 Cotton Boll Worms............................................................ 192
12.2.5 Pea Leaf Weevil in Beans.................................................. 193
12.2.6 Leptinotarsa decemlineata on Solanum tuberosum.......... 194
12.2.7 Pollen Beetle on Oilseed Rape.......................................... 194
12.2.8 Onion Maggots.................................................................. 195
12.2.9 Chrysanthemum Thrips..................................................... 196
12.3.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 197
12.3.2 Limitations........................................................................ 198
12.4 Integration with Other Management Strategies............................... 198
12.5 Conclusions..................................................................................... 198
References.................................................................................................. 199
13 Cultural Approaches................................................................................ 201
13.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 201
13.2 Cultural Methods............................................................................. 202
13.2.1 Strategies........................................................................... 202
13.2.2 Benefits and Constraints.................................................... 203
13.3 Cultural Management Practices....................................................... 203
13.3.1 Selection of Site................................................................ 204
13.3.2 Cropping Systems............................................................. 204
13.3.3 Maintenance of Site.......................................................... 207
13.3.4 Harvesting Procedures...................................................... 210
13.4 Conclusions..................................................................................... 210
References.................................................................................................. 210
14 Weed Manipulation.................................................................................. 211
14.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 212
14.2 Weeds as Sources of Insect Pests in Agro-Ecosystems................... 212
14.3 Role of Weeds in Ecology of Natural Enemies............................... 213
14.3.1 Importance of Flowering Weeds....................................... 214
xiv Contents
14.4 Insect Dynamics in Weed-Diversified Crop Systems...................... 215

14.5 Manipulation of Crop–Weed Management..................................... 220
14.5.1 Soil Management Practices............................................... 221
14.5.2 Herbicides......................................................................... 221
14.5.3 Direct Sowing................................................................... 221
14.5.4 Spatial Patterns of Weeds.................................................. 222
14.5.5 Manipulation of Weed’s Critical Competition Period....... 222
14.5.6 Under Sowing of Weeds.................................................... 222
14.5.7 Weed Strip Highways for Habitat..................................... 223
14.6 Conclusions..................................................................................... 224
References.................................................................................................. 224
15 Crop Rotation........................................................................................... 229
15.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 229
15.2 Crop Rotation.................................................................................. 230
15.3.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 231
15.3.2 Limitations........................................................................ 232
15.4 Pest Management............................................................................. 232
15.4.1 Insect Pests........................................................................ 234
15.4.2 Diseases............................................................................. 235
15.4.3 Nematode Pests................................................................. 237
15.4.4 Weeds................................................................................ 239
15.5 Conclusions..................................................................................... 240
References.................................................................................................. 240
16 Plant Breeding.......................................................................................... 243
16.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 243
16.2 Benefits and Drawbacks.................................................................. 244
16.2.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 244
16.2.2 Drawbacks......................................................................... 244
16.3 Disease Resistance........................................................................... 245
16.3.1 Disease Suppression by Rhizosphere Competence........... 245
16.3.2 Resistance to Major Seed-Borne Diseases........................ 246
16.3.3 Resistance to Other Fungal and Bacterial Diseases.......... 246
16.4 Nematode Resistance....................................................................... 246
16.5 Resistance to Insect Pests................................................................ 247
16.5.1 Resistance Mechanisms to Insect Pests............................ 248
16.6 Tolerance to Weeds.......................................................................... 249
16.6.1 Weed Competition............................................................. 249
16.6.2 Tolerance to Cultural Operations...................................... 250
16.7 Genetic Engineering (Recombinant DNA Technology).................. 250
16.7.1 Opportunities..................................................................... 250
16.7.2 Transgenic Insect-Resistant Crop Varieties....................... 251
16.7.3 Transgenic Disease-Resistant Crop Varieties.................... 252
16.7.4 Transgenic Herbicide-Tolerant Crop Varieties.................. 255
Contents xv
16.7.5 Transgenic Crop Varieties with Combined Resistance..... 255

16.8 Conclusions..................................................................................... 256
References.................................................................................................. 256
17 Cultivar Mixtures/Multiline Cultivars................................................... 259
17.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 259
17.2 What Is a Cultivar Mixture?............................................................ 260
17.3 Cultivar and Species Mixtures in Practice....................................... 261
17.3.1 Reasons for Growing Mixtures......................................... 261
17.3.2 Uses of Growing Mixtures................................................ 261
17.4.1 Air-Borne Pathogens......................................................... 262
17.4.2 Soil-Borne Pathogens........................................................ 263
17.4.3 Viral Diseases.................................................................... 263
17.4.4 Management of Multiple Diseases.................................... 263
17.4.5 Cultivar Numbers in Good Mixture?................................ 264
17.4.6 Mechanisms of Action...................................................... 264
17.5.1 Challenges......................................................................... 267
17.6 Weed Management.......................................................................... 268
17.7 Conclusions..................................................................................... 269
References.................................................................................................. 269
18 Allelopathy................................................................................................ 273
18.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 273
18.2 Allelopathy...................................................................................... 274
18.3 Weed Management.......................................................................... 275
18.3.1 Crop Rotation.................................................................... 275
18.3.2 Cover Crops...................................................................... 276
18.3.3 Mulching........................................................................... 277
18.3.4 Allelopathic Plant Extracts................................................ 278
18.3.5 Combined Effect of Allelopathic Water Extracts
and Herbicides................................................................... 280
18.7 Conclusions..................................................................................... 286
References.................................................................................................. 287
19 Precision Agriculture............................................................................... 295
19.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 295
19.2 Ecological Effects of Plant Diversity.............................................. 297
19.3 Effects of Pesticide Use................................................................... 297
19.4 Precision Farming............................................................................ 298
19.4.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 298
19.5 Precision Farming Tools.................................................................. 300
xvi Contents
19.5.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)..................................... 300

19.5.2 Geographic Information System (GIS)............................. 300
19.5.3 Variable Rate Technologies (VRT)................................... 301
19.5.4 Remote Sensing (RS)........................................................ 301
19.5.5 Yield Monitors (YM)........................................................ 301
19.6 Pest Management............................................................................. 302
19.6.1 Insect Pests........................................................................ 303
19.6.2 Diseases............................................................................. 303
19.6.3 Weeds................................................................................ 304
19.7 Strider: Computer Model................................................................. 305
19.7.1 Benefits.............................................................................. 305
19.7.2 Features............................................................................. 306
19.8 Conclusions..................................................................................... 307
References.................................................................................................. 308
20 The Way Forward.................................................................................... 311
20.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 311
20.2 New Direction................................................................................. 312
20.2.1 Interactions of Plant Characteristics with
Pests, Natural Enemies, and Crops................................... 313
20.2.2 Ecosystem Management................................................... 313
20.2.3 Biopesticides without Ecological Disturbances................ 314
20.3 Agroecological Pest Management................................................... 314
20.3.1 Environmental Factors of Production Affecting
Effective Pest Management............................................... 314
20.3.2 Ecosystem-Based Strategy................................................ 315
20.4 Potential Benefits............................................................................. 315
20.5 Future Lines of Work....................................................................... 317
20.5.1 Research and Development............................................... 317
20.5.2 Transfer of Technology..................................................... 318
20.5.3 Policy Support................................................................... 318
20.6 Conclusions..................................................................................... 318
References.................................................................................................. 318
Annexures......................................................................................................... 321
Annexure I: Glossary................................................................................. 321
Annexure II: Acronyms.............................................................................. 331
Index.................................................................................................................. 335
About the Author
Dr. P. Parvatha Reddy obtained his PhD degree jointly from the University of
Florida, USA, and the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy served as the director of the prestigious Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research (IIHR) at Bangalore from 1999 to 2002, during which the institute was
honored with the “ICAR Best Institution Award.” He also served as the head of the
Division of Entomology and Nematology at IIHR and gave tremendous impetus and
direction to research, extension, and education in developing biointensive integrated
pest management strategies in horticultural crops. These technologies are being
practiced widely by the farmers across the country since they are effective, eco-
nomical, eco-friendly, and residue-free. Dr. Reddy has about 34 years of experience
working with horticultural crops and is involved in developing an F1 tomato hybrid
“Arka Varadan” resistant to root-knot nematodes.
Dr. Reddy has over 250 scientific publications to his credit, which also include
30 books. He has guided two PhD students at the University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy is serving as chairman of the Research Advisory Committee (RAC),
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, and as senior scientific advisor of the
Dr. Prem Nath Agricultural Science Foundation, Bangalore. He had also served as a
member of the RAC of National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi;
the expert panel for monitoring the research program of National Initiative on Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) in the theme of horticulture including pest dynamics
and pollinators; the RAC of the National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur; and the
Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore. He has also served as a member
of the Quinquennial Review Team (QRT) to review the progress of the Central Tuber
Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum; All-India Co-ordinated Research Project
(AICRP) on tuber crops and on nematodes; and All-India Network Research Project
(AINRP) on betel vine. He is the honorary fellow of the Society for Plant Protection
Sciences, New Delhi; fellow of the Indian Phytopathological Society, New Delhi; and
founder president of the Association for Advancement of Pest Management in
Horticultural Ecosystems (AAPMHE), Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy has been awarded with the prestigious “Association for Advancement
Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems Award,” “Dr. G.I. D’souza Memorial
Lecture Award,” “Prof. H.M. Shah Memorial Award,” and “Hexamar Agricultural
Research and Development Foundation Award” for his unstinted efforts in
xvii
xviii About the Author
developing sustainable, biointensive, and eco-friendly integrated pest management

strategies in horticultural crops.
Dr. Reddy has organized the “Fourth International Workshop on Biological
Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata,” “National Seminar on Hi-tech
Horticulture,” “First National Symposium on Pest Management in Horticultural
Crops: Environmental Implications and Thrusts,” and “Second National Symposium
on Pest Management in Horticultural Crops: New Molecules and Biopesticides.”
Agro-Ecological
Pest Management – An Overview 1
Abstract
The emerging paradigm in crop protection—agroecological approaches to pest
management for sustainable agriculture—emphasizes on the incorporation of
ecological principles into pest management while ensuring high productivity and
profitable harvests without causing harm to the environment. The restructuring
of the crop production system to incorporate preventative ecological measures
that keep organisms from reaching pest status is the long-term pest management
strategy. The use of biological processes has been given emphasis for agroeco-
logical crop protection through biodiversity while also preserving as well as
improving soil health (fertility, biological activity, structure, etc.). The preventive
strategies [above- and below – ground habitat management (crop/soil manage-
ment)] rather than reactive strategies form the basis of agroecological pest
management.
Keywords
Agroecosystems • Biodiversification • Ecological principles • Crop protection
1.1 Introduction
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization has predicted that food pro-
duction needs to increase by 70% globally in order to feed the population of over 9
billion by 2050. Since there is no scope to increase the land available for cultivation,
the increase in production should come from intensification of agriculture—getting
more crops out of the same amount of farmland. Earlier, the conventional agricul-
tural intensification (the so-called “Green Revolution”) relied on monoculture along
with heavy inputs such as pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, and fossil fuels to achieve
a decline in global hunger. Despite this production increase, nearly 800 million
people continue to suffer from hunger and malnutrition around the world. Ecological
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 1

P.P. Reddy, Agro-ecological Approaches to Pest Management for Sustainable
Agriculture, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4325-3_1
2 1 Agro-Ecological Pest Management – An Overview
principles were continuously ignored, as the agricultural intensification progressed,

that resulted in negative externalities. In order to achieve Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) (which last until 2030) set forth by the UN, the increased agricultural
production should be achieved through environment-friendly and economically sus-
tainable manner.
The innovative methods of increasing yields while reducing chemical inputs
(inorganic fertilizers and pesticides), incorporating trees into the farm landscape,
and capturing carbon (ecological intensification of agriculture) are already being
discovered and implemented by researchers and farmers. The implementation of
these potential agroecological pest management practices needs to be scaled up
across the globe to increase food production and productivity. Even if these agro-
ecological practices (specifically nitrogen mineralization and biological control of
pests) are adopted in only 10% of farmland worldwide, the economic value of eco-
system services could exceed the input costs of pesticides and fertilizers. Insect
pollination, an important ecosystem service provided by the insects that benefits
farmers, can compensate for low levels of fertilizer application.
The intensive use of land, water, biodiversity, and nutrients more efficiently for
enhancing crop production in an eco-friendly and economically sustainable manner
is known as sustainable intensification (Godfray and Garnett 2014). The ecological
principles and practices such as conservation tillage, crop residue management,
agroforestry, cropping systems, habitat management, precision agriculture and
diversification, and breeding resistant cultivars, can be used more intensively in a
sustainable manner for increasing crop production (Voora and Venema 2008; Juma
et al. 2013).
The precise and strategic way of utilizing inputs (nutrients, pesticides, seeds, or
water) sparingly and effectively with minimal negative externalities is called preci-
sion agriculture (Agriculture for Impact 2013). Soil testing, microdosing, and seed
spacing are some of the methods used in achieving precision agriculture.
The maintenance of diversity of both flora and fauna is emphasized in agroeco-
logical pest management (Mori et al. 2013). Development of diverse agroecosys-
tems for soil and crop protection through integration of trees, livestock, and crops is
called sustainable farming (Fig. 1.1).
Multiple benefits of diverse agroecosystems like agroforestry include crop pro-
tection, soil fertility improvement, biomass accumulation, soil and water conserva-
tion, and tree integration.
Production of more food from the same piece of land with less environmental
impact, (sustainable agriculture), is variously referred to as “agriculture durable,”
“agroecological intensification,” “alternative agriculture,” “doubly green revolu-
tion,” “evergreen agriculture,” “evergreen revolution,” “green food systems,” and
“greener revolutions” (Royal Society 2009).
1.2 Ecology and Agroecology 3
Fig. 1.1 A diversified agroecosystem to achieve pest management for sustainable agriculture
(Altieri 1987)
1.2 Ecology and Agroecology
1.2.1 Ecology
The interrelationship between biological processes due to organisms and their envi-
ronment is called ecology.
1.2.2 Agroecology
The application of ecology to agroecosystems, which involves interrelationships

among crops, pests, man and environment in relation to social, economic, and eco-
logical aspects is called agroecology (Dalgaard et al. 2003). Agroecological pest
management principles give more emphasis on biological processes to prevent uti-
lization of external inputs (Deguine et al. 2008).
The advantages of agroecology include the following:
• Achieving enhanced food production with improved product quality

• Enhancing functional redundancies, perennial cover, plant diversity, and pres-
ence of trees
• Based on local natural resources
• Improving the efficiency of food production by “closing the nitrogen cycle” and
enhancing positive externalities to the environment
• Enhancing input-use efficiency
• Achieving improved social status of farmers
• Addressing climate-change resilience by appropriate selection of crops and
enhancing ecosystem function and resource efficiency
• Restoring soil health by adopting agroecological approaches
• Closing the gaps in yield and environmental sustainability
• Eliminating production constraints through farmer participation
• Improving soil nutrition to enhance crop yields
• Achieving energy and technological sovereignty
• Integrating trees in agriculture.
1.3 Agroecological Pest Management
Sustainable management of crop pests and diseases by using natural regulation

strategies is called agroecological pest management. It needs to enhance farmers’
livelihood and improved performance of agroecosystem, through biodiversity and
proper utilization of natural agroecological processes. Agroecological intensifica-
tion is based on input-use efficiency, eco-friendly pest management, microirriga-
tion, and environmental protection to enhance food production in a sustainable
manner. There is a need to avoid excessive use of fossil fuels, pesticides, and water.
This is an innovative approach which emphasizes on biological processes regulated
by organisms for pest management (Griffon 2013).
The creation of multifunctional sustainable agroecosystems is the aim of agro-
ecological pest management (Tittonell 2014). The utilization of nature’s resources
without exploiting them unsustainably in order to better understand the ecological
processes is the prerequisite (CIRAD 2014).
The core attributes that are reflected in sustainable agroecological intensification
production systems are as follows:
• Utilization of crop varieties and livestock breeds with a high ratio of

productivity
• Unnecessary use of external inputs to be avoided
• Use of agroecological strategies such as allelopathy, nutrient cycling, natural
enemies, and biofumigation
• Avoiding negative externalities and enhancing protection of environment
• Minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, dispersal of pests, pathogens, and weeds,
enhancing clean water, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity
1.4 Goals
The fundamental goals of agroecological pest management include the following:
• Safety of the food produced for the farmers and public

1.5 Basis and Principles 5
• Profitability through input-use efficiency and avoiding external inputs as for as

possible
• Durability by way of adopting long-lasting and sustainable practices
1.5 Basis and Principles
More than 30% of crops worldwide are blemished, damaged, or destroyed by herbi-
vores (insect and mite pests), fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases, and
weeds. They are responsible for significant crop losses to the extent of 26–40% in
important cash and food crops such as soybean, wheat, cotton, maize, rice, and
potato (Table 1.1) (Oerke 2006).
Over the last 50 years, the main strategy utilized for pest management was
through chemical methods, resulting in safety problems and ecological disruptions.
Hence, there is a need for economically acceptable, environmentally friendly alter-
native pest management strategies for future crop protection.
Monoculture of crops is the main cause for erosion of genetic biodiversity and is
responsible for the worsening of most pest problems (FAO 2001; Altieri and
Letourneau 1982). The monoculture of annual crops such as cotton, maize, rice,
soybeans, and wheat has occupied 91% of cropland. Crop monoculture is also the
main reason for enhanced susceptibility of crops to diseases and pests. Huge quanti-
ties of pesticides are being used every year to manage pests on these crops globally
(FAOStat 2014). Hence, agroecologically based pest management strategy is the
need of the hour.
Crop protection has been evolving since the 1970s based on the principles of
agroecological strategies for pest management (Bottrell 1980). This is one of the
emerging strategies in crop protection that is being recognized in the present-day
context (Gurr et al. 2004; Clements and Shrestha 2004; Nicholls and Altieri 2004).
The new paradigm emphasizes on the enhanced production utilizing the principles
of agroecological pest management without causing harm to the environment. The
restructuring of crop production is the long-term sustainable pest management
strategy.
Table 1.1 Current global losses (%) due to various categories of pests in major crops
Crop Animal pests Weeds Pathogens Viruses Total
Cotton 12.3 8.6 7.2 0.7 28.8
Maize 9.6 10.5 5.8 5.2 31.3
Potato 10.9 8.3 14.5 6.6 40.3
Rice 15.1 10.2 10.8 1.4 37.5
Soybean 8.8 7.5 8.9 1.2 26.4
Wheat 7.9 7.7 10.2 2.4 28.2
Average 10.8 8.8 10.0 2.5 32.1
Source: Oerke (2006)
Fig. 1.2 Agroecological intensification of pest management
The use of biological processes has been given emphasis for alternative pest
management strategy through biodiversity, while also preserving and improving
soil health (fertility, biological activity, structure, etc.) in agroecological intensifica-
tion of crop protection (Ratnadass et al. 2012).
Agroecological intensification relies on developing methods to enhance the natu-
ral enemies of crop pests to increase crop yields substantially. Some scientists
believe that genetically modified crops fit into the gambit of agroecological intensi-
fication to fulfill the objective of food security (Birch et al. 2011).
Habitat management, which increases the population of pollinators and biologi-
cal control agents within agroecosystems, helps to manage crop pests (Fig. 1.2) and
thereby enhances crop production.
According to the vision of agroecological intensification, preventive tactics,
habitat manipulation, and biological control are the principal components for pest
management, while the reactive tactics based on chemical control should be given
less priority.
In order to implement an agroecologically based approach to crop protection,
cropping systems like intercropping, cover and green manure cropping, trap crop-
ping, companion planting, and crop rotation should be employed to keep pest popu-
lation below injury thresholds (Lewis et al. 1997). Use of crop cultivars resistant
or tolerant to pests, cultivar mixtures and multiline cultivars, biofumigation, alle-
lopathy, and precision agriculture also need to be promoted.
The successful agroecological pest management strategies include the following:
• Enhancement of biological processes due to organisms

• Use of crop cultivars resistant or tolerant to pests
• Attraction of natural enemies through habitat management and cropping
systems
• Soil management practices to encourage beneficials such as antagonists, earth-
worms, etc.
The benefits of biodiversity can be obtained in an agroecosystem by improving

farm design and soil biology, nutrient recycling, moderating microclimates,
1.6 Key Elements of Agroecological Pest Management 7
AGROECOSYSTEM HEALTH
SOIL HEALTH
BELOW GROUND ABOVE GROUND
CROP HEALTH
HABITAT MANAGEMENT, HABITAT MANAGEMENT,
BIOTA ACTIVATION AND PLANT DIVERSIFICATION
DIVERSIFICATION AND ENHANCEMENT OF
(SOIL ORGANIC MATTER, BENEFICIAL FAUNA
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT)
AGROECOSYSTEM
DESIGN
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
ADD ORGANIC MATTER
MAINTAIN SOIL COVER
REDUCE TILLAGE
PLANT BREEDING
CROP DIVERSITY
COVER CROPS
ROTATIONS
Fig. 1.3 The pillars of sustainable intensification of crop protection
detoxifying noxious chemicals, and regulating hydrological processes to enhance

the highly functional diversity of crucial organisms (Fig. 1.3).
1.6 Key Elements of Agroecological Pest Management
Preventive strategies rather than reactive strategies form the basis of agroecological
pest management. In order to build the natural defenses, the preventive practices
based on above- and below-ground habitat management (crop and soil manage-
ment) should be given primary focus in the cropping program. This should be fol-
lowed by planned strategies for supplemental pest and soil management to solve
those problems not solved by preventive practices as well as reactive strategies such
as inputs for pest management or reduce plant stress for problems not solved by
planned practices.
1.6.1 Crop Management
The pests should be stressed and/or natural enemies should be enhanced by using
habitat management employing the following cultural approaches:
• Crop selection based on locality

• Use of well-adapted local and native varieties with resistance or tolerance to
biotic and abiotic stresses
• Inclusion of atmospheric nitrogen-fixing and allelopathic or biofumigation crops
in the cropping sequence to improve soil nutrition and pest management
• Use of cover crops which can manage weeds and other biotic stresses
• Habitat management both within the field and at field boundaries to encourage
natural enemies
• Management of proper crop sanitation
• Adoption of agroforestry system to enhance biodiversity
• Creation of unfavorable conditions using crop spacing, intercropping, and
pruning
1.6.2 Soil Management
These practices include below-ground habitat conservation and enhancement and

maintenance of soil nutrition and pH levels. They encourage useful organisms like
earthworms and soil antagonists in soils. Soil management practices include pre-
ventive, supplemental, and reactive options.
1.6.2.1 Preventive Options

These practices include:
• Enhancing organic biomass through cover or green manure cropping that encour-
ages biological processes in the soil
• Promoting conservation tillage which improves the soil’s physical, chemical, and
biological properties
• Providing balanced crop nutrition
• Preventing soil acidity or salinity
• Encouraging soil antagonists for biological control of pests
1.6.2.2 Supplemental Options

If preventive options fail to achieve satisfactory pest management, the following
supplemental options have to be undertaken:
• Application of biopesticides and inundative release of predators or parasitoids.

• Prune to reduce humidity under canopy to prevent pathogens
• Management of weeds which act as alternate hosts for pests
• Careful scheduling of irrigation to maintain adequate soil moisture
• Leave mulch soil cover by mowing rather than incorporating cover or green
manure crops
• Intercrop legumes within cereals
1.7 Benefits and Limitations 9
1.6.2.3 Reactive Options

Even after following preventive and supplemental options, if satisfactory pest man-
agement is not achieved, the following reactive options have to be undertaken:
• Alleviate soil compaction by chisel plow or subsoiler

• Soil or foliage application of nutrients to rectify deficiency symptoms
1.7 Benefits and Limitations
1.7.1 Benefits
1.7.1.1 Increasing Species Diversity

Compensatory growth and pest protection are enhanced due to increased species
diversity. The complementary resource use is facilitated by several spatial and tem-
poral plant species combinations to provide intercrop benefits such as supply of
additional nitrogen by legumes for the growth of cereals. The full use of available
resources is made for a desirable compensatory growth.
1.7.1.2 Enhancing Longevity

The more stable pest–enemy complexes can be established by perennial vegetation
that provides more habitat permanence. The soil can be protected from erosion by
including perennial species that shade the soil surface. The nutrients can also be
captured because of biomass accumulation through aerial parts and roots of the
plant.
1.7.1.3 Imposing a Fallow

Fallowing and growing cover or green manure crops during fallowing restores bio-
logical processes that enrich soil nutrients and regulate pests.
1.7.1.4 Enhancing Soil Organic Matter

Enhancing crop biodiversity provides substrate to beneficial soil microorganisms
which in turn help in biological control of pests.
1.7.1.5 Increase Landscape Diversity

Enhancing landscape diversity improves pest management. Landscape diversity can
be increased by sequential cropping system, which in turn spreads the risk of com-
plete crop failure among and within the various cropping systems.
1.7.1.6 Saving on Cost of Inputs

The costs of pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, farm machinery, and manpower can be
saved by following agroecological intensification of crop production. Pimentel et al.
(2005) reported that organic corn or soybean farming approaches used about 30%
less fossil energy as compared to conventional systems.
Saving on cost of inputs has been reported to increase production levels due to
the presence of specific biological control agents for a determined pest (Pesticide
Action Network North America 2009). For example, tapioca mealy bug was effec-
tively managed by introduction of the parasitic wasp Apoanygyrus (= Epidinocarsis)
lopezi in unsprayed fields (FAO 2016).
1.7.2 Limitations
• Biological control agents have not been identified for some very serious pests. In
such cases, the farmers resort to use of chemical pesticides.
• Agroecological intensification is knowledge intensive and requires thorough
understanding of the production system. Hence, it is not easy to implement.
• Biological control agents are slow to act, and may not be able to provide signifi-
cant pest control. It can be used as a component in integrated pest management.
• Since no single biological control agent is effective under diverse conditions,
there is a need for the use of two or more natural enemies.
1.8 Conclusions
Key ecological services to agroecosystems can be provided by encouraging the

diversity and abundance of aerial and soil biological processes (Altieri and Nicholls
2000). There is a need for exploitation of synergy and complementarity of agroeco-
systems through integration of annual and perennial crops (agroforestry) in enhanc-
ing biodiversity. Good agricultural practices based on agroecological principles like
enhancing natural enemies, soil fertility, conservation of water, and soil’s physical,
chemical, and biological properties to increase crop productivity should be followed
(Gurr et al. 1998).
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ENTRANCE TO THE “AFIN” OR RESIDENCE OF THE ALAFIN OF OYO,
SHOWING TYPICAL YORUBA THATCHING.
Take, for example, the land question. If there is one thing upon
which all the most experienced Nigerian administrators are agreed it
is the absolute essentiality, for the future of the people of the country,
that their use and enjoyment of the land should be secured, not only
against a certain type of European capitalist who covets this rich soil
for his own schemes, and, under the pretence of industrial
expansion, would cheerfully turn the native agriculturist, farmer, and
trader into a “labourer,” but against the class of native who, for his
own ends, for speculative purposes mainly, seeks to undermine
native law and to change the right of user upon which native land
tenure is based, into that of owner at the expense of the community
at large. More especially does this become a question of vital
importance to native communities where, as in Yorubaland, you have
a comparatively dense population which under the pax Britannica is
bound to increase at a very rapid rate, and thus requires every inch
of land for its own future uses. But as matters stand at present, we
cannot, in the Egba district, which, being nearer to Lagos, is more
accessible to certain undesirable influences, both European and
native, and to the infiltration of European laws and customs
regulating the tenure of land, take effective measures to counteract
these influences. We could, of course, if we chose, not in the Egba
district only, but throughout Yorubaland. But there has been a
lamentable reluctance both at home and in the Protectorate to
foresee and cope with a predicament which all realize, which some
from a natural bent of mind inclining them to favour the substitution
everywhere of direct for indirect rule, and others who are of the same
way of thinking but from motives of self-interest may secretly rejoice
at, but which the officials whose hearts are really in the country and
who have sufficient experience to understand the endless and
disastrous embarrassments that the disintegration of native law
relating to land would produce, deeply deplore. What has been the
result? The Egbas are beginning to buy and to sell land among
themselves in absolute violation of their own customs and laws,
thereby laying up for their country a heritage of trouble and inserting
the thin edge of the wedge of their own undoing by letting in the land
monopolist and speculator. This, according to all its professions and
to its actions in some specific circumstances, for which it is to be
warmly commended, is, in the view of the Administration, inimical to
the public interest of the Protectorate. What is springing up in
Abeokuta to-day will spread to the other districts to-morrow—nay, is
doing so.
Take another example. The welfare of an agricultural community
demands, for many reasons scientifically substantiated, that a stop
should be put to the reckless destruction of timbered areas such as
has been proceeding all over Yorubaland. This is inherently a public
interest, and the Forestry Officer in the discharge of his duties is
merely a servant of the public. But in the Western Province, for the
same reasons, we cannot or are unwilling to put our case to the
native authorities for the protection of the people against themselves
with the same moral force as in the case of the other two provinces.
We are confined, or think we are confined, to simple persuasion.
Now, persuasion by the Forestry Officer alone is one thing, and
persuasion by the Forestry Officer supported by direct
representations from the Executive at Lagos is a very different thing.
It is the latter form of persuasion that has been absent, and very
great credit is due alike to the Forestry Officers and to a
Commissioner trusted by the native rulers, Mr. W. A. Ross, as well
as to the intelligence of those native rulers themselves, that in the
Oyo district both State and communal reserves have been created,
the latter of great extent including the entire valley of the Ogun. But
in the Abeokuta and Ibadan districts persuasion has failed hitherto to
secure any really tangible results. It is almost unnecessary to point
out that the interests of the population do not suffer merely indirectly
and potentially, but directly thereby. Not only does Southern Nigeria
import quantities of timber from Europe when the country should
itself provide for all requirements, but even so primitive a necessity
as firewood is beginning to make itself felt round such towns as Ede,
Abeokuta, and Ibadan.
In these problems the policy of the Southern Nigeria
Administration has been to leave the matter to the native authorities,
in other words, to let the land question slide down a perilous
declivity, and to allow the question of forestry preservation to be left
to the unsupported efforts of the Forestry Department. If this policy of
non-interference had been consistently applied in other directions an
intelligible case, at least, might be made out for it. But the facts are
notoriously otherwise. To mention but one instance. Two years ago
pressure was put upon the Ibadan authorities to vote unpopular
licensing regulations in the interests of temperance, and one of the
incidents subsequently arising out of it was the stoppage of the
Bale’s stipend by the Acting Resident with the concurrence of the
Executive at Lagos! Only last February a Bill called the “Foreign
Jurisdiction Ordinance, 1911,” was passed through the Lagos
Legislative Council, which provides for the extension of the laws of
the colony to the Protectorate of Yorubaland (except Abeokuta)
without the native authorities being even consulted, the Attorney-
General adopting, in effect, the extraordinary position that the
Government could take no account of “agreements, understandings,
or letters” (concluded or written by previous Governors) with the
native chiefs! If the native chiefs realized what the logical outcome of
the Ordinance might mean for them, by an Executive in Lagos, which
adopted the legal argument quoted, there would be ferment from one
end of Yoruba to the other.
It must be clear from what precedes that the time has come when
the whole position of the Yoruba States in relation to the paramount
Power should be reconsidered. The railway and other agencies are
causing the country to move forward very fast, and conditions are
being evolved through the attempt to drive in two directions at once,
which can only lead, if not to the ultimate annexation of Yorubaland,
then to what would, if possible, be even worse—viz. the
strangulation by successive stages of every effective agency in
native government, leaving the chiefs and their councils mere
puppets in the hands of the Lagos Legislative Council. Now neither
of these courses is, I am convinced, desired by the Imperial
Government. The drift is, nevertheless, apparent to all that have
eyes to see and ears to hear. There is a strong party in Lagos
favouring direct rule. There is a combination of distinct influences—in
many respects working unconsciously—making for the break-up of
native land tenure and the undermining of native authority. There is
the increasing danger of leaving the land question unregulated and
the difficulty attending the adoption of adequate measures for forest
preservation.
Only one course would appear open to the authorities if they
desire to stop the dry rot. The first step would consist in getting the
Native Councils—i.e. the Chiefs in Council—of all the districts in the
Western Province to pass an identical measure of national land
preservation which would become known as the Yoruba Land Act.
Inalienability of land is the cardinal principle of Yoruba land tenure.
The preamble of the measure would define Yoruba law and custom
in regard to land. The body of the measure would declare to be
illegal all buying and selling of land, either between natives and
natives or between natives and non-natives, and would establish
limitations of area and time for the holding of leased lands by private
individuals or associations, with provision for revision of rentals at
specified periods. The need of such a measure should be
recognized and the action proposed sanctioned by the Secretary of
State, and the matter should be represented to the native authorities
with all the additional weight which in their eyes it would under those
circumstances possess. It cannot be doubted that were the measure
fully and thoroughly explained to the Native Councils and its urgency
in the interests of their people emphasized, little or no trouble would
be experienced in ensuring its adoption. In the improbable event of
difficulties arising it would be the plain duty of the Administration to
overcome them. The Administration should be able to count in a
matter of this kind upon the support of every patriotic educated
Yoruban. The second step would be more far-reaching—viz. the
general reconstruction of the machinery of national government over
the whole province, and the welding together under the headship of
the Alafin of Oyo—the “King and Lord of Yorubaland,” as he is
described in the British Treaty—working with a Council
representative of all Yorubaland, of the separate districts which
internal anarchy and external aggression between them have
caused to fall away from the central authority. The existing Councils
of the various districts would, of course, remain, but we should have
what we have not at present, a true “Yoruba Council,” a strong
central native Government through which the development, the
progress, and the common welfare of the country could proceed on
definite, ordered, national lines.
This would be Empire-building of the real kind. It would not be
unattended with difficulty. It would require time, much tact, and,
above all, full and frank exposition and explanation. But it is feasible
of accomplishment, and by a policy of this kind alone can one of the
most interesting and promising races of Western Africa hope to
reach, under our supreme direction, its full development. The
elements necessary to the success of such policy exist. They do not
need to be created, but only to have their vitality revived and their
course adjusted and guided.
PART III
NORTHERN NIGERIA
CHAPTER I
THE NATURAL HIGHWAY TO THE UPLANDS OF THE NORTH
A casual visitor provided by private kindness with the hospitality of

a stern-wheeler and not, therefore, exposed to the discomforts
(soon, it is to be hoped, to be a thing of the past, with the completion
of railway communications between Lagos and Zungeru) with which
an inexcusably inefficient service of river-boats afflicts the unhappy
official on his way to Northern Nigeria, packed like a sardine, and
feeding as best he can, may be pardoned for finding much of
captivating interest in 400 miles of leisurely steaming, with many a
halt en route, from Forcados to Baro, the starting-point of the
Northern Nigerian Railway to Kano. The heat of the afternoons, the
myriad insect visitors which are heralded by the lighting of the lamps,
blacken the cloth and invade every part of the person accessible to
their attentions, the stifling nights, spent, may be, at anchor under
the lee of perpendicular banks; these are trifles not worthy of
mention by comparison with the rewards they bring. Kaleidoscopic
varieties of scenic effects enchant the eye as hour follows hour and
day follows day on the bosom of this wonderful Niger, passing from
serpentine curves so narrow that the revolving paddles seem in
imminent danger of sinking into the bank itself or snapping against
some one of the many floating snags, to ever broadening and
majestic proportions with vistas of eternal forest, of villages nestling
amid banana groves, of busy fishermen flinging their nets, of
occasional dark massive heads lifted a brief second from the deeps
to disappear silently as they arose, of brilliant blue kingfishers darting
hither and thither. Now the river flows through some natural
greenhouse of palms and ferns, whose nodding fronds are reflected
in the still green waters, now past a fringe of matted creepers gay
with purple convolvulus pierced at intervals with the grey upstanding
hole of the silk cotton tree. Here its course is broken by long
stretches of fine hummocky sand across whose shining surface stalk
the egret and the crane, the adjoining rushes noisy with the cackle of
the spur-winged geese. Here it glides expanding between open
plains bordered with reeds, only to narrow once more as the plain
heaves upward and the tall vegetable growth gives way to arid
granite outcrops, ascending towards the far horizon into high
tablelands. If at dawn the Niger veils its secrets in billowy mists of
white, at sunset the sense of mystery deepens. For that, I think, is
the principal charm of this great highway into the heart of Negro
Africa, the sense of mystery it inspires. Cradled in mystery, for two
thousand years it defied the inquisitiveness of the outer world,
guarded from the north by dangerous shoals and rapids; hiding its
outlet in a fan-shaped maze of creeks. To-day when its sanctuaries
are violated, its waters churned and smitten by strange and ugly
craft, it is still mysterious, vast and unconquered. Mysterious that
sombre forest the gathering shades encompass. Mysterious that tall
half-naked figure on yonder ledge, crimson framed in the dying sun,
motionless and statuesque. Mysterious that piercing melancholy
note which thrills from the profundities beyond, fading away in
whispers upon the violet and green wavelets lapping against the side
of the boat. Mysterious those rapid staccato drumbeats as unknown
humanity on one shore signals to unseen humanity on the other.
Mysterious the raucous cry of the crown-birds passing in long lines
to their resting-place in the marshes. Mysterious those tiny lights
from some unsuspected haunt of natural man that spring into life as
the sun sinks to slumber, and darkness, deep unfathomable
darkness, rushes over the land there to rest until a blood-red moon,
defining once again the line of forest, mounts the sky.
OUTLINE MAP OF NORTHERN NIGERIA.
From the point of view of navigation and of commerce the Niger is

a most unsatisfactory and uncertain river to work. It can be
described, perhaps, as a river full of holes with shallows between
them. Its channels are constantly changing. It is full of sandbanks
which take on new shapes and sizes every year. The direction of the
water-flow below Samabri, where the bifurcation begins, is so
unreliable that within a few years the Nun has become virtually
useless, the Forcados gaining what the Nun has lost, while there are
recent indications that the process may again be altered in favour
once more of the Nun to the detriment of the Forcados. In the course
of the year the water level varies twenty-seven feet, the period of rise
being from June in an ascending scale until the end of September,
the fall then commencing, the river being at its lowest from
December to May. In the rainy season the banks are flooded in the
lower regions for miles around. In the dry season the banks tower up
in places fifteen feet above water level. Roughly speaking, the Niger
is navigable for steamers drawing five feet in June, six feet in July,
and so on up to twelve feet in the end of September; from November
to April for vessels drawing between four and five feet. But the
conditions of two consecutive years are seldom alike.
Government has done little or nothing to cope with these natural
difficulties. The Admiralty charts available to the captains of
steamers are ludicrously obsolete, and all wrong. No continuous
series of observations have been taken of the river, and no effort
made to tackle the problem of improving navigation. Four years ago,
by Sir Percy Girouard’s directions, soundings were, indeed, taken
over a distance of 350 miles from Burutu (Forcados) to Lokoja at the
junction with the Benue; with the result that only seven miles of
sand-bars were reported to require dredging in order to secure a six-
foot channel all the year round. The experienced merchant smiled.
He is a slightly cynical person, is the West African merchant who
knows his Niger. Anyhow he is still whistling for his six-foot channel.
One dredger, the best which money could buy, was purchased by
the Northern Nigerian Administration. It did a little dredging round
about Lokoja (and the merchants in the south declare that the
performance has made matters worse for them), has been used as a
passenger boat up the Benue, and is now, I believe, filling up the
swamps at Baro; but the six-foot channel still exists as an attractive
theory in the Government Blue Book. There is so much to praise,
administratively speaking, in Nigeria that one feels the freer to speak
bluntly of the failure of Government to handle this matter of Niger
navigation. It is one of the inevitable, one of the many deplorable,
results of dual control over a common territory; one of the
consequences of the long competition between the two rival
Administrations, each quite honestly playing for its own hand and
each quite satisfied that it alone can think imperially. The upshot has
been pernicious to the public interest. The river-service is shocking
from the point of view of efficiency, and enormously costly. The
steamers themselves are falling to pieces. There is no system of
public pilotage, or of lighting. Trading steamers must anchor at night,
which involves, in the aggregate, a great waste of time and money.
The two Administrations are so busy squabbling over their competing
railways and manœuvring to frame rates which will cut one another
out, that the great natural highway into the interior is utterly
neglected.
It is impossible that feelings of respect should not go out, not only
towards the official who labours under these conditions in the Niger
waterways but also towards the merchant building up in quiet,
unostentatious fashion the edifice of commercial enterprise upon
which, in the ultimate resort, the whole fabric of Administrative
activity reposes. I do not now speak of the heads of these powerful
trading firms in Europe, many of whom, by the way, have themselves
gone through the mill in their time. To them England is indebted for
the Imperial position she holds in Nigeria to-day, a fact which is too
apt to be forgotten. I refer to the men, mostly young, in charge of
trading stations on the banks of the Niger and its creeks, living a life
of terrible loneliness amid primitive surroundings in a deadly climate,
separated in many cases several days’ journey from another white
face, not nearly so well housed as the officials (I am describing
Southern Nigeria, be it remembered), and not, like them, helped by
the consciousness of power or stimulated by the wider horizon the
latter enjoy. Thrown entirely on their own resources, usually unfitted
by their previous life to face the privations and isolation of an
existence such as this, very hard-worked—their lot is not an enviable
one. No doubt the hardships they have to endure are incidental to a
career they freely choose, although often enough with little or no
previous comprehension of its character. No doubt the fibres of a
minority will be toughened by their experiences. No doubt these
hardships are infinitely less severe than those which the early
pioneers were compelled to undergo, many succumbing under the
process; but in that connection it should not be forgotten that the
latter had the incentive of carving out their fortunes with their own
hands, whereas the present generation out in Nigeria are not their
own masters. One cannot help reflecting upon the irony of the
contrast between the commiseration so freely lavished at home upon
the spiritual drawbacks of the Nigerian native, and the total lack of
interest displayed by the Church in the welfare of these young
fellows, many of them mere lads, exposed to all the moral
temptations of their savage environment in which only exceptional
natures will detect the broadening spiritual influences. What an
untold blessing would be a periodical visit to their African homes,
fronted by the silent river, invested by the tropical forest, from an
experienced, genial, sympathetic minister of God, who for a day or
two would share their lives and win their confidence.
There is another matter which should be raised. These young men
who come out from England—I refer to the English trading firms only,
not having inquired into the system prevailing among the Continental
firms—do so under a three years’ contract. This is an altogether
excessive period for the Niger. It should be cut down one half. Even
then it would be half as long again as the officials’ term of service.
Professors of tropical medicine and magnates at home may say
what they like about the improvement of health in the large European
settlements. The towns are one thing. The “bush” is quite another.
Speaking generally, the climate of Nigeria, and the conditions under
which four-fifths of white humanity have to live are such as combine,
even in favourable circumstances, to impose the severest strain,
both physical and mental, upon all but a select few. At the end of a
year’s continuous residence, the strain begins to make itself felt in a
multiplicity of ways. Not to acknowledge it, and not to make provision
for it, is, on the part of an employer, penny wise and pound foolish—
to put the matter on the lowest ground.
VIEW OF LOKOJA AND NATIVE TOWN FROM MOUNT PATTEY, LOOKING S.E.
—THE BENUE IN THE DISTANCE.
At Idah we leave Southern Nigeria. That bold bluff of red

sandstone crowned with grey-trunked baobabs and nodding palms—
black with roosting and repulsive vultures—which overhangs the
river at this point, stands out at the dying of the day, a sentinel
pointing to the north. Henceforth the appearance of the country
undergoes a remarkable transformation, more and more
accentuated with every hour’s steaming. High valleys, slopes and
tablelands; a sparser vegetation; masses of granite or red sandstone
vomited promiscuously from broken, arid plains and taking on
fantastic shapes; in the distance, mountain ranges and solitary
rounded eminences—on our right, King William’s range rising to
1200 feet, on our left, Mounts Jervis, Erskine, Soraxte, and many
others, varying from 400 to 1000 feet. The river curves, winds and
narrows, obstructed here and there by dangerous boulders, which
the falling waters bring into view. More substantial, better-thatched
huts appear upon the banks, and around them an increasing number
of robed Africans. Plantations of yams, and guinea corn set out on
parallel, raised ridges, attest a higher skill in cultivation. Cattle are
seen cropping the green stuffs near the water’s edge, and canoes
pass bearing cattle, sheep and goats to some neighbouring market.
We enter the spreading domain of Mohammedan civilization, and
before long we shall find ourselves in a new world, as our gallant
little vessel, none the worse for a narrowly averted collision and
grounding on a sandbank or two, casts anchor at Lokoja. Here
beneath the wooded heights of Mount Patte the wonderful prospect
afforded by the junction of the Niger and Benue unfolds itself, and
presently we shall mingle with robed and turbaned African humanity,
come from immense distances to this great market of the middle
Niger. The mangroves of the Delta, the awesome grandeur of the
forests, these are left far behind. We have entered the uplands of the
North.
CHAPTER II
NORTHERN NIGERIA PRIOR TO THE BRITISH OCCUPATION
The political events of which Northern Nigeria was the scene last
century are well known, but a brief recapitulation of them is
necessary by way of introduction to the study of its present
conditions, the life of its people, and the accomplishments and
problems of the British Administration.
In the opening years of the nineteenth century, what is now
Northern Nigeria consisted of the shattered remnants of the once
famous Bornu Empire; of seven independent states more or less
(generally less) controlled by chieftains of the remarkable so-called
“Hausa” race, invaders of a thousand years before “out of the East,”
and of the aboriginal inhabitants whose origin is lost in the mists of
antiquity. Scattered throughout the region and constantly shifting
their habitat in response to the necessities of their calling, were
tribes of light-coloured straight-haired people, Fulani, nomadic
herdsmen and shepherds. From the ranks of these people, spread
over West Africa from the Senegal to the Chad, had sprung from
time to time political leaders, divines and men of letters who had
played a conspicuous part in the history of the old Niger civilizations.
The Hausa Chieftains had established a nominal authority over a
wide expanse of territory and were constantly at war with the
aborigines on their borders. It was not, however, for warlike feats, but
for their commerce, farming, cotton and leather industry; for the
spread of their language; for the great centres of human activity they
had formed and for the fertility and prosperity of the land which they
had made their home, that the Hausas were justly renowned all over
Western and Northern Africa. They had evolved no great imperial
dominion whose various parts acknowledged a central Head, such,
alternately, as Melle, Ghanata, Kanem and Bornu; but they had
leavened with their intelligence and fertilised with their industrial
achievements some of the naturally richest areas of tropical West
Africa, and they had earned for themselves in these respects a
widespread fame.
It was at this period that a learned Fulani, Othman Fodio, fell foul
of the chieftain ruling over the most ancient and aristocratic of the
Hausa States, Gober. The latter, fearing for his authority, ordered all
the Fulani in his country to be slaughtered, with the result that
Othman found himself at the head of a numerous following.
Emerging successfully from the struggle, Othman preached a jihad,
confided sacred standards to his worthiest captains and despatched
them far and wide. The Hausa Chieftains were successively
overthrown and replaced by Fulani, and regions unassimilated
previously by the Hausas were occupied. Othman’s warriors even
crossed the Niger and invaded Yorubaland, a large part of which
they conquered and retained (Ilorin), the forest belt, Yoruba
resistance within it, and, probably, the tsetse fly proving an
insurmountable barrier to further progress southwards. Down the
Niger they advanced no further than the neighbourhood of Lokoja.
Othman adopted the title of Sarikin mussulmi, and during his life and
that of his son Bello, Hausaland experienced for the first time the
grip of a central, directing power. It is doubtful, however, if this
change in their rulers had much effect upon the mass of the
population, to whom dynastic convulsions mean very little, and it is
noteworthy that the Fulani conquerors possessed sufficient statecraft
to interfere but slightly with the complicated and efficient system of
administration and of taxation which the Hausas had introduced.
They took over the government of the towns from the Hausas, the
people in many instances assisting and welcoming them. The
general condition of the country remained pretty much what it had
been. Moreover—and this fact is significant in connection with the
arguments I shall presently adduce as regards the inspiring motive of
the Fulani uprising—such of the old Hausa families who by their
learning and piety had become invested with a special public sanctity
were not generally molested by the conquering Fulani. Thus the
Kauru, Kajura and Fatika families of Zaria, which had given birth to a
long line of Mallams, were preserved in all their authority and dignity
by Othman and his successors.
A period of comparative political quiet ensued. Othman issued
regulations, and caused them to be strictly enforced, inflicting the
severest punishments upon robbers and evil-doers generally. A
recrudescence of spiritual influence and of letters everywhere
manifested itself. Learned men flocked to Sokoto, where Othman
had built his capital, from West and North Africa. The trans-desert
trade revived. Security was so well established that Clapperton, who
visited the country during Bello’s reign, records the common saying
of the time that a woman could pass unmolested through the land,
even if she carried a casket of gold upon her head. With the death of
Bello the influence of the central power, enormously difficult to
maintain in any case owing to the greatness of the area and the
absence of ways of communication, declined. Administrative decay
gradually set in and extended with the years. Little by little the
authority of the Emir of Sokoto was openly questioned, in all save
spiritual matters. Allegiance slackened. Emirs quarrelled amongst
themselves. This or that chief acted on his own responsibility in
political affairs affecting the general weal, or entirely broke away
from control. The roads became infested with bands of highwaymen
whose proceedings differed in no way from the banditti of feudal
Europe. Rebellious chieftains formed robber strongholds. Military
operations degenerated into mere raiding for the capture and sale of
prisoners of war to replenish revenues from ordinary taxation which
the disturbed state of the country was causing to decrease.
There has probably been a natural tendency in recent years to
exaggerate the aggregate effect for evil upon the country which
accompanied the weakening of the Fulani dynasty. There is no proof
that the state of affairs was worse than what had obtained previous
to Othman’s jihad. It could hardly have been worse than the
condition of Western Europe at sundry stages in its history, when the
weakness of the paramount authority and the foraging and strife of
rival Barons combined to desolate the homesteads of the people and
lay waste the country side. Some notion of parallels in approaching
the events of West African history is very desirable, but not often
conspicuous. But there can be no doubt—the evidence of one’s own
eyes in ruined villages and once cultivated areas “gone to bush” is
conclusive—that when the alien Britisher arrived upon the scene as
a reforming political force, Northern Nigeria was once more urgently
in need of a power sufficiently strong to restore order. Such was the
condition of the Hausa States. In Bornu matters had gone from
disorder to chaos, culminating in the final tragedy of Rabeh’s
incursion, the slaughter of the Shehu and the sack of Kuka, the
capital.
There is no need here to describe the events which led to the
British occupation, or to narrate the circumstances attending it. We
have replaced the Fulani in supreme control of the destinies of
Northern Nigeria. We are there to stay. How are we carrying out our
self-imposed mission? What are the problems with which we have to
grapple? These are the questions to examine. But before doing so,
let us first see what manner of people they are over whom we rule
henceforth as over-lords. What is their mode of life, their principal
occupation, their character, and the material and spiritual influences
which direct their outlook and mould their existence?
CHAPTER III
THE INDIGENOUS CIVILIZATION OF THE NORTH
An attempted reconstruction of the prehistoric period—considered

locally—of that portion of Western Central Africa, now known as
Northern Nigeria, would take up many chapters, and would be
largely founded upon conjecture. It suffices to say that in the course
of ages, through the influences of Moorish, Semitic, and probably
pre-Semitic Egyptian culture, fused in later times with Mohammedan
law, learning and religion, there has been evolved in this region a
civilization combining a curious mixture of Africa and the East, to
which no other part of the tropical or sub-tropical continent offers
even a remote parallel. And this is the more remarkable since these
territories have been separated from the east by inhospitable, mainly
waterless stretches, and from the north by vast and desolate sandy
wastes; while southwards the forest and the swamp cut them off
from all communication with the outer world by sea. The peoples
responsible for the creation of this civilization did not acquire the art
of building in stone, but, at a cost of labour and of time which must
have been gigantic (slave-labour, of course, such as built the
pyramids) they raised great cities of sun-dried clay, encompassing
them and a considerable area around, for purposes of cultivation and
food-supply, with mighty walls. These walls, from twenty to fifty feet
high and from twenty to forty feet thick at the base, in the case of the
larger cities, they furnished with ponderous and deep towered
entrances, protecting the gates with crenellated loop-holes and
digging deep moats outside. They learned to smelt iron and tin; to
tan and fabricate many leather articles durable and tasteful in
design; to grow cotton and fashion it into cloth unrivalled for
excellence and beauty in all Africa; to work in silver and in brass; to
dye in indigo and the colouring juice of other plants; to develop a
system of agriculture including (in certain provinces) irrigated
farming, which, in its highest forms, has surprised even experts from
Europe; to build up a great trade whose ramifications extend
throughout the whole western portion of the continent; to accumulate

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Agro ecological Approaches to Pest

Management for Sustainable

Sustainable Intensification of Crop Production 1st

Ecological and Practical Applications for Sustainable

Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 29 Sustainable Soil

Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture Emerging

Ecofriendly pest management for food security 1st

Sustainable Management of Land Resources An Indian

ENVIRONMENT ECOLOGY AND EXERGY ENHANCED APPROACHE

Innovation Processes in Agro Ecological Transitions in

ISBN 978-981-10-4324-6 ISBN 978-981-10-4325-3 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017940270

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Bioversity International N.K. Krishna Kumar

Bangalore, Karnataka, India P. Parvatha Reddy

1 Agro-Ecological Pest Management – An Overview.............................. 1

2.6.5 Variety Selection............................................................... 25

9 Trap Cropping.......................................................................................... 133

11.6.3 Artificial Food Supplements............................................. 176

14.4 Insect Dynamics in Weed-Diversified Crop Systems...................... 215

16.7.5 Transgenic Crop Varieties with Combined Resistance..... 255

19.5.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)..................................... 300

developing sustainable, biointensive, and eco-friendly integrated pest management

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 1

principles were continuously ignored, as the agricultural intensification progressed,

1.2 Ecology and Agroecology

The application of ecology to agroecosystems, which involves interrelationships

• Achieving enhanced food production with improved product quality

1.3 Agroecological Pest Management

Sustainable management of crop pests and diseases by using natural regulation

• Utilization of crop varieties and livestock breeds with a high ratio of

The fundamental goals of agroecological pest management include the following:

• Safety of the food produced for the farmers and public

• Profitability through input-use efficiency and avoiding external inputs as for as

1.5 Basis and Principles

Fig. 1.2 Agroecological intensification of pest management

• Enhancement of biological processes due to organisms

The benefits of biodiversity can be obtained in an agroecosystem by improving

Fig. 1.3 The pillars of sustainable intensification of crop protection

detoxifying noxious chemicals, and regulating hydrological processes to enhance

1.6 Key Elements of Agroecological Pest Management

1.6.1 Crop Management

• Crop selection based on locality

1.6.2 Soil Management

These practices include below-ground habitat conservation and enhancement and

1.6.2.1 Preventive Options

1.6.2.2 Supplemental Options

• Application of biopesticides and inundative release of predators or parasitoids.

1.6.2.3 Reactive Options

• Alleviate soil compaction by chisel plow or subsoiler

1.7 Benefits and Limitations

1.7.1.1 Increasing Species Diversity

1.7.1.2 Enhancing Longevity

1.7.1.3 Imposing a Fallow

1.7.1.4 Enhancing Soil Organic Matter

1.7.1.5 Increase Landscape Diversity

1.7.1.6 Saving on Cost of Inputs

Key ecological services to agroecosystems can be provided by encouraging the

Bottrell DR (1980) Integrated pest management. Council on Environmental Quality, US

A casual visitor provided by private kindness with the hospitality of

From the point of view of navigation and of commerce the Niger is

Bioversity International N.K. Krishna Kumar

Bangalore, Karnataka, India P. Parvatha Reddy

1 Agro-Ecological Pest Management – An Overview.............................. 1

2.6.5 Variety Selection............................................................... 25

9 Trap Cropping.......................................................................................... 133

11.6.3 Artificial Food Supplements............................................. 176

14.4 Insect Dynamics in Weed-Diversified Crop Systems...................... 215

16.7.5 Transgenic Crop Varieties with Combined Resistance..... 255

19.5.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)..................................... 300

1.2 Ecology and Agroecology

1.3 Agroecological Pest Management

1.5 Basis and Principles

1.6 Key Elements of Agroecological Pest Management

1.6.1 Crop Management

1.6.2 Soil Management

1.6.2.1 Preventive Options

1.6.2.2 Supplemental Options

1.6.2.3 Reactive Options

1.7 Benefits and Limitations

1.7.1.1 Increasing Species Diversity

1.7.1.2 Enhancing Longevity

1.7.1.3 Imposing a Fallow

1.7.1.4 Enhancing Soil Organic Matter

1.7.1.5 Increase Landscape Diversity

1.7.1.6 Saving on Cost of Inputs