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 Anatomy &

Hudock
Drumright
Seikel
With many exciting enhancements and robust online resources, the seventh edition of Anatomy & Physiology for Speech,
Language, and Hearing provides a solid foundation in anatomical and physiological principles relevant to the fields of speech-
language pathology and audiology. The text is supported by an innovative study software program called ANAQUEST that
includes interactive lessons, animations, and videos to further help students master the complex material.

This bestselling text is organized around the five “classic” systems of speech, language and hearing: the respiratory,

Physiology
phonatory, articulatory/resonatory, nervous, and auditory systems. Integrating clinical information with everyday experiences
to reveal how anatomy and physiology relate to the speech, language, and hearing systems, the text introduces all the
essential anatomy and physiology information in a carefully structured way, helping students to steadily build their knowledge
and successfully apply it to clinical practice. Hundreds of dynamic, full-color illustrations and online lessons make the seventh
complex material approachable even for students with little or no background in anatomy and physiology.
edition
Key Features:
• 560+ figures and tables provide visual examples of the anatomy, processes, body systems, and data discussed.

for Speech, Language,

Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing

Photographs of human specimens provide a real-life look at the body parts and functions
• Chapter pedagogy includes:
- Learning objectives, call outs to related ANAQUEST lessons, bolded key terms, and chapter summaries
- Clinical notes boxes relate topics directly to clinical experience to emphasize the importance of anatomy in
clinical practice and Hearing
- Margin notes identify important terminology, root words, and definitions, that are highlighted in color throughout each
chapter

seventh edition
- “To summarize” sections provide a succinct listing of the major topics covered in a chapter or chapter section
• Muscle tables describe the origin, course, insertion, innervation, and function of key muscles and muscle groups
• Glossary with 2,000+ terms and definitions
• Comprehensive bibliography in each chapter with 600+ references throughout the text
• Multiple online appendices include an alphabetical listing of anatomical terms, useful combining forms, and listings of
sensors and cranial nerves J. Anthony Seikel
New to the Seventh Edition: David G. Drumright
• Addition of clinical cases related to neurophysiology and hearing
• Revised and updated physiology of swallowing includes discussion of postnatal development and aging effects of the
swallowing mechanism and function
Daniel J. Hudock
• Brief discussion of the basics of genetics and trait transmission
• Overview of prenatal development as it relates to the mechanisms of speech and hearing
• Presentation of prenatal and postnatal development for each of the systems of speech and hearing, as well as the effects
of aging on each system
• Learning objectives have been added to the beginning of each chapter
• Chapter study questions have been moved online so students can take interactive quizzes with scores
• The helpful appendices moved online to reduce the length and weight of the print book
• For instructors, the test questions and slides have been updated and expanded
• The ANAQUEST study software has been updated with new illustrations from the text, and lessons to match the content
newly added to the book

www.pluralpublishing.com
Anatomy &
Physiology
for Speech, Language,
and Hearing
SEVENTH EDITION
Anatomy &
Physiology
for Speech, Language,
and Hearing
SEVENTH EDITION

J. Anthony Seikel, PhD

David G. Drumright, BS
Daniel J. Hudock, PhD, CCC-SLP
9177 Aero Drive, Suite B
San Diego, CA 92123

email: information@pluralpublishing.com
website: https://www.pluralpublishing.com

Copyright ©2025 by Plural Publishing, Inc.

Typeset in 11.5/13 Adobe Garamond by Flanagan’s Publishing Services, Inc.

Printed in China by Regent Publishing Services Ltd.

All rights, including that of translation, reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise,
including photocopying, recording, taping, web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems
without the prior written consent of the publisher.

For permission to use material from this text, contact us by

Telephone: (866) 758-7251
Fax: (888) 758-7255
email: permissions@pluralpublishing.com

Every attempt has been made to contact the copyright holders for material originally printed in another source. If any
have been inadvertently overlooked, the publisher will gladly make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Seikel, John A., author. | Drumright, David G., author. | Hudock,
Daniel J., author.
Title: Anatomy & physiology for speech, language, and hearing / J. Anthony
Seikel, David G. Drumright, Daniel J. Hudock.
Other titles: Anatomy and physiology for speech, language, and hearing
Description: Seventh edition. | San Diego, CA : Plural Publishing, Inc.,
[2025] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023037109 (print) | LCCN 2023037110 (ebook) | ISBN
9781635506280 (hardcover) | ISBN 163550628X (hardcover) | ISBN
9781635504309 (ebook)
Subjects: MESH: Speech--physiology | Language | Hearing--physiology |
Nervous System--anatomy & histology | Respiratory System--anatomy &
histology | Respiratory Physiological Phenomena
Classification: LCC QP306 (print) | LCC QP306 (ebook) | NLM WV 501 | DDC
612.7/8--dc23/eng/20230824
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023037109
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023037110
 Contents

Preface xiii
About the Authors xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction to the Learner xix
Using This Textbook and Online Resources xxi

Chapter 1 Basic Elements of Anatomy 1

Anatomy and Physiology 2

Terminology of Anatomy 3
Terms of Orientation 3
Terms of Movement 8
Parts of the Body 8
Building Blocks of Anatomy: Tissues and Systems 10
Tissues 10
Body Systems 26
Prenatal Development 38
Genetic Terminology 38
Stages of Prenatal Development 40
Development of Individual Systems 46
Chapter Summary 49
Bibliography 51

Chapter 2 Anatomy of Respiration 53

The Support Structure of Respiration 56

Overview 56
Vertebral Column 57
Pelvic and Pectoral Girdles 67
Ribs and Rib Cage 71
Soft Tissue of the Thorax and Respiratory Passageway 76
Divisions of the Bronchial Tree 82
Movement of Air Through the Respiratory System 92
Muscles of Inspiration 96
Muscles of Forced Expiration 118
Respiratory Muscle of the Upper Limb:Latissimus Dorsi 128
Chapter Summary 129
Bibliography 129

Chapter 3 Physiology of Respiration 133

The Flow of Respiration 135

Instruments in Respiration 135
v
vi ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING

Respiration for Life 137

Effects of Turbulence on Respiration 138
Respiratory Cycle 138
Lung Volumes and Capacities 140
Lung Volumes 140
Lung Capacities 143
Pressures of the Respiratory System 145
Pressures Generated by the Tissue 150
Effects of Posture on Speech 153
Pressures and Volumes of Speech 155
Prenatal Development of the Respiratory System 160
Axial Skeleton Development: Vertebral Column and Rib Cage 162
Respiratory System Development 162
Postnatal Development and Aging in Respiration 163
Effect of Age on Volumes and Capacities 163
Effect of Age on Respiratory Rate 164
Muscle Development and Control 166
Physical Bases of Changes in Adulthood 167
Respiratory Pathologies Affecting Communication 169
Acute Conditions 169
Chronic Conditions 169
Chapter Summary 172
Bibliography 174

Chapter 4 Anatomy of Phonation 177

A Tour of the Phonatory Mechanism 180

Framework of the Larynx 180
Cavities of the Larynx 189
Cartilaginous Structure of the Larynx 194
Movement of the Cartilages 199
Laryngeal Musculature 202
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles 203
Laryngeal Elevators and Depressors 214
Chapter Summary 227
Bibliography 227

Chapter 5 Physiology of Phonation 229

Nonspeech Laryngeal Function 230

Laryngeal Function for Speech 233
A Brief Discussion of Acoustics 233
Instruments for Voicing 237
The Bernoulli Effect 239
Vocal Attack 244
Termination 246
Sustained Phonation 247
Vocal Register 248
 CONTENTS vii

Frequency, Pitch, and Pitch Change 255

Pitch-Changing Mechanism 256
Intensity and Intensity Change 258
Clinical Considerations 261
Linguistic Aspects of Pitch and Intensity 262
Theories of Phonation 265
Prenatal Development 265
Postnatal Development and Aging of the Phonatory Mechanism 266
Vocal Fold Changes 266
Vocal Fold Tissue Changes 267
Cartilage Changes 268
Hyoid and Laryngeal Descent 269
Fundamental Frequency Changes During Development 269
The Effects of Aging 270
Supportive Tissue 270
Muscle 271
Cartilages 271
Nerves and Sensation 271
Fundamental Frequency Changes With Aging 271
Changes in Other Acoustic Parameters 272
Pathologies That May Affect Phonation 273
Structural Etiologies 274
Degenerative Neurological Diseases 276
Chapter Summary 277
Decibel Practice Activity 279
I. Exponents and Logarithms 279
II. dB SPL Problems 280
III. SPL: More Complex Examples 281
IV. Decibel Increase and Decrease 281
Bibliography 282

Chapter 6 Anatomy of Articulation and Resonation 287

Source-Filter Theory of Vowel Production 288

The Articulators 291
Bones of the Face and Cranial Skeleton 303
Bones of the Face 303
Bones of the Cranial Skeleton 317
Dentition 326
Dental Development 331
Dental Occlusion 332
Cavities of the Articulatory System 338
Muscles of the Face and Mouth 344
Muscles of the Face 344
Muscles of the Mouth 353
Muscles of Mastication: Mandibular Elevators and Depressors 361
Muscles of the Velum 366
Muscles of the Pharynx 370
Chapter Summary 375
Bibliography 376
viii ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING

Chapter 7 Physiology of Articulation and Resonation 379

Instrumentation in Articulation 380

Speech Function 381
Lips 382
Mandible 383
Tongue 384
Velum 387
Coordinated Articulation 388
Central Control Theory 389
Dynamic or Action Theory Models 390
The DIVA Model of Speech Production 392
Prenatal Articulatory/Resonatory System Development: Pharynx, Face, 396
and Neck
Development of the Skull 396
Oral Cavity and Pharynx Development 399
Facial Development 401
Postnatal Development and Aging in Articulation and Resonation 405
General Craniofacial Growth 405
Development of Articulatory Ability 414
Effects of Aging on Structure and Function 416
Pathologies That May Affect Articulation 419
Problems Affecting Dentition 419
Problems Affecting the Tongue 419
Mandibular and Maxillary Problems 420
Problems Affecting Lips and Palate 420
Neurogenic Conditions Affecting Speech 422
Chapter Summary 424
Bibliography 425

Chapter 8 Physiology of Mastication and Deglutition 429

Mastication and Deglutition 429

Instrumentation in Swallowing Function 430
Organizational Patterns of Mastication and Deglutition 431
Oral Stage: Oral Preparation 432
Oral Stage: Transport 435
Pharyngeal Stage 436
Esophageal Stage 442
Process Model of Mastication and Deglutition 443
Neurophysiological Underpinnings of Mastication and Deglutition 444
Sensation Associated With Mastication and Deglutition 445
Salivation Response 457
Anatomical and Physiological Changes in Development and Aging 459
Development 459
Changes in Swallowing With Aging 463
Reflexive Circuits of Mastication and Deglutition 465
Chewing Reflex 466
Orienting, Rooting, and Suckling/Sucking Reflexes 468
Uvular (Palatal) Reflex 468
 CONTENTS ix

Gag (Pharyngeal) Reflex 468

Retch and Vomit Reflex 469
Cough Reflex 469
Pain Withdrawal Reflex 469
Apneic Reflex 470
Respiration Reflexes 470
Swallowing Reflex 470
Reexamination of the Patterns for Mastication and Deglutition:   472
A Complex Integration of Reflexes and Voluntary Action
Pathologies Affecting Swallowing Function 474
Chapter Summary 477
Bibliography 479

Chapter 9 Anatomy of Hearing 485

The Structures of Hearing 485

Outer Ear 485
Middle Ear 490
Landmarks of the Middle Ear 497
Inner Ear 498
Osseous Vestibule 500
Osseous Semicircular Canals 501
Osseous Cochlear Labyrinth 502
Membranous Labyrinth 503
Innervation Pattern of the Organ of Corti 507
Chapter Summary 510
Bibliography 510

Chapter 10 Auditory Physiology 513

Instrumentation in Hearing Research 514

Outer Ear 515
Middle Ear Function 516
Inner Ear Function 517
Vestibular Mechanism 517
Auditory Mechanism: Mechanical Events 519
Electrical Events 523
Neural Responses 527
Poststimulus Time Histograms 527
Interspike Interval and Period Histograms 531
Frequency Selectivity 532
Auditory Pathway Responses 535
Auditory Development and Auditory Aging 549
Prenatal Development 549
Postnatal Development of the Peripheral Auditory System 553
Aging and the Auditory Mechanism 555
Pathologies That May Affect Audition 559
Inflammatory Conditions 559
Congenital Problems 560
x ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING

Traumatic Lesions 560

Neoplastic Changes 563
Bone Changes 563
Chapter Summary 564
Bibliography 566

Chapter 11 Neuroanatomy 571

Overview 571
Sense, Sensor, and Stimulation 574
Divisions of the Nervous System 577
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System 577
Autonomic and Somatic Nervous Systems 578
Development Divisions 579
Anatomy of the Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System 580
Neurons 581
Anatomy of the Cerebrum 589
Medial Surface of Cerebral Cortex 617
Inferior Surface of Cerebral Cortex 617
Myelinated Fibers 617
Anatomy of the Subcortex 620
Cerebrovascular System 628
Cerebellum 631
Anatomy of the Brainstem 636
Cranial Nerves 648
Specific Cranial Nerves 651
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 670
Pathways of the Spinal Cord 681
Chapter Summary 689
Bibliography 690

Chapter 12 Neurophysiology 693

Instrumentation in Neurophysiology 694

The Neuron 696
Neuron Function 696
Muscle Function 705
Higher Functioning 714
Motor System Lesions 719
Afferent Inputs 722
Association Regions 723
Hemispheric Specialization 726
Lesion Studies 727
Motor Control for Speech 734
Development and Aging of the Brain 736
Prenatal Development of the Nervous System 737
Postnatal Development of the Brain 740
The Aging Brain 747
 CONTENTS xi

Neurogenic Conditions That May Affect Communication 750

Acquired Conditions 750
Chapter Summary 756
Bibliography 758

Glossary 763
Index 815
 Preface

A
natomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing, Seventh Edition,
provides a sequential tour of the anatomy and physiology associated with
speech, language, and hearing. Those of us studying Speech and Hearing
Sciences are in the enviable position of being at the center of one of the most
important facets of being human: Communication. In this text, our aspiration is
for the content to be both accessible and applicable to your careers in our profes-
sions. Even as you read this material, know that your future clients are counting
on the knowledge that you are gaining. What you study now becomes the heart of
your practice later. We want this material to be relevant to you, the clinician.
This text is designed to serve the upper division undergraduate or graduate
student in the fields of speech-language pathology and audiology, and it is our hope
that it will serve you as a reference for your professional life as well. We aspire for
it to be a learning tool and resource for both the developing and the accomplished
clinician. We, the authors of this text, are first and foremost teachers ourselves.
We are committed to the students within our professions and to the instructors
who have made it their life work to teach them. Every revision of the text has both
student and instructor in mind as we try to meet your needs in the rapidly changing
professions of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology.
Learning is not a spectator sport. Our goal is to make the text and its ancillary
materials as useful to 21st-century students as possible. This new edition not only
provides students with great interactive study tools in the revised ANAQUEST
study software but also makes available a wealth of student and instructor resources
to facilitate learning. We moved a great deal of the activities online, reflecting the
dominant method for using them by students. We want you to be the best clinician
and scientist you can be and sincerely hope that these materials move you along
the path of your chosen career.

Organization

The text is organized around the five “classic” systems of speech and hearing: the
respiratory, phonatory, articulatory/resonatory, nervous, and auditory systems. The
respiratory system (involving the lungs) provides the “energy source” for speech,
whereas the phonatory system (involving the larynx) provides voicing. The articula-
tory/resonatory system modifies the acoustic source provided by voicing (or other
gestures) to produce the sounds we acknowledge as speech. The articulatory system
is responsible for the mastication (chewing) and deglutition (swallowing) func-
tion, an increasingly important area within the field of speech-language pathology.
The nervous system lets us control musculature, receive information, and make
sense of the information. Finally, the auditory mechanism processes speech and
nonspeech acoustic signals received by the listener who is trying to make sense of
their world. We included information about prenatal and postnatal development
of these systems as well as changes that occur through aging.
There are few areas of study where the potential for overwhelming detail is
greater than in the disciplines of anatomy and physiology. Our desire with this
text and the accompanying software lessons is to provide a stable foundation upon
xiii
xiv ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING

See the beginning of the which detail may be learned. In the text, we provide you with an introductory
textbook for instructions on section that sets the stage for the detail to follow, and we bring you back to a more
how to access the PluralPlus global picture with summaries. We also provide derivations of words to help you
companion website. remember technical terms.

New to the Seventh Edition

This new edition of Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing
includes many exciting enhancements:

• revised and updated physiology of swallowing includes discussion of

postnatal development and aging effects of the swallowing mechanism
and function
• brief discussion of the basics of genetics and trait transmission
• overview of prenatal development as it relates to the mechanisms of speech
and hearing
• presentation of prenatal and postnatal development for each of the systems
of speech and hearing as well as the effects of aging on each system
• content on the effects of pathology on communication, included within
each of the physical systems of communication
• addition of clinical cases in neurophysiology and hearing as well as
additional study and test questions
• updated lessons and images in ANAQUEST

J. Anthony Seikel
David G. Drumright
Daniel J. Hudock
 About the Authors

J. Anthony (Tony) Seikel, PhD, is emeritus faculty at Idaho State University, where
he taught graduate and undergraduate coursework in neuroanatomy and neuropa-
thology over the course of his career in Communication Sciences and Disorders.
He is coauthor of numerous chapters, books, and research publications in the fields
of speech-language pathology and audiology. His current research is examining
the relationship between orofacial myofunctional disorders and oropharyngeal
dysphagia. Dr. Seikel is also coauthor of Neuroanatomy & Neurophysiology for
Speech and Hearing Sciences, also published by Plural Publishing.

David G. Drumright, BS, grew up in Oklahoma and Kansas, taught electronics at

DeVry for several years, then spent 20 years as a technician in acoustics and speech
research. He developed many programs and devices for analysis and instruction
in acoustics and speech/hearing. He has been semiretired since 2002, working on
graphics and programming for courseware. He is also coauthor of Neuroanatomy
& Neurophysiology for Speech and Hearing Sciences, published by Plural Publishing.

Daniel J. Hudock, PhD, CCC-SLP, is an associate professor of Communication

Sciences and Disorders at Idaho State University who has taught courses on anatomy
and physiology of the speech and hearing mechanisms and speech and hearing
science for over a decade. He has published more than 30 articles and has given
over 100 presentations. In his TEDx Talk (https://bit.ly/2oAYeKC) titled “Please
Let Me Finish My Sentence,” he presents his experience living with a stutter. Dr.
Hudock is also the founding director of the Northwest Center for Fluency Disor-
ders that offers an intensive interprofessional stuttering clinic with speech-language
pathologists collaborating with counselors and clinical psychologists through an
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) informed framework in the treat-
ment of adolescent and adult stuttering, which is his main area of research.

xv
 Acknowledgments

W
e are deeply indebted to our friends at Plural Publishing who have worked
so hard to make this seventh edition happen. Angie Singh, Valerie Johns,
and Elisa Andersen have tremendous energy and a wonderful calming
effect on authors, even as our deadlines loom. We are indebted to them and appre-
ciate their continued support in this revision process.
We would like to acknowledge the effort that reviewers put into their exami-
nation of our material and hope we have done justice to their work. Reviewers are
the unsung heroes of textbook preparation. They put in long and often tedious
hours, examining our work with an unflinching eye, providing us with the criti-
cally important view of the instructor. The deadlines that they faced in reviewing
the material for this seventh edition were daunting, and yet they persevered. We
are very deeply indebted to them for their careful review and willingness to call
our attention to areas that needed correction, refinement, and improvement. We
also are grateful for their keen insight and discernment and hope that we have in
some measure answered their suggestions. This textbook is written, quite literally,
on their shoulders.
We also wish to acknowledge all those who, over the course of the past few
years, have given us corrections and suggestions for improving this edition of the
text. Samantha Smith provided us with keen insight into the changing face of
animal research ethics, and Megan-Brette Hamilton and her colleagues at the
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association’s Office for Multicultural Affairs
were a wonderful resource for updating the language of text relative to sex and
gender. We appreciate the keen eyes of Meghan Wendelken, Jenny Iwarsson, and
Katie Huang, all of whom found text errors, some of which dated to the first
edition. Dianna Evers gave me great insight into oromyofunctional disorders, and
our friend and colleague Kostas Konstantopoulos provided us with inspiration and
additional cases for the text. There were many other sharp-eyed professors and
students who led us to text corrections for this edition, and we are grateful for all
of that input. We are extremely grateful for the talented artwork of Tatiana Gandlin
whose art now graces this book.
To you, our students, please realize that your future clients support your
present intentions and also will serve as your inspiration as you move through
life. As speech-language pathologists and audiologists, we must acknowledge the
tremendous debt we owe to the great researchers and teachers who have formed
the profession, our colleagues with whom we consult and work, and, always, our
clients, who have taught us more than any book could.
As authors, we must also acknowledge the source of our inspiration. We have
been actively involved in teaching students in speech-language pathology and
audiology for some time, and not a semester goes by that we do not realize how
very dedicated our students are. There is something special about our field that
attracts not just the brightest but the most compassionate. You, students, keep us
as teachers alive and vital. Thank you.

xvii
 Introduction to the Learner

W
e continue to be impressed with the complexity and beauty of the systems
of human communication. Humans use an extremely complex system
for communication, requiring extraordinary coordination and control of
an intensely interconnected sensorimotor system. It is our heartfelt desire that the
study of the physical system will lead you to an appreciation of the importance of
your future work as a speech-language pathologist or audiologist.
We also know that the intensity of your study will work to the benefit of your
future clients and that the knowledge you gain through your effort will be applied
throughout your career. We appreciate the fact that the study of anatomy is chal-
lenging, but we also recognize that the effort you put forth now will provide you
with the background for work with the medical community.
A deep understanding of the structure and function of the human body is
critical to the individual who is charged with the diagnosis and treatment of speech,
language, and hearing disorders. As beginning clinicians, you are already aware of
the awesome responsibility you bear in clinical management. It is our firm belief
that knowledge of the human body and how it works will provide you with the
background you need to make informed and wise decisions. We welcome you on
your journey into the world of anatomy.

xix
 Using This Textbook and
Online Resources

Textbook

The text offers the following features to enhance your learning and compre-
hension:
Anatomy of
Phonation
4
LEAR NER OUT
COM ES
The learner will
be able to:
1. Expressively 7. Describe the

•
define and recep location of struct

Learning Outcomes provide a guide on how to navigate the depth

graphic image the tively identify on the larynx. ures and spaces
glottis, subglottal of
phonation, vallec 8. Describe the
ulae, aryepiglott region, and movement and
articulation of the
ligament, conus ic cartilages, includ
elasticus, and pyrifofolds, vocal ing the functional
2. Discuss the rm sinus. movement. result of

and breadth of the chapter content.

biological funct
3. Discuss the ions of the larynx 9. Define the intrin
relationship amon . sic laryngeal muscu
and bone of the g the insertion, cours lature origin,
larynx, and their cartilages well as identify
e, function, and
inner
relative to other
cartilages.
location on a graphic image vation, as
4. Identify each 10. Receptively .
of the identify
landmarks of those laryngeal cartilages and state the function from an image and
cartilages, as well of the aryepiglott
hyoid bone and thyro epiglo icus and
its landmarks from as the tticus muscles.
image. graphic 11. Identify the
origin, insertion,
5. Receptively and innervation course, function,
identify the level of
specialization of and structural suprahyoid musc the infrahyoid and
the layers of the les,
muscles on graph and receptively identify the

• Margin Notes identify important terminology, root words, and

based on descri vocal folds ic images.
ption.
6. Identify the
cavities, There is a great
of the larynx throu landmarks, and structures deal of detail
gh description the phonatory in
image. or visual mechanism, and the anatomy of
the guidance of you should follow

definitions that are highlighted in color throughout each chapter.

your instructor
content. when studying
this

S poken communica
chapter is conce tion uses both voiceless and

Other important terms are boldfaced in text to indicate that the

rned with that voiced sounds,
your phonetics critical distinction. and
Voiceless phon course, the term As you remember this
emes are produ phoneme refers from
phonemes /s/ or ced without the to the sounds
/f/. use of the vocal of speech.
as in /z/ and /v/. Voiced phonemes are produced folds, such as the
by the action of

definition can be found in the Glossary at the end of the book. Use
Phonation, or
and this occurs voicing, is the the vocal folds,
within the larynx product of vibrat
respiration as the . Remember from ing vocal folds,
source of energy Chapter 3 that
speech. Respiration for speech. Phon we
ation is the sourc referred to
respiration there is the energy source that perm
would its phonation to e of voice for

these terms to study and prepare for tests and quizzes. Additionally,
The vocal folds be no voicing. occur; without
being muscle. The are made up of five layers
space between of tissue, with
the deepest layer
glottidis), and
the area below the the vocal folds is termed the ANAQUEST LESS
are located withi vocal folds is the glottis (or rima ON
n the subgl

callouts in the margin indicate corresponding ANAQUEST lessons

the airstream passes course of the airstream at the ottal region. The vocal folds
between the vocal superior end of rima glottidis:
flag flaps in the folds, they may the trachea. As L., slit of the glottis
wind. Try this: be made to vibrat
You should feel Place your hand e, much as a
a tickling vibrat on the side of your
you hear. If you ion. neck,
alternately produ This is the mechanical correlate and hum.

and video labs.

start vibrating and ce /a/ and /h/, of the sound
stop, because /a/ you should feel
is a voiced sound your vocal folds
, and /h/ is voicel
ess sound.

, AND HEARING
GY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE 177
62 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLO

Odontoid Malformations are cases of wrestlers

on odontoid malformations

•
those in which the ture

Clinical Notes relate a topic directly to clinical experience to

(significant reduction
dontoid malformations are
O
such as these, the atlas (C1)
to develop. In cases who
is free to
suffer repeated syncope
odontoid process of C2 fails rotate on the axis in blood pressure that results
transient limb weakness, and even
in light-headedness),
seizure disorder.
for significan t spinal ation is the os odontoideum
(C2), providing the potential - A more serious malform

emphasize the importance of anatomy in your clinical practice. Gain

a injury during hyperrota tip of the
cord and medulla oblongat ation, in which the anterior
the medulla oblongata malform is separated. In this condition, the tip typi-
tion or hyperextension. Because vertebra often
brainstem, these malfor- receive vascular supply and
is a vital component of the cally continue s to
ng. The individual with . The result is that
mations can be life threateni ation may complain grows into the foramen magnum cord and lower

insight into your chosen profession by using the topics discussed

the spinal
undiagnosed odontoid malform neck but otherwise the tip places pressure on , pain, and
of joint pain or stiffness
in the , resulting in muscular weakness depending
atic. It is not until a radiograph of brainstem coordina tion (ataxia),
may be asymptom reduction in motor
d for other purposes that If the tip compresses
the neck region is performe on the location of the injury. complications due to

for research papers, to facilitate in-class discussion, and to complete

. Often the individual
the absent process is identified an artery, there can be further
such as a fall, that has
undergoes a minor trauma, reduction in vascular supply.
expected. In the litera-
a result that is greater than

homework assignments.
which rests atop the
by a superior articular facet,
The superior surface is marked articular facet. In the articu-
pedicle. The inferior
surface contains an inferior e foramina shown
pedicle: L., pedalis, foot facets mate. The pair of transvers be absent in C7.
lated vertebral column, these may even
in the cervical vertebrae and
in Figure 2–5 is found only through this foramen. You can
vertebral artery passes
Figure 2–7 shows that the

• Illustrations and Graphs provide visual examples of the anatomy,

processes, and body systems discussed. Refer to the figures as you Basilar artery

read the text to enhance your understanding of the specific idea or

anatomical component being discussed. When reviewing for quizzes
External carotid artery
Internal carotid artery
Common carotid artery

Right vertebral artery

and tests, refer back to the figures for an important visual recap of the
vertebral
Figure 2–7. Course of Subclavian artery
artery through the transverse
foramina of cervical vertebrae. Aorta from heart
mright/
Source: From Seikel/Dru

topics discussed.
for
King. Anatomy & Physiology
Hearing,
Speech, Language, and
Inc. Repro-
302© Cengage,
5th ed.
ANATO
duced by permission. MY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH,
LANGUAGE,
AND HEARI NG

• Photographs provide a real-life look at the body parts and functions

you are studying. Use these images as reference for accuracy in
describing body systems, parts, and processes. Allow yourself to be
amazed by the intricacies of human anatomy.

• Tables highlight the various components, functions, structures,

and pathologies of anatomical concepts related to what you might B

encounter in actual practice. Use these tables for quick reference to

Figure 6–9.
continued B.
Photo of inferio
r view of the skull.

study and learn to relate your new anatomical knowledge to clinical

Table 6–1. Bones
of the Face and Crania
Bones of the l Skeleton
Face
Mandible Bones of the
Cranial Skele
ton

experience. Muscle Tables describe the origin, course, insertion,

Maxillae Ethmoid bone
Nasal bones Sphenoid bone
Palatine bones Frontal bone
and nasal conch
ae

innervation, and function of key muscles and muscle groups. Use

Vomer Parietal bone
Zygomatic bone Occipital bone
Lacrimal bones Temporal bone

these tables to stay organized and keep track of the numerous

Hyoid bone

muscles studied in the chapters.

xxi
xxii ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING

CHAPTER 2
• ANATOMY OF RESPIR
• “To Summarize” Sections provide a succinct listing of the major
topics covered in a chapter or chapter section. These summaries
ATION
129
, AND HEAR ING
Muscle: Quadra SPEE CH, LANGUAGE
GY FORtus lumbo rum
& :PHYSIOLO
Origin
ANATOMY Iliac crest
194

provide a helpful recap of the general areas where you should focus
Course: Fan up and inward
Insertion: Transve mar ize:
sum
✔ Toprocesses of the lumbar vertebr
rse e.
layers of tissu made up of two cle
Innervation: Thoraci
c nerve T12 consist of fiveae and inferior na prop
L1 through L4 lumbar is the lamiborder
l folds of ria,
The vocaand rib 12 id mus
Function: Bilateral •contraction elial layernerves thyroaryteno

your time while reviewing for examinations.

thin epith gen fibers. The
• Deep to the
fixes abdom inal walllayer of colla
one in suppor t of abdominal compre
in and
Muscle: Latissimus dorsilayers of elast the layers. is
ssion
the entryway
of the
deep est of adit us
Origin: is the in. The
Lumbar, sacral, and lowerligam ent
thoracic is made of elast bule.
Course: Up fanlike • The voca l vertebr aeto the vesti l ventricle.
ing the entry separated by
the laryngea
Insertion: larynx, mark
Humerus
Innervation: Brachia ricu lar and vocal folds are voca l folds .
• The vent een the
l plexus, posterior branch; variable space betw
Function: For respiration, The glott is is thefibers from the regions C6 through
• stabilize s posterior abdom
inal wall for expirati
C8 form the long
subscapular nerve
the Lar onynx
re of it is flexible
but

•
ous Structu
Chapter Summaries provide precise reviews of content. The summary
Car tilagin larynx in that tive pressures.
• Forced expiration reverse needed for the tive and posi
ise qualities it
and by forcing the s this proces
ilage has the
s by pulling the ed to withstand negacollapse as pressure within .
prec
Cartagm
diaphr structure needthorax down and
higherthe the thorax s wouinld bend the neck
also provides intotube
• Chapter 3 provides insigh hagu
such as. the esop allow a person to flex and

is offset from the running text to make it easily identifiable for quick
t into
le epith elial
the details ld not
respiration for speech A simp of inspira wou
. a bony structuretion, expiration, and
dropped, and
lage
tracheal carti
CHAPTER SUM MARY Cricoid Cartilage as an expanded

review.
cartilage
can be viewed the larynx, the cricoid
cricoid cartilage lage of
R espiration is the proces The unpaired As the most inferior carti
an organism and its s (Fig of gas 4–6).ge betwee
ureexchan
made up of the spinal environment. The rib cage, pressu
n pleurae linked
through surface
column and ribs, re. When lungs expand tension and negative
lungs, which are the houses the the lungs , the
primary machinery for
Facetof becomes negative with air pressure within
By means of the cartila respiration. atmos
noid respect to the outsid
ginous trachearyte
a and phere, and Boyle’s e
tree, air enters the law dictates that air
lungs for gas exchan bronchial from the region of higher flows
minute alveolar sacs. ge within the Access pressu
Oxygen enters the ory muscles also provid re to fill the lungs.
carbon dioxide is remov blood, and of the e for added expans

• A Bibliography with a comprehensive list of references at the end of

ed by expiration. rib cage for further ion
Air enters the lungs inspira tion.
through muscu Expiration may occur Facet for
The diaphragm,
placed between the lar effort. forces of elasticity and gravit passively through the
Arch
arytenoid
abdomen, contracts thorax and rib cage. y acting on the ribs
during inspiration. Expiration may also and
expand when the The lungs VIEW
of the be forced, using muscle

each chapter offers great sources to start your research for a paper or
diaphragm contra ANTERIOR
cts, drawn by evacuaabdomen and those that depress the rib s
te the lungs. cage to
Facet for
arytenoid
Bibliography
Araujo, J. A., Barajas
J., Gong, K. W., .
, B., Kleinman, M.,
. . Nel,
Lamina

Facet for
Wang, X., Bennet
d t, B. Baranowska-Wójcik,
Arch

class project.
pollutants in the ultrafin A. E. (2008). Ambient thyroi particulate E., Szwajgier, D.,
e range promote early Winiarska-Mieczan, Oleszczuk, P., &
rosis and systemic A. (2020). Effects
oxidative stress. Circula atheroscle- LATEnanopa RAL VIEW
rticles exposure on of titanium dioxide Facet for
102(5), 589–596. tion Research,
https://doi.org/10.116 ical Trace Element Research human health — A review. Biolog- arytenoid
.107.164970 1/CIRCRESAH , 193(1), 118–129.
Facet for A Bly, L. (1994). Motor
Aviv, J. E., Liu, H., skills acquisition in the first Lamina
Kaplan, S. T., Parides arytenoid Skill Builders.
(2000). Laryngophary . A. Crico id cartil, age
M., & Close,
year. Therapy
Facet for
Figure 4–6ngeal sensory L. G. Budinger,

• A Glossary lists all key terms found throughout the text.

From G. S., Kohanski, thyroid
laryngopharyngeal
and landm arks. Source: deficits in patients with
reflux Amaral, L. A., Arman R. A., Gan, W., Kobor,
and dysphaAnatomy M. S.,
Rhinology & Laryngo
Seikel/Dru mright/King. gia. Annals of Otology,
logy, The
ios, M., . . . Thanni
ckal,
109(11 intersec V. J. (2017).
y for Spee),ch,1000–1006. tion of aging biology
& Physiolog ing, 5th ed. lung diseases: a joint and the pathobiology
of
Hear NHLBI/NIA worksh
Language, and oduced op. Journals of
age, Inc. Repr
© Ceng h B
. B. Photograp
by permission and POSTERIO
R VIEW
age, superior
of cricoid cartil A
lateral views.

Online Resources

The text is supported by a suite of supplementary resources on a PluralPlus

companion website. The site is divided into two areas: one housing materials
for the instructor and the other just for students.

ANAQUEST
The innovative software program, ANAQUEST, is available in two different
versions: one for instructors to import into their Learning Management
Systems (LMS) for exams, and another web-based version for student study.
ANAQUEST features interactive lessons, images, animations, and videos.

For the Instructor

The instructor area of the PluralPlus companion website contains a variety
of tools to help instructors successfully prepare lectures and teach within
this subject area. This comprehensive package provides something for all
instructors, from those teaching anatomy and physiology for the first time
to seasoned instructors who want something new. The resources include the
following:

• PowerPoint slides for each chapter

• a test bank with over 1,000 questions and answers
• class activities and labs
• a sample syllabus
• videos
• a version of ANAQUEST importable to the leading LMSs
• access to the student section of the companion website

See the inside front cover of the book on how to gain instructor access
to the website.
 USING THIS TEXTBOOK AND ONLINE RESOURCES xxiii

For the Student

To further help students master complex material, the student area of the Plural-
Plus companion website includes the following:

• interactive study quizzes for each chapter

• videos
• downloadable appendices
• a student web-version of the ANAQUEST study software

The ANAQUEST software is keyed to the text, reinforcing identification of the

structures presented during lecture and, more importantly, illustrating the function
of those structures. The lessons and videos are self-paced, with frequent quizzes.
Spending two or three half-hour sessions per week will be a great refresher while
preparing for exams.

See the inside front cover of the book for the website URL and your access
code.
 The authors dedicate this text to the researchers in speech and hearing science and in
allied fields who continue to examine how we, as humans, function. We continue to be
amazed at both the ingenuity and diligence with which researchers in our field approach
their task. Their work forms the basis for all we do as authors. We also dedicate this text
to the clients we have known and interacted with who give us so much inspiration. Their
courage, commitment, and humor has sustained us for many years. Finally, we dedicate
this text to the students who are taking our place in the clinical world and to the teachers
who are helping them do that. We have spoken with numerous people outside of our
fields who say that our students are, indeed, special. You have tremendous compassion
and strength of will, and it is wonderful to see you become the clinicians of the future.
Students-in-training will get to know clients we have known over our years of
practice who have inspired us with their courage and wisdom. We also dedicate this text
to the students and faculty in speech and hearing who do the work of helping people with
communication and swallowing difficulties. We have been blessed with our associations
with you for many decades, and we know that audiologists and speech-language pathologists
are compassionate and generous people who dedicate their lives to improving the well-
being of others in what we, the authors, consider the most important aspect of life:
communication. We thank you, the faculty and students of our fields, for your dedication.
— JAS, DGD, and DJH

I also dedicate this text to my sweetie for life, Paula, who has lived with my angst
over textbook creations and revisions since the first edition of this text. Revisions are
fraught with deadline pressures that strain every other aspect of a person’s life, but she
has never complained about my need to plow forward on a task that seems to have no
end. She is a wonderful sounding-board for problems, and an irreplaceable resource
for editing. We have a very “yin and yang” relationship: My writing is wordy and often
imprecise, and hers is precise, pithy, and lean. Blessedly, we come to some middle-way
when we work together, and I quite literally could not go forward without her.
— Tony Seikel

I also dedicate the accompanying software to Professor Merle Phillips,

who taught me something about audiology and a lot about life.
— David Drumright

I wish to dedicate my contributions to the text to the first author, “Tony,” who
has been a beloved colleague, mentor, and dear friend over the past several years.
Tony’s passion for the field, colleagues, teaching, and students knows no bounds as he
has tirelessly and compassionately given of himself for the betterment of others.
I would also like to acknowledge the many speech-language pathologists,
teachers, professors, students, friends, and family who have supported me
along the way. There are no words that can fully express my gratitude and
appreciation for the kindness and support shown to me. Thank you.
— Dan Hudock
 Basic Elements of Anatomy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The learner will be able to:
1. Define and demonstrate an understanding of
the terminology of anatomy and physiology as
it relates to the body, its position in space, and
movement of its parts.
2. Demonstrate receptive knowledge of the
subspecializations of anatomy and physiology.
3. Identify the four basic tissue types, and define
their general function in the body.
4. Receptively differentiate the derivatives, and
functions of those derivatives, of epithelial
tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and
nervous tissue.
5. Receptively identify joint types of the skeleton.
6. Discuss muscle function as it relates to exertion
of force on the skeletal structures.
7. Differentiate fascia, ligaments, and tendons.
8. Define the systems of the body and how they
relate to the systems of communication.
1
9. Describe the basic function of the central and
peripheral nervous systems.
10. Relate the name, number, and general function
of each cranial nerve, the name and general
function of lobes of the cerebellum, lobes of the
cerebral cortex, and structures of the brainstem.
11. Relate the difference among autosomal dominant,
autosomal recessive, and sex-linked inheritance,
and between genotype and phenotype.
12. Define the times that indicate the embryonic
and fetal stages of development.
13. Receptively differentiate general structures that
arise from endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm
in development.
14. Receptively differentiate the structures of
the face, head, and neck that arise from each
pharyngeal arch.
There is a great deal of detail in this introductory
information, and you should follow the guidance of
your instructor when studying this content.

Y
ou are entering into a study of the human body that has a long and rich
tradition. We are fortunate to have myriad instruments and techniques at our
avail for this study, but it has not always been so. You will likely struggle with
arcane terminology that seems confusing and strange, and yet if you look closely,
you will see what the early anatomists first saw. The amygdala of the brain is a small
almond-shaped structure, and amygdala means “almond.” Lentiform literally means
“lens-shaped,” and the lentiform nucleus is just that. The fact that the terminology
remains in our lexicon indicates the accuracy with which our academic ancestors
studied their field, despite extraordinarily limited resources.
This chapter provides you with some basic elements to prepare you for your ANAQUEST LESSON
study of the anatomy and physiology of speech, language, and hearing. We provide
a broad picture of the field of anatomy and then introduce you to the basic tissues
that make up the human body. Tissues combine to form structures, and those
structures combine to form systems. This chapter sets the stage for your under-
standing of the new and foreign anatomical terminologies.

1
2 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING
anatomy dissection: Gr,
anatome
dissection: L., dissecare, the
process of cutting up
physiology: Gr., physis, nature;
logos, study; function of an
organism
applied anatomy or clinical
anatomy: application of
anatomical study for the
diagnosis and treatment of
disease, particularly as it relates
to surgical procedures
descriptive anatomy or
systemic anatomy: anatomical
specialty involving the description
of individual parts of the body
without reference to disease
conditions
gross anatomy: study of the
body and its parts as visible
without the aid of microscopy
microscopic anatomy: study
of the structure of the body by
means of microscopy
surface anatomy or
superficial anatomy: study of
the body and its surface markings
as related to underlying structures
developmental anatomy:
study of anatomy with reference
to growth and development from
conception to adulthood
pathological anatomy: study
of parts of the body with respect
to the pathological entity
comparative anatomy: study
of homologous structures of
different animals
electrophysiological
techniques: those techniques
that measure the electrical activity
of single cells or groups of cells,
including muscle and nervous
system tissues
evoked auditory potential:
electrical activity of the brain that
is directly associated with hearing
an auditory stimulus, an example
of this is an auditory brainstem
response
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy refers to the study of the structure of an organism. Physiology is the
study of the function of the living organism and its parts, as well as the chemical
processes involved. Applied anatomy (also known as clinical anatomy) involves
the application of anatomical study for the diagnosis and treatment of disease and
surgical procedures. Descriptive anatomy (also known as systemic anatomy) is a
description of individual parts of the body without reference to disease conditions,
viewing the body as a composite of systems that function together. Gross anatomy
studies structures that are visible without a microscope, while microscopic anatomy
examines structures not visible to the unaided eye. Surface anatomy (also known
as superficial anatomy) studies the form and structure of the surface of the body,
especially with reference to the organs beneath the surface (Gilroy et al., 2012; Gray
& Standring, 2008; Rohen et al., 2011; Tank & Grant, 2012). Developmental
anatomy deals with the development of the organism from conception (Moore
et al., 2020).
When your study examines disease conditions or structural abnormalities, you
have entered the domain of pathological anatomy. When we make comparisons
across species boundaries, we are engaged in comparative anatomy. Examination
of physiological processes may entail the use of a range of methods, from simply
measuring forces exerted by muscles to highly refined electrophysiological tech-
niques that measure electrical activity of single cells or groups of cells, including
muscle and nervous system tissues. For example, audiologists are particularly
interested in procedures that measure the electrical activity of the brain caused
by auditory stimuli (evoked auditory potentials). We rely heavily on descriptive
anatomy to guide our understanding of the physical mechanisms of speech and
to aid our discussion of its physiology (e.g., Duffy, 2019). Study of pathological
anatomy occurs naturally as you enter your clinical process because many of the
Teratogen
A teratogen or teratogenic agent is anything causing teratogenesis, the
development of a severely malformed fetus. For an agent to be teratogenic,
its effect must occur during prenatal development. Because the development
of the fetus involves the proliferation and differentiation of tissues, the timing
of the teratogen is particularly critical. The heart undergoes its most critical
period of development from the third week to the eighth, while the critical
period for the palate begins around the fifth week and ends around the 12th
week. The critical period for neural development stretches from the third
week until birth. These critical periods for development mark the points at
which the developing human is most susceptible to insult. An agent destined
to have an effect on the development of an organ or system will have its
greatest impact during that critical period.
Many teratogens have been identified, including organic mercury (which
causes cerebral palsy, cognitive impairment, blindness, cerebral atrophy, and
seizures), heroin and morphine (causing neonatal convulsions, tremors, and
death), alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive impairment, microcephaly,
joint anomalies, and maxillary anomalies), and tobacco (growth restriction),
to name just a few.
Another random document with
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Prâna cannot work alone without the help of âkâsa. All that we know
is that motion or vibration and every movement that we see is a
modification of this prâna, and everything that we know in the form of
matter, either as form or as resistance, is a modification of this
âkâsa. This prâna cannot exist alone, or act without a medium, but in
every state of it, whether as pure prâna, or when it changes into
other forces of nature, say gravitation or centrifugal attraction, it can
never be separate from âkâsa. You have never seen force without
matter or matter without force; what we call force and matter being
simply the gross manifestations of these same things, which, when
superfine, we call prâna and âkâsa. Prâna you can call in English the
life, or vital energy, but you must not restrict it to the life of man, nor
should you identify it with the spirit, Âtman. Creation is without
beginning and without end; it cannot have either, it is an eternal on-
going.
The next question that comes is rather a fine one. Some European
philosophers have asserted that this world exists because “I” exist,
and if “I” do not exist, the world will not exist. Sometimes it is
expressed in this way; they say, if all the people in the world were to
die, and there were no more human beings, and no animals with
powers of perception and intelligence, all manifestations would
disappear. It seems paradoxical, but gradually we shall see clearly
that this can be proved. But these European philosophers do not
know the psychology of it, although they know the principle; modern
philosophy has got only a glimpse of it.
First we will take another proposition of these old psychologists
which is rather startling, that the grossest elements are the bhutas,
but that all gross things are the results of fine ones. Everything that
is gross is composed of a combination of minute things, so the
bhutas must be composed of certain fine particles, called in Sanskrit
the tanmâtras. I smell a flower; to smell that, something must come
in contact with my nose; the flower is there and I do not see it move
towards me; but without something coming in contact with my nose I
cannot smell the flower. That which comes from the flower and into
contact with my nose are the tanmâtras, fine molecules of that
flower, so fine that no diminution can be perceived in the flower. So
with heat, light, sight, and everything. These tanmâtras can again be
subdivided into atoms. Different philosophers have different theories,
and we know these are only theories, so we leave them out of
discussion. Sufficient for us that everything gross is composed of
things that are very, very minute. We first get the gross elements,
which we feel externally, and composing them are the fine elements,
which our organs touch, which come in contact with the nerves of the
nose, eyes and ears. That ethereal wave which touches my eyes, I
cannot see, yet I know it must come in contact with my optic nerve
before I can see the light. So with hearing, we can never see the
particles that come in contact with our ears, but we know that they
must be there. What is the cause of these tanmâtras? A very
startling and curious answer is given by our psychologists,—self-
consciousness. That is the cause of these fine materials, and the
cause of the organs. What are these organs? Here is first the eye,
but the eye does not see. If the eyes did see, when a man is dead,
and his eyes are still perfect, they would still be able to see. There is
some change somewhere; something has gone out of the man, and
that something, which really sees, of which the eye is the instrument,
is called the organ. So this nose is an instrument, and there is an
organ corresponding to it. Modern physiology can tell you what that
is, a nerve centre in the brain. The eyes, ears, etc., are simply the
external instruments. It may be said that the organs, Indriyas, as
they are called in Sanskrit, are the real seats of perception.
What is the use of having one organ for the nose, and one for the
eyes, and so on? Why will not one serve the purpose? To make it
clear to you,—I am talking, and you are listening, and you do not see
what is going on around you because the mind has attached itself to
the organ of hearing, and has detached itself from the sight organ. If
there were only one organ the mind would hear and see at the same
time, it would see and hear and smell at the same time, and it would
be impossible for it not to do all three at the same time. Therefore it
is necessary that there should be separate organs for all these
centres. This has been borne out by modern physiology. It is
certainly possible for us to see and hear at the same time, but that is
because the mind attaches itself partially to both centres, which are
the organs. What are the instruments? We see that these are really
made of the gross materials. Here they are,—eyes, nose, and ears,
etc. What are the organs? They are also made of materials, because
they are centres. Just as this body is composed of gross material for
transforming prâna into different gross forces, so these finer organs
behind, are composed of the fine elements, for the manufacture of
prâna into the finer forces of perception and all kindred things. All
these organs or indriyas combined, plus the internal instrument or
antahkarana, are called the finer body of man,—the linga (or
sûkshma) sarira.
It has a real form, because everything material must have a form.
Behind the indriyas is what is called the manas, the chitta in vritti,
what might be called the vibratory state of the mind, the unsettled
state. If you throw a stone into a calm lake, first there will be
vibration, and then resistance. For a moment the water will vibrate
and then it will react on the stone. So, when any impression comes
on the chitta, or “mind stuff,” it vibrates a little. This state of the mind
is called the manas. Then comes the reaction, the will. There is
another thing behind this will which accompanies all the acts of the
mind, which is called egoism, the ahamkâra, the self-consciousness,
which says “I am,” and behind that is what is called Buddhi, the
intellect, the highest form of nature’s existence. Behind the intellect
is the true Self of man, the Purusha, the pure, the perfect, who is
alone the seer, and for whom is all this change. The Purusha is
looking on at all these changes; he himself is never impure; but by
implication, what the Vedantists call adhyâsam, by reflection, he
appears to be impure. It is like a red flower held before a piece of
crystal; the crystal will look red; or a blue flower and the crystal will
look blue; and yet the crystal itself is colorless. We will take for
granted that there are many selves; each self is pure and perfect, but
it is all these various divisions of gross matter and fine matter that
are imposing on the self, and making it variously colored. Why is
nature doing all this? Nature is undergoing all these changes for the
improvement of the soul; all this creation is for the benefit of the soul,
so that it may be free. This immense book which we call the universe
is stretched before man so that he may read, and come out, as an
omniscient and omnipotent being. I must here tell you that some of
our best psychologists do not believe in a personal God in the sense
in which you believe in Him. The real father of our psychologists,
Kapila, denies the existence of God as a Creator. His idea is that a
personal God is quite unnecessary; Nature itself is sufficient to work
out all that is good. What is called the “Design” theory he repudiated,
and said a more childish theory was never advanced. But he admits
a peculiar kind of God; he says we are all struggling to get free, and
when man becomes free he can, as it were, melt away into Nature
for the time being, only to come out at the beginning of the next cycle
and be its ruler; come out an omniscient and omnipotent being. In
that sense he can be called God; you and I and the humblest beings
will be gods in different cycles. Kapila says such a God will be
temporal, but an eternal God, eternally omnipotent and eternally
ruler of the universe, cannot be. If there were such a God, there
would be this difficulty: he must either be bound or free. A God who
is perfectly free would not create; there would be no necessity. If he
were bound, he would not create because he could not, he would be
weak himself. So, in either case, there cannot be an omnipotent or
omniscient eternal ruler. So wherever the word God is mentioned in
our Scriptures, Kapila says it means those perfected souls who have
become free. The Sânkhya system does not believe in the unity of all
souls. Vedânta believes that all individual souls are united in one
cosmic Being called Brahman, but Kapila, the founder of the
Sânkhya, was dualistic. His analysis of the universe so far as it goes
is really marvellous. He was the father of Hindu evolutionists, and all
the later philosophical systems are simply outcomes of his thought.
According to this system all souls will regain their freedom and their
natural rights, which are omnipotence and omniscience. Here the
question may be asked, whence is this bondage of the souls? The
Sânkhya says it is without beginning, but if it be without beginning it
must also be without end, and we shall never be free. Kapila
explains that this “without beginning” means not in a constant line.
Nature is without beginning and without end, but not in the same
sense as is the soul, because Nature has no individuality, just as a
river flowing by us is every moment getting a fresh body of water,
and the sum total of all these bodies of water is the river, so the river
is not a constant quantity. Similarly everything in Nature is constantly
changing, but the soul never changes. Therefore as Nature is always
changing, it is possible for the soul to come out of its bondage. One
theory of the Sânkhya is peculiar to this psychology. The whole of
the universe is built upon the same plan as one single man, or one
little being; so, just as I have a mind, there is also a cosmic mind.
When this macrocosm evolves there must be first intelligence, then
egoism, then the tanmâtras and the organs, and then the gross
elements. The whole universe according to Kapila is one body, all
that we see are the grosser bodies, and behind these are the finer
bodies, and behind them, a universal egoism, and behind that a
universal Intelligence, but all this is in Nature, all this is manifestation
of Nature, not outside of Nature. Each one of us is a part of that
cosmic consciousness. There is a sum-total of intelligence out of
which we draw what we require, so there is a sum-total of mental
force in the universe out of which we are drawing eternally, but the
seed for the body must come from the parents. The theory includes
heredity and reincarnation too. The material is given to the soul out
of which to manufacture a body, but that material is given by
hereditary transmission from the parents.
We come now to that proposition that in this process there is an
involution and an evolution. All is evolved out of that indiscreet
Nature; and then is involved again and becomes Avyaktam. It is
impossible, according to the Sânkhyas, for any material thing to
exist, which has not as its material some portion of consciousness.
Consciousness is the material out of which all manifestation is made.
The elucidation of this comes in our next lecture, but I will show how
it can be proved. I do not know this table as it is, but it makes an
impression; it comes to the eyes, then to the indriyas, and then to the
mind; the mind then reacts, and that reaction is what I call the table.
It is just the same as throwing a stone into a lake; the lake throws a
wave against the stone; this wave is what we know. The waves
coming out are all we know. In the same way the fashion of this wall
is in my mind; what is external nobody knows; when I want to know
it, it has to become that material which I furnish; I, with my own mind,
have furnished the material for my eyes, and the something which is
outside is only the occasion, the suggestion, and upon that
suggestion I project my mind, and it takes the form of what I see.
The question is, how do we all see the same things? Because we all
have a part of this cosmic mind. Those who have mind will see the
thing, and those who have not will not see it. This goes to show that
since this universe has existed there has never been a want of mind,
of that one cosmic mind. Every human being, every animal, is also
furnished out of that cosmic mind, because it is always present and
furnishing material for their formation.
 II
PRAKRITI AND PURUSHA
We will take up the categories we have been discussing and come to
the particulars. If we remember we started with Prakriti, or Nature.
This Nature is called by the Sânkhya philosophers indiscrete or
inseparate, which is defined as perfect balance of the materials in it;
and it naturally follows that in perfect balance there cannot be any
motion. All that we see, feel, and hear is simply a compound of
motion and matter. In the primal state, before this manifestation,
where there was no motion, perfect balance, this Prakriti was
indestructible, because decomposition comes only with limitation.
Again, according to the Sânkhya, atoms are not the primal state.
This universe does not come out of atoms, they may be the
secondary, or tertiary state. The original matter may compound into
atoms, which in turn compound into greater and greater things, and
as far as modern investigations go, they rather point towards that.
For instance, in the modern theory of ether, if you say ether is also
atomic, that will not solve the proposition at all. To make it clearer,
say that air is composed of atoms, and we know that ether is
everywhere, interpenetrating, omnipresent, and these atoms are
floating, as it were, in ether. If ether again be composed of atoms,
there will still be some space between two atoms of ether. What fills
up that? And again there will be another space between the atoms of
that which fills up this space. If you propose that there is another
ether still finer you must still have something to fill that space, and so
it will be regressus in infinitum, what the Sânkhya philosophers call
anavasthâ,—never reaching a final conclusion. So the atomic theory
cannot be final. According to the Sânkhyas this Nature is
omnipresent, one omnipresent mass of Nature in which are the
causes of everything that exists. What is meant by cause? Cause is
the more subtle state of the manifested state, the unmanifested state
of that which becomes manifested. What do you mean by
destruction? It is reverting to the cause,—the materials out of which
a body is composed go back into their original state. Beyond this
idea of destruction, any idea such as annihilation, is on the face of it
absurd. According to modern physical sciences, it can be
demonstrated that all destruction means that which Kapila called
ages ago “reverting to the causal state.” Going back to the finer form
is all that is meant by destruction. You know how it can be
demonstrated in a laboratory that matter is indestructible. Those of
you who have studied chemistry will know that if you burn a candle
and put a caustic pencil inside a glass tube beneath the candle,
when the candle has burned away, if you take the caustic pencil out
of the tube and weigh it, you will find that the pencil will weigh exactly
its previous weight, plus the weight of the candle,—the candle
became finer and finer, and went on to the caustic. So that in this
present stage of our knowledge, if any man claims that anything
becomes annihilated, he is only making himself absurd. It is only
uneducated people who would advance such a proposition, and it is
curious that modern knowledge coincides with what those old
philosophers taught. The ancients proceeded in their inquiry by
taking up mind as the basis; they analyzed the mental part of this
universe and came to certain conclusions, while modern science is
analyzing the physical part, and it also comes to the same
conclusions. Both analyses must lead to the same truth.
You must remember that the first manifestation of this Prakriti in the
cosmos is what the Sânkhyas called Mahat. We may call it universal
intelligence, the great principle; that is the literal meaning. The first
manifestation of Prakriti is this intelligence; I would not translate it by
self-consciousness, because that would be wrong. Consciousness is
only a part of this intelligence, which is universal. It covers all the
grounds of consciousness, sub-consciousness and super-
consciousness. In Nature, for instance, certain changes are going on
before your eyes which you see and understand, but there are other
changes so much finer that no human perception can catch them.
They are from the same cause, the same Mahat is making these
changes. There are other changes, beyond the reach of our mind or
reasoning, all this series of changes is in this Mahat. You will
understand it better when I come to the individual. Out of this Mahat
comes the universal egoism, and these are both material. There is
no difference between matter and mind save in degree. It is the
same substance in finer or grosser form; one changes into the other,
and this will exactly coincide with the modern physiological research,
and it will save you from a great deal of fighting and struggling to
believe that you have a mind separate from the brain, and all such
impossible things. This substance called Mahat changes into the
material egoism, the fine state of matter, and that egoism changes
into two varieties. In one variety it changes into the organs. Organs
are of two kinds—organs of sensation and organs of reaction. They
are not the eyes or nose, but something finer, what you call brain
centres, and nerve centres. This egoism becomes changed, and out
of this material are manufactured these centres and these nerves.
Out of the same substance, the egoism, is manufactured a yet finer
form, the tanmâtras, fine particles of matter, those for instance which
strike your nose and cause you to smell. You cannot perceive these
fine particles, you can only know that they are there. These
tanmâtras are manufactured out of that egoism, and out of these
tanmâtras, or subtle matter, is manufactured the gross matter, air,
water, earth, and all the things that we see and feel. I want to
impress this on your mind. It is very hard to grasp it, because, in
Western countries, the ideas are so queer about mind and matter. It
is hard to take these impressions out of our brains. I myself had a
tremendous difficulty, being educated in Western philosophy in my
childhood. These are all cosmic things. Think of this universal
extension of matter, unbroken, one substance, undifferentiated,
which is the first state of everything, and which begins to change just
as milk becomes curd, and it is changed into another substance
called Mahat, which in one state manifests as intelligence and in
another state as egoism. It is the same substance, and it changes
into the grosser matter called egoism; thus is the whole universe
itself built, as it were, layer after layer; first undifferentiated Nature
(Avyaktam), and that changes into universal intelligence (Mahat),
and that again is changed into universal egoism (Ahamkâra), and
that changes into universal sensible matter. That matter changes into
universal sense-organs, again changes into universal fine particles,
and these in turn combine and become this gross universe. This is
the cosmic plan, according to the Sânkhyas, and what is in the
cosmos or macrocosm, must be in the individual or microcosm.
Take an individual man. He has first a part of undifferentiated nature
in him, and that material nature in him becomes changed into mahat,
a small particle of the universal intelligence, and that small particle of
the universal intelligence in him becomes changed into egoism—a
particle of the universal egoism. This egoism in turn becomes
changed into the sense-organs, and out of these sense-organs come
the tanmâtras, and out of them he combines and manufactures his
world, as a body. I want this to be clear, because it is the first
stepping stone to Vedânta, and it is absolutely necessary for you to
know, because this is the philosophy of the whole world. There is no
philosophy in the world that is not indebted to Kapila, the founder of
this Sânkhya system. Pythagoras came to India and studied his
philosophy and carried some of these ideas to the Greeks. Later it
formed the Alexandrian school, and still later formed the basis of
Gnostic philosophy. It became divided into two parts; one went to
Europe and Alexandria, and the other remained in India, and
became the basis of all Hindu philosophy, for out of it the system of
Vyâsa was developed. This was the first rational system that the
world saw, this system of Kapila. Every metaphysician in the world
must pay homage to him. I want to impress on your mind that as the
great father of philosophy, we are bound to listen to him, and respect
what he said. This wonderful man, most ancient of philosophers, is
mentioned even in the Vedas. How wonderful his perceptions were!
If there is any proof required of the power of the Yogis to perceive
things beyond the range of the ordinary senses, such men are the
proofs. How could they perceive them? They had no microscopes, or
telescopes. How fine their perception was, how perfect their analysis
and how wonderful!
To revert again to the microcosm, man. As we have seen, he is built
on exactly the same plan. First the nature is “indiscrete” or perfectly
balanced, then it becomes disturbed, and action sets in and the first
change produced by that action is what is called mahat,—
intelligence. Now you see this intelligence in man is just a particle of
the cosmic intelligence,—the Mahat. Out of it comes self-
consciousness, and from this the sensory and the motor nerves, and
the finer particles out of which the gross body is manufactured. I will
here remark that there is one difference between Schopenhauer and
Vedânta. Schopenhauer says the desire, or will, is the cause of
everything. It is the will to exist that makes us manifest, but the
Advaitists deny this. They say it is the intelligence. There cannot be
a single particle of will which is not a reaction. So many things are
beyond will. It is only a manufactured something out of the ego, and
the ego is a product of something still higher, the intelligence, and
that is a modification of “indiscrete” Nature, or Prakriti.
It is very important to understand this mahat in man,—the
intelligence. This intelligence itself is modified into what we call
egoism, and this intelligence is the cause of all these motions in the
body. This covers all the grounds of sub-consciousness,
consciousness and super-consciousness. What are these three
states? The sub-conscious state we find in animals, what we call
instinct. This is nearly infallible, but very limited. Instinct almost never
fails. An animal instinctively knows a poisonous herb from an edible
one, but its instinct is limited to one or two things; it works like a
machine. Then comes the higher state of knowledge, which is
fallible, makes mistakes often, but has a larger scope, although it is
slow, and this you call reason. It is much larger than instinct, but
there are more dangers of mistake in reasoning than in instinct.
There is a still higher state of the mind, the super-conscious, which
belongs only to the Yogis, men who have cultivated it. This is as
infallible as instinct, and still more unlimited than reason. It is the
highest state. We must remember that in man this mahat is the real
cause of all that is here, that which is manifesting itself in various
ways, covers the whole ground of sub-conscious, conscious and
super-conscious states, the three states in which knowledge exists.
So in the Cosmos, this universal Intelligence, Mahat, exists as
instinct, as reason, and as super-reason.
Now comes a delicate question, which is always being asked. If a
perfect God created the universe, why is there imperfection in it?
What we call the universe is what we see, and that is only this little
plane of consciousness or reason, and beyond that we do not see at
all. Now the very question is an impossible one. If I take up only a bit
out of a mass and look at it, it seems to be imperfect. Naturally. The
universe seems imperfect because we make it so. How? What is
reason? What is knowledge? Knowledge is finding associations. You
go into the street and see a man, and know it is a man. You have
seen many men, and each one has made an impression on your
mind, and when you now see this man, you calmly refer to your store
of impressions, see many pictures of men there, and you put this
new one with the rest, pigeon-hole it and are satisfied. When a new
impression comes and it has associations in your mind, you are
satisfied, and this state of association is called knowledge.
Knowledge is, therefore, pigeon-holing one experience with the
already existing fund of experience, and this is one of the great
proofs that you cannot have any knowledge until you have already a
fund in existence. If you are without experience, or if, as some
European philosophers think, the mind is a tabula rasa, it cannot get
any knowledge, because the very fact of knowledge is the
recognition of the new by comparison with already existing
impressions. There must be a store ready to which to refer a new
impression. Suppose a child is born into this world without such a
fund, it would be impossible for him to get any knowledge. Therefore
the child must have been in a state in which he had a fund, and so
knowledge is eternally going on. Show me any way of getting out of
this. It is mathematical experience. This is very much like the
Spencerian and other philosophies. They have seen so far that there
cannot be any knowledge without a fund of past knowledge. They
have drawn out the idea that the child is born with knowledge. They
say that the cause has entered the effect. It comes in a subtle form
in order to be developed. These philosophers say that these
impressions with which the child comes, are not from the child’s own
past, but were in his forefathers’; that it is hereditary transmission.
Very soon they are going to find this theory untenable, and some of
them are now giving hard blows to these ideas of heredity. Heredity
is very good, but incomplete. It only explains the physical side. How
do you explain the influence of environment? Many causes produce
one effect. Environment is one of the modifying causes. On the other
hand we in turn make our own environment, because as our past
was, so we find our present. In other words, we are what we are
here and now, because of what we have been in the past.
You understand what is meant by knowledge. Knowledge is pigeon-
holing a new impression with old impressions—recognizing a new
impression. What is meant by recognition? Finding its association
with the similar impressions that we already have. Nothing further is
meant by knowledge. If that be the case, it must be that we have to
see the whole series of similars. Is it not? Suppose you take a
pebble; to find the association, you have to see the whole series of
pebbles similar to it. But with the universe we cannot do that,
because in our reasoning we can only go after one perception of our
universe, and neither see on this side nor on that side, and we
cannot refer it to its association. Therefore the universe seems
unintelligible, because knowledge and reason are always finding
associations. This bit of the universe cut off by our consciousness is
a startling new thing, and we have not been able to find its
associations. Therefore we are struggling with it, and thinking it is so
horrible, so wicked, and bad;—sometimes we think it is good, but
generally we think it is imperfect. The universe will be known only
when we find the associations. We shall recognize them when we go
beyond the universe and consciousness, and then the universe will
stand explained. Until we do that all our fruitless striving will never
explain the universe, because knowledge is the finding of similars,
and this conscious plane gives us only a partial view. So with our
idea of the universal Mahat, or what in our ordinary everyday
language we call God. All that we have of God is only one
perception, just as of the universe we see only one portion, and all
the rest is cut off and covered by our human limitation. “I, the
Universal, so great am I that even this universe is a part of me.” That
is why we see God as imperfect, and we can never understand Him,
because it is impossible. The only way to understand is to go beyond
reason, beyond consciousness. “When thou goest beyond the heard
and hearing, the thought and thinking, then alone wilt thou come to
truth.” (Bhagavad Gita II. 52.) “Go thou beyond the Scriptures,
because they teach only up to Nature, up to the three qualities.”
(Gita II. 45.) When we go beyond them we find the harmony, not
before.
So far it is clear that this macrocosm and microcosm are built on
exactly the same plan, and in this microcosm we know only one very
small part. We know neither the sub-conscious, nor the super-
conscious. We know only the conscious. If a man says “I am a
sinner,” he is foolish, because he does not know himself. He is the
most ignorant of men about himself; one part only he knows,
because the fact of knowledge covers only one part of the “mind-
ground” he is in. So with this universe; it is possible to know only one
part through reasoning, but Nature comprises the whole of it, the
sub-conscious, the conscious and the super-conscious, the
individual mahat and the universal Mahat with all their subsequent
modifications, and these lie beyond reason.
What makes nature change? We see that Up to this point everything,
all Prakriti, is jadâ (insentient). It is working under law; it is all
compound and insentient. Mind, intelligence, and will, all are
insentient. But they are all reflecting the sentiency, the Chit
(Intelligence) of some Being who is beyond all this, and whom the
Sânkhya philosophers call Purusha. This Purusha is the unwitting
cause of all these changes in Nature—in the universe. That is to say,
this Purusha, taking Him in the universal sense, is the God of the
universe. It is claimed that the will of the Lord created the universe.
This is very good as a common daily expression, but that is all. How
could it be will? Will is the third or fourth manifestation in Nature.
Many things exist before it, and what created them? Will is a
compound, and everything that is a compound is a production out of
Nature. Will itself cannot create Nature. It is not a simple. So to say
that the will of the Lord created the universe is illogical. Our will only
covers a little portion of self-consciousness, and moves our brain,
they say. If it did you could stop the action of the brain, but you
cannot. It is not the will. Who moves the heart? It is not the will,
because if it were you could stop it or not at your will. It is neither will
that is working your body, nor that is working the universe. But it is
something of which will itself is one of the manifestations. This body
is being moved by the power of which will is only a manifestation in
one part. So in the universe there is will, but that is only one part of
the universe. The whole of the universe is not guided by will, that is
why we do not find the explanation in will. Suppose I take it for
granted that the will is moving the body, and then I begin to fret and
fume. It is my fault, because I had no right to take it for granted that it
was will. In the same way, if I take the universe and think it is will that
moves it and then find things that do not coincide, it is my fault. This
Purusha is not will, neither can it be intelligence, because
intelligence itself is a compound. There cannot be any intelligence
without some sort of matter. In man, this matter takes the form which
we call brain. Wherever there is intelligence there must be matter in
some form or other. But that intelligence itself is a compound. What
then is this Purusha? It is neither intelligence nor buddhi (will), but
yet it is the cause of both these; it is His presence that sets them all
vibrating and combining. Purusha may be likened to some of these
substances which by their mere presence promote chemical
reaction, as in the case of cyanide of potassium which is added
when gold is being smelted. The cyanide of potassium remains
separate and unaffected, but its presence is absolutely necessary to
the success of the process. So with the Purusha. It does not mix with
Nature: it is not Intelligence, or Mahat, or any one of these, but the
Self, the Pure, the Perfect. “I am the Witness, and through My
witnessing, Nature is producing all that is sentient and all that is
insentient.” (Gita IX. 10.)
What is this sentiency in Nature? The basis of sentiency is in the
Purusha, is the nature of the Purusha. It is that which cannot be
spoken, but which is the material of all that we call knowledge. This
Purusha is not consciousness, because consciousness is a
compound, but whatever is light and goodness in this consciousness
belongs to It. Sentiency is in the Purusha, but the Purusha is not
intelligent, not knowing, it is knowledge itself. The Chit in the
Purusha, plus Prakriti, is what is known to us as intelligence and
consciousness. Whatever is pleasure and happiness and light in the
universe belongs to the Purusha, but it is a compound because it is
that Purusha plus Nature. “Wherever there is any happiness,
wherever there is any bliss, there is one spark of that immortality,
which is Purusha.” This Purusha is the great attraction of the
universe, untouched by, and unconnected with the universe, yet it
attracts the whole universe. You see a man going after gold,
because therein is a spark of the Purusha, even though he knows it
not. When a man desires children, or a woman a husband, what is
the attracting power? That spark of Purusha behind the child or wife,
behind everything. It is there, only overlaid with matter. Nothing else
can attract. “In this world of insentiency that Purusha alone is
sentient.” This is the Purusha of the Sânkhyas. As such it
necessarily follows that this Purusha must be omnipresent. That
which is not omnipresent must be limited. All limitations are caused;
that which is caused must have beginning and end. If the Purusha is
limited it will die, will not be final, will not be free, but will have been
caused. Therefore if not limited, it is omnipresent. According to
Kapila there are many Purushas, not one. An infinite number of
them, you are one, I am one, each is one; an infinite number of
circles, each one infinite, running through this universe. The Purusha
is neither born nor dies. It is neither mind nor matter, and the reflex
from it is all that we know. We are sure if it be omnipresent it knows
neither death nor birth. Nature is casting her shadow upon it, the
shadow of birth and death, but it is by its own nature eternal. So far
we have found the theory of Kapila wonderful.
Next we will have to take up the proofs against it. So far the analysis
is perfect, the psychology cannot be controverted. There is no
objection to it. We will ask of Kapila the question: Who created
Nature? and his answer will be that Nature (Prakriti) is uncreate. He
also says that the Purusha is omnipresent and that of these
Purushas there is an infinite number. We shall have to controvert this
last proposition, and find a better solution, and by so doing we shall
come to the ground taken by Vedânta. Our first doubt will be how
there can be these two infinites. Then our argument will be that it is
not a perfect generalization, and that therefore we have not found a
perfect solution. And then we shall see how the Vedantists find their
way out of all these difficulties and reach a perfect solution. Yet all
the glory really belongs to Kapila. It is very easy to give a finish to a
building that is nearly complete.
 III
SÂNKHYA AND ADVAITA
I will give you first a resumé of the Sânkhya philosophy, through
which we have been going, because in this lecture we want to find
where its defects are, and where Vedânta comes in as
supplementary to these defects. You must remember that according
to the Sânkhya philosophy, Nature is causing all these
manifestations which we call thought and intellect, reason, love,
hatred, touch, taste; that everything is from Nature. This Nature
consists of three sorts of elements, one called Sattva, another Rajas,
and the third Tamas. These are not qualities, but the materials out of
which the whole universe is being evolved, and at the beginning of a
cycle they remain in equilibrium. When creation comes this
equilibrium is disturbed and these elements begin to combine and
recombine, and manifest as the universe. The first manifestation of
this is what the Sânkhya calls the Mahat (universal Intelligence), and
out of that comes consciousness. And out of consciousness is
evolved Manas (universal Mind). Out of this consciousness are also
evolved the organs of the senses, and the tanmâtras,—sound
particles, touch particles, taste particles, and so forth. All fine
particles are evolved from this consciousness, and out of these fine
particles come the gross particles which we call matter. After the
tanmâtras (those particles which cannot be seen, or measured)
come the gross particles which we can feel and sense. The chitta
(“mind-stuff”) in its three-fold functions of intellect, consciousness
and mind, is working and manufacturing the forces called prânas.
These prânas have nothing to do with breath, you must at once get
rid of that idea. Breath is one effect of the Prâna (universal Energy).
By these prânas are meant the nervous forces that are governing
and moving the whole body, which are manifesting themselves as
thought, and as the various functions of the body. The foremost and
the most obvious manifestation of these prânas is the breathing
motion. If it were caused by air, a dead man would breathe. The
prâna acts upon the air, and not air upon it. These prânas are the
vital forces which manipulate the whole body, and they in turn are
manipulated by the mind and the indriyas (the two kinds of organs).
So far so good. The psychology is very clear and most precise, and
just think of the age of it, the oldest rational thought in the world!
Wherever there is any philosophy or rational thought, it owes
something to Kapila. Wherever there is any attempt at psychology, or
philosophy, there is some indebtedness to the great father of this
thought, to this man Kapila.
So far we see that this psychology is wonderful, but we shall have to
differ with it on some points, as we go on. We find that the principal
idea on which Kapila works is evolution. He makes one thing evolve
out of another, because his very definition of causation is “the effect
is the cause reproduced in another form,” and because the whole
universe, so far as we see it, is progressive and evolving. This whole
universe must have evolved out of some material, out of Prakriti or
Nature. Therefore this Nature cannot be essentially different from its
cause, only when it takes form it becomes limited. The material itself
is without form. But according to Kapila, from undifferentiated nature
down to the last stage of differentiation, none of these is the same as
Purusha, the “Enjoyer,” or “Enlightener.” Just as a lump of clay, so is
a mass of mind, or the whole universe. By itself it has no light, but
we find reason and intelligence in it, therefore there must be some
Existence behind it, behind the whole of Nature, whose light is
percolating through it and appearing as Mahat and consciousness
and all these various things, and this Existence is what Kapila calls
the Purusha, the Âtman or Self of the Vedantist. According to Kapila,
the Purusha is a simple factor, not a compound. It is immaterial, the
only one that is immaterial, whereas all the various manifestations
are material. The Purusha alone knows. Suppose I see a
blackboard, first the external instruments will bring that sensation to
the organ (to the indriya according to Kapila), from the organ it will
go to the mind and make an impression; the mind will cover it up with
another factor,—consciousness, and will present it to the buddhi
(intelligence), but buddhi cannot act; it is the Purusha behind that
acts. These are all its servants, bringing the sensation to It, and It
gives the orders, and the buddhi reacts. The Purusha is the Enjoyer,
the Perceiver, the real One, the King on his throne, the Self of man,
and It is immaterial. Because It is immaterial, it necessarily follows
that It must be infinite, It cannot have any limitation whatever. So
each one of these purushas is omnipresent, each is all-pervading,
but can act only through fine and gross manifestations of matter. The
mind, the self-consciousness, the organs and the vital forces
compose what is called the fine body, or what in Christian philosophy
is called the “spiritual body” of man. It is this body that comes to
reward or punishment, that goes to the different heavens; that
incarnates and reincarnates; because we see from the very
beginning that the going and coming of the soul (Purusha) is
impossible. Motion means going and coming, and that which goes
from one place to another cannot be omnipresent. It is this linga-
sarira (subtle body) which comes and goes. Thus far we see from
Kapila’s psychology that the soul is infinite, and that the soul is the
only principle that is not an evolution of Nature. It is the only one that
is outside of Nature, but It has apparently got bound by Nature. This
Nature is around the Purusha and It has identified Itself with Nature.
It thinks “I am the linga-sarira,” It thinks “I am the gross matter, the
gross body,” and as such is enjoying pleasure and pain; but these do
not really belong to the soul, they belong to this linga-sarira, and to
the gross body. When certain nerves are hurt we feel pain. We
recognize that immediately. If the nerves in our fingers were dead we
could cut the fingers and not feel it. So pleasure and pain belong to
the nerve-centres. Suppose my organ of sight is destroyed, I do not
feel pleasure or pain from color, although my eyes are there. So it is
obvious that pleasure and pain do not belong to the soul. They
belong to the mind and the body.
The soul has neither pleasure nor pain; it is the Witness of
everything, the eternal Witness of things that are going on, but it
takes no fruits from any work. “As the sun is the cause of sight in
every eye, yet is not itself affected by the defects in any eye; as a
piece of crystal appears red when red flowers are placed before it,
so this Purusha appears to be affected by pleasure or pain from the
reflection cast upon It by Nature, but it remains ever unchanged.”
The nearest way to describe Its state is that it is meditation. This
meditative state is that in which you approach nearest to the
Purusha. Thus we see why the meditative state is always called the
highest state by the Yogi, neither a passive nor an active state, but
the meditative state. This is the Sânkhya philosophy.
Next, the Sânkhyas say that this manifestation of Nature is for the
soul, all the combinations are for something outside of Nature. So
these combinations which we call Nature, these constant changes
are going on for the enjoyment of the soul, for its liberation, that it
may gain all this experience from the lowest to the highest, and
when it has gained it, the soul finds that it never was in Nature. It
was entirely separate, and it finds that it is indestructible, that it
neither goes nor comes, that going to heaven and being born again
were in Nature and not in the soul. So the soul becomes free. All of
Nature is working for the enjoyment and experience of the soul. It is
getting this experience in order to reach the goal, and that goal is
freedom. These souls are many, according to the Sânkhya
philosophy. There is an infinite number of souls. And the other
conclusion is that there is no God, as the Creator of the universe.
Nature herself is sufficient to produce all these forms. God is not
necessary, say the Sânkhyas.
Now we shall have to contest these three positions of the Sânkhyas.
First that intelligence or anything of that sort does not belong to the
soul, but that it belongs entirely to Nature; the soul being simply
qualitiless, colorless. The second point is that there is no God, but
Vedânta will show that without a God there cannot be any
explanation whatever. Thirdly, we shall have to contend that there
cannot be many souls, that there cannot be an infinite number, that
there is only One Soul in the universe, and that One is appearing as
many.
We will take the first proposition, that intelligence and reason belong
entirely to Nature, and not to the soul. The Vedânta says that the
soul is in its essence Existence-Knowledge-Bliss; but we agree with
the Sânkhyas that all that they call intelligence is a compound. For
instance, let us look at our perceptions. We remember that the chitta
(or the “mind-stuff”) is what is combining all these things, and upon