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Main groups Main groups
1 18
Periods 1A 8A
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
Transition metal groups
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Lanthanides
Actinides
Elements are organized into 18 vertical columns, or groups, and 7 horizontal rows, or
periods. The two groups on the left and the six on the right are the main groups; the ten in
the middle are the transition metal groups. The 14 elements beginning with lanthanum are
the lanthanides, and the 14 elements beginning with actinium are the actinides. Together,
the lanthanides and actinides are known as the inner transition metal groups. Two systems
for numbering the groups are shown above the top row and are explained in the text.
Those elements (except hydrogen) on the left side of the zigzag line running from
boron (B) to astatine (At) are metals; those elements (plus hydrogen) to the right of
the line are nonmetals; and seven of the nine elements abutting the line are
metalloids, or semimetals.
JOHN E. M C MURRY
Cornell University
ROBERT C. FAY
Cornell University
With Contributions by
JORDAN FANTINI
Denison University
CIP data available upon request.
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Brief Contents
Preface xiii
Supplements xvii
1 Chemistry: Matter and Measurement 1
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 34
3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions 74
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 112
5 Periodicity and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 150
6 Ionic Bonds and Some Main-Group Chemistry 186
7 Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure 216
8 Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy 266
9 Gases: Their Properties and Behavior 308
10 Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 346
11 Solutions and Their Properties 392
12 Chemical Kinetics 432
13 Chemical Equilibrium 492
14 Aqueous Equilibria: Acids and Bases 538
15 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 586
16 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 640
17 Electrochemistry 680
18 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 728
19 The Main-Group Elements 760
20 Transition Elements and Coordination Chemistry 802
21 Metals and Solid-State Materials 852
22 Nuclear Chemistry 888
23 Organic and Biological Chemistry 908
Appendix A Mathematical Operations A-1
Appendix B Thermodynamic Properties at 25 °C A-9
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 25 °C A-14
Appendix D Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C A-18
Appendix E Properties of Water A-20
Answers to Selected Problems A-21
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
Photo Credits C-1
iii
Contents
Preface xiii 2.3 Atomic Structure: Electrons 39
2.4 Atomic Structure: Protons and Neutrons 41
Supplements xvii
2.5 Atomic Numbers 43
2.6 Atomic Masses and the Mole 45
1 Chemistry: Matter and 2.7 Nuclear Chemistry: The Change of One Element
into Another 48
Measurement 1 2.8 Radioactivity 49
1.1 Approaching Chemistry: Experimentation 1 2.9 Nuclear Stability 52
1.2 Chemistry and the Elements 2 2.10 Mixtures and Chemical Compounds; Molecules and
1.3 Elements and the Periodic Table 3 Covalent Bonds 54
1.4 Some Chemical Properties of the Elements 7 2.11 Ions and Ionic Bonds 58
1.5 Experimentation and Measurement 10 2.12 Naming Chemical Compounds 60
1.6 Mass and Its Measurement 11 I N Q U I R Y Where Do Chemical Elements Come From? 67
1.7 Length and Its Measurement 12
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
1.8 Temperature and Its Measurement 13 Section Problems • Chapter Problems
1.9 Derived Units: Volume and Its Measurement 14
1.10 Derived Units: Density and Its Measurement 16
1.11 Derived Units: Energy and Its Measurement 17 3 Mass Relationships in Chemical
1.12 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures in
Measurement 18
Reactions 74
1.13 Rounding Numbers 20 3.1 Balancing Chemical Equations 75
1.14 Calculations: Converting from One Unit to Another 22 3.2 Representing Chemistry on Different Levels 78
3.3 Chemical Arithmetic: Stoichiometry 79
I N Q U I R Y What Are the Risks and Benefits of Chemicals? 26
3.4 Yields of Chemical Reactions 83
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems • 3.5 Reactions with Limiting Amounts of Reactants 85
Section Problems • Chapter Problems
3.6 Concentrations of Reactants in Solution: Molarity 88
3.7 Diluting Concentrated Solutions 90
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 34 3.8
3.9
Solution Stoichiometry 91
Titration 92
2.1 The Conservation of Mass and the Law of Definite 3.10 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas 94
Proportions 35 3.11 Determining Empirical Formulas: Elemental Analysis 97
2.2 The Law of Multiple Proportions and Dalton’s 3.12 Determining Molecular Masses: Mass Spectrometry 100
Atomic Theory 37
iv
CONTENTS v
I N Q U I R Y Did Ben Franklin Have Avogadro’s Number? 102 5.10 Orbital Energy Levels in Multielectron Atoms 170
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems • 5.11 Electron Configurations of Multielectron Atoms 171
Section Problems • Chapter Problems 5.12 Some Anomalous Electron Configurations 173
5.13 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 175
5.1 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 151 I N Q U I R Y Is Eating Salt Unhealthy? 209
5.2 Electromagnetic Energy and Atomic Line Spectra 154 Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
5.3 Particlelike Properties of Electromagnetic Energy 157 Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept
5.4 Wavelike Properties of Matter 159 Problems
5.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Heisenberg Uncertainty
5.6
Principle 160
Wave Functions and Quantum Numbers 161
7 Covalent Bonds and Molecular
5.7 The Shapes of Orbitals 164 Structure 216
5.8 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Line Spectra 167 7.1 Covalent Bonding in Molecules 217
5.9 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 169 7.2 Strengths of Covalent Bonds 218
vi CONTENTS
7.3 A Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds 219 8.12 An Introduction to Entropy 291
7.4 Polar Covalent Bonds: Electronegativity 220 8.13 An Introduction to Free Energy 293
7.5 Electron-Dot Structures 222
I N Q U I R Y What Are Biofuels? 297
7.6 Electron-Dot Structures of Polyatomic Molecules 226
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
7.7 Electron-Dot Structures and Resonance 232
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept
7.8 Formal Charges 234
Problems
7.9 Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model 236
7.10 Valence Bond Theory 243
7.11 Hybridization and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 244 9 Gases: Their Properties and
7.12
7.13
Other Kinds of Hybrid Orbitals 246
Molecular Orbital Theory: The Hydrogen Molecule 250
Behavior 308
7.14 Molecular Orbital Theory: Other Diatomic 9.1 Gases and Gas Pressure 309
Molecules 252 9.2 The Gas Laws 313
7.15 Combining Valence Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital 9.3 The Ideal Gas Law 318
Theory 255 9.4 Stoichiometric Relationships with Gases 320
9.5 Partial Pressure and Dalton’s Law 324
I N Q U I R Y How Does Molecular Shape Lead to Handedness in
9.6 The Kinetic–Molecular Theory of Gases 326
Molecules? 256
9.7 Graham’s Law: Diffusion and Effusion of Gases 329
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
9.8 The Behavior of Real Gases 331
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept
9.9 The Earth’s Atmosphere 332
Problems
I N Q U I R Y How Do Inhaled Anesthetics Work? 336
10.8 Unit Cells and the Packing of Spheres in 12.4 Integrated Rate Law for a First-Order Reaction 444
Crystalline Solids 370 12.5 Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction 447
10.9 Structures of Some Ionic Solids 376 12.6 Radioactive Decay Rates 449
10.10 Structures of Some Covalent Network Solids 378 12.7 Second-Order Reactions 452
10.11 Phase Diagrams 380 12.8 Zeroth-Order Reactions 455
12.9 Reaction Mechanisms 456
I N Q U I R Y Liquids Made of Ions? 383
12.10 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions 459
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
12.11 Rate Laws for Overall Reactions 461
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept
12.12 Reaction Rates and Temperature:
Problems
The Arrhenius Equation 465
12.13 Using the Arrhenius Equation 469
11 Solutions and Their 12.14 Catalysis 472
Properties 392
12.15 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts 476
I N Q U I R Y How Does Equilibrium Affect Oxygen Transport in 15.2 The Common-Ion Effect 590
the Bloodstream? 525 15.3 Buffer Solutions 594
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems • 15.4 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation 597
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept 15.5 pH Titration Curves 601
Problems 15.6 Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 602
15.7 Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations 604
I N Q U I R Y Does Entropy Prevent the Evolution of Biological 18.5 Binary Hydrides 733
Complexity? 669 18.6 Oxygen 738
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems • 18.7 Preparation and Uses of Oxygen 738
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept 18.8 Reactivity of Oxygen 740
Problems 18.9 Oxides 741
18.10 Peroxides and Superoxides 744
17 Electrochemistry 680
18.11
18.12
Hydrogen Peroxide 746
Ozone 748
17.1 Galvanic Cells 681 18.13 Water 749
17.2 Shorthand Notation for Galvanic Cells 685 18.14 Hydrates 750
17.3 Cell Potentials and Free-Energy Changes for Cell
I N Q U I R Y What Role for Hydrogen in Our Energy
Reactions 687
Future? 752
17.4 Standard Reduction Potentials 689
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems •
17.5 Using Standard Reduction Potentials 692
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept
17.6 Cell Potentials and Composition of the Reaction Mixture:
Problems
The Nernst Equation 695
17.7 Electrochemical Determination of pH 698
17.8 Standard Cell Potentials and Equilibrium Constants 700 19 The Main-Group Elements 760
17.9 Batteries 702
19.1 A Review of General Properties and Periodic Trends 762
17.10 Fuel Cells 706
19.2 Distinctive Properties of the Second-Row Elements 764
17.11 Corrosion 707
19.3 The Group 3A Elements 766
17.12 Electrolysis and Electrolytic Cells 709
19.4 Boron 767
17.13 Commercial Applications of Electrolysis 712
19.5 Aluminum 768
17.14 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 715
19.6 The Group 4A Elements 769
I N Q U I R Y Why Are Some Metal Objects Brightly 19.7 Carbon 770
Colored? 718 19.8 Silicon 774
Summary • Key Words • Conceptual Problems • 19.9 The Group 5A Elements 777
Section Problems • Chapter Problems • Multiconcept 19.10 Nitrogen 779
Problems 19.11 Phosphorus 782
19.12 The Group 6A Elements 786
20.1
20.2
Electron Configurations 804
Properties of Transition Elements 806 22 Nuclear Chemistry 888
20.3 Oxidation States of Transition Elements 809 22.1 Energy Changes During Nuclear Reactions 889
20.4 Chemistry of Selected Transition Elements 811 22.2 Nuclear Fission and Fusion 893
20.5 Coordination Compounds 817 22.3 Nuclear Transmutation 897
20.6 Ligands 819 22.4 Detecting and Measuring Radioactivity 898
20.7 Naming Coordination Compounds 821 22.5 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry 901
20.8 Isomers 824
I N Q U I R Y Does Nature Have Nuclear Reactors? 904
20.9 Enantiomers and Molecular Handedness 830
20.10 Color of Transition Metal Complexes 832 Summary • Key Words • Section Problems • Chapter
Problems • Multiconcept Problems
20.11 Bonding in Complexes: Valence Bond Theory 834
20.12 Crystal Field Theory 837
Inquiries
1 What Are the Risks and Benefits of Chemicals? 26 13 How Does Equilibrium Affect Oxygen Transport in the
2 Where Do Chemical Elements Come From? 67 Bloodstream? 525
3 Did Ben Franklin Have Avogadro’s Number? 102 14 What Is Acid Rain and What Are Its Effects? 576
4 How Can Chemistry Be Green? 141 15 How Does Fluoride Ion Help To Prevent Dental
Cavities? 628
5 What Do Compact Fluorescent Lights Have to Do with
Atomic Line Spectra? 179 16 Does Entropy Prevent the Evolution of Biological
Complexity? 669
6 Is Eating Salt Unhealthy? 209
17 Why Are Some Metal Objects Brightly Colored? 718
7 How Does Molecular Shape Lead to Handedness in
Molecules? 256 18 What Role for Hydrogen in Our Energy Future? 752
8 What Are Biofuels? 297 19 How Do Laser Printers Work? 793
9 How Do Inhaled Anesthetics Work? 336 20 How Do Living Things Acquire Nitrogen? 843
10 Liquids Made of Ions? 383 21 Why is it Said That the Next Big Thing Will Be Really
Small? 879
11 How Does Hemodialysis Cleanse the Blood? 424
22 Does Nature Have Nuclear Reactors? 904
12 How Do Enzymes Work? 479
23 Which Is Better, Natural or Synthetic? 947
Applications
Applications of redox reactions 139–140 Toxicity of carbon monoxide 771–772
Energy from fossil fuels 289–290 Uses of carbon dioxide 772–773
Automobile air bags 321 Uses of sulfuric acid 789–790
Uranium-235 enrichment 330 Applications of transition metals 803, 853
Air pollution 333 Applications of chelating agents 820
Acid rain 333 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 853
Global warming 333–334 Metallurgy 855–859
Ozone depletion 334–335 Steelmaking 858–859
Glass 380 Semiconductors 867–871
Deep-sea diving 405 Diodes 867–868
Desalination of seawater 419 Light-emitting diodes 868–869
Petroleum distillation 421–422 Diode lasers 870
Catalytic converters 478 Photovoltaic (solar) cells 870
Production and use of ammonia 511–512 Transistors 871
Lime and its uses 550 Superconductors 871–874
Limestone caves 618 Ceramics 874–877
Fluoride and tooth decay 618 Composites 877–878
Batteries 702–705 Nuclear power 895–897
Fuel cells 706–707 Archeological dating 901–902
Corrosion 707–709 Medical uses of radioactivity 902–903
Applications of electrolysis 712–715 Margarine from vegetable oils 920
Uses of oxides 742–743 Uses of simple alcohols 926
Uses of hydrogen peroxide 746 Amine-containing drugs 927
Purification of drinking water 749–750 Soap 930
Preface
Francie came away from her first chemistry lecture in a glow. In one hour she found
out that everything was made up of atoms which were in continual motion. She
grasped the idea that nothing was ever lost or destroyed. Even if something was
burned up or rotted away, it did not disappear from the face of the earth; it changed
into something else—gases, liquids, and powders. Everything, decided Francie after
that first lecture, was vibrant with life and there was no death in chemistry. She was
puzzled as to why learned people didn’t adopt chemistry as a religion.
—Betty Smith, A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
OK, not everyone has such a breathless response to their chemistry lectures, and few
would mistake chemistry for a religion, yet chemistry is a subject with great logical
beauty. Moreover, chemistry is the fundamental, enabling science that underlies
many of the great advances of the last century that have so lengthened and enriched
our lives. It’s study truly can be a fascinating experience.
We sincerely hope that this new edition will meet the goals we have set for it and
that both students and faculty will find it to be friendly, accessible, and above all
effective in teaching chemistry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our thanks go to our families and to the many talented people who helped bring this
new edition into being. Foremost is Jordan Fantini of Denison University, who joined
us as a contributing author for this edition. Jordan offered valuable input on every
chapter, wrote many new end-of chapter problems, and wrote several new INQUIRY
essays. In addition, we are grateful to Terry Haugen, Acquisitions Editor, and Carol
DuPont, Assistant Editor, for their insights and suggestions that improved the book,
to Erin Gardner, Marketing Manager, who brought new energy to marketing the
sixth edition, to Carol Pritchard-Martinez for her work in improving the art program
and manuscript development, to Wendy Perez and Gina Cheselka for their produc-
tion efforts, and to Eric Schrader for his photo research.
We are particularly pleased to acknowledge the outstanding contributions of sev-
eral colleagues who created the many important supplements that turn a textbook
into a complete package:
xvii
xviii SUPPLEMENTS
John McMurry (left), educated at Harvard and Colum- Robert C. Fay (right), Professor Emeritus at Cornell
bia, has taught more than 20,000 students in general and University, taught general and inorganic chemistry at Cornell
organic chemistry over a 40-year period. An emeritus Profes- for 45 years beginning in 1962. Known for his clear, well-
sor of Chemistry at Cornell University, Dr. McMurry organized lectures, Dr. Fay was the 1980 recipient of the Clark
previously spent 13 years on the faculty at the University of Distinguished Teaching Award. He has also taught as a visit-
California at Santa Cruz. He has received numerous awards, ing professor at Harvard University and the University of
including the Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship (1969–71), the Bologna (Italy). A Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Oberlin Col-
National Institute of Health Career Development Award lege, Dr. Fay received his Ph.D. from the University of
(1975–80), the Alexander von Humboldt Senior Scientist Illinois. He has been an NSF Science Faculty Fellow at the
Award (1986–87), and the Max Planck Research Award University of East Anglia and the University of Sussex (Eng-
(1991). With the publication of this new edition, he has now land) and a NATO/Heineman Senior Fellow at Oxford
authored or coauthored 34 textbooks in various fields of University.
chemistry.
xix
CHAPTER 1
Chemistry: Matter
and Measurement
CONTENTS
1.1 Approaching Chemistry: Experimentation 1.10 Derived Units: Density and Its Measurement
1.2 Chemistry and the Elements 1.11 Derived Units: Energy and Its Measurement
1.3 Elements and the Periodic Table 1.12 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures
1.4 Some Chemical Properties of the Elements in Measurement
1.6 Mass and Its Measurement 1.14 Calculations: Converting from One Unit
to Another
1.7 Length and Its Measurement
INQUIRY What Are the Risks and Benefits of
1.8 Temperature and Its Measurement Chemicals?
1.9 Derived Units: Volume and Its Measurement
xx
1.1 APPROACHING CHEMISTRY: EXPERIMENTATION 1
L
ife has changed more in the past two centuries than in all the previously
recorded span of human history. Earth’s population has increased more than
fivefold since 1800 and life expectancy has nearly doubled because of our abil-
ity to synthesize medicines, control diseases, and increase crop yields. Methods of
transportation have changed from horses and buggies to automobiles and airplanes
because of our ability to harness the energy in petroleum. Many goods are now made
of polymers and ceramics instead of wood and metal because of our ability to manu-
facture materials with properties unlike any found in nature.
In one way or another, all these changes involve chemistry, the study of the com-
position, properties, and transformations of matter. Chemistry is deeply involved in
both the changes that take place in nature and the profound social changes of the The sequence of the approximately
past two centuries. In addition, chemistry is central to the current revolution in 5.8 billion nucleic acid units, or
molecular biology that is revealing the details of how life is genetically controlled. nucleotides, present in the human genome
No educated person today can understand the modern world without a basic knowl- has been determined using instruments
edge of chemistry. like this.
In fact, the natural world is far too complex to be understood by looking and
thinking alone, so a more active approach is needed. Specific questions must be
asked, and experiments must be carried out to find their answers. Only when the
results of many experiments are known can we devise an interpretation, or
2 Chapter 1 CHEMISTRY: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT
hypothesis, that explains the results. The hypothesis, in turn, can be used to make
more predictions and to suggest more experiments until a consistent explanation, or
theory, is finally arrived at.
It’s important to keep in mind as you study chemistry or any other science that
scientific theories are not laws of nature and can never be absolutely proven. There’s
always the chance that a new experiment might give results that can’t be explained
by present theory. All a theory can do is to represent the best explanation that we can
come up with at the present time. If new experiments uncover results that present
theories can’t explain, the theories will have to be modified or perhaps even
replaced.
TABLE 1.1 Names and Symbols of Some Common Elements. Latin names from which the symbols of some
elements are derived are shown in parentheses.
Actually, the previous statement about everything being made of one or more of
118 elements is an exaggeration because only about 90 of the 118 occur naturally. The
remaining 28 have been produced artificially by nuclear chemists using high-energy
particle accelerators.
Furthermore, only 83 of the 90 or so naturally occurring elements are found in
any appreciable abundance. Hydrogen is thought to account for approximately 75%
of the observed mass in the universe; oxygen and silicon together account for 75% of
the mass of the Earth’s crust; and oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen make up more than
90% of the mass of the human body (Figure 1.1). By contrast, there is probably less
than 20 grams of the element francium (Fr) dispersed over the entire Earth at any one
time. Francium is an unstable radioactive element, atoms of which are continually
being formed and destroyed. We’ll discuss radioactivity in Chapter 2.
For simplicity, chemists refer to specific elements using one- or two-letter sym-
bols. As shown by the examples in Table 1.1, the first letter of an element’s symbol is
always capitalized and the second letter, if any, is lowercase. Many of the symbols are
just the first one or two letters of the element’s English name: H = hydrogen,
C = carbon, Al = aluminum, and so forth. Other symbols derive from Latin or other
languages: Na = sodium (Latin, natrium), Pb = lead (Latin, plumbum), W = tungsten
(German, wolfram). The names, symbols, and other information about all 118 known
elements are given inside the front cover of this book, organized in a format you’ve
undoubtedly seen before called the periodic table.
1.3 ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 3
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra
H 10% 23% C
He
2.6% N
Li Be B C F Ne
Na Mg 1.4% Si P S Cl Ar
Al
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra
쑺 PROBLEM 1.1 Look at the alphabetical list of elements inside the front cover, and
find the symbols for the following elements:
(a) Cadmium (used in batteries)
(b) Antimony (used in alloys with other metals)
(c) Americium (used in smoke detectors)
쑺 PROBLEM 1.2 Look at the alphabetical list of elements inside the front cover, and tell
what elements the following symbols represent:
(a) Ag (b) Rh (c) Re (d) Cs (e) Ar (f) As
As the pace of scientific discovery quickened in the late 1700s and early 1800s,
chemists began to look for similarities among elements that might allow general con-
clusions to be drawn. Particularly important among the early successes was Johann
Döbereiner’s observation in 1829 that there were several triads, or groups of three ele-
ments, that appeared to behave similarly. Calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), and barium
(Ba) form one such triad; chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I) form another; and
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K) form a third. By 1843, 16 such triads
were known and chemists were searching for an explanation.
Numerous attempts were made in the mid-1800s to account for the similarities
among groups of elements, but the breakthrough came in 1869 when the Russian
chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the forerunner of the modern periodic table.
Mendeleev’s creation is an ideal example of how a scientific theory develops. At first
Left to right, samples of chlorine, there is only disconnected information—a large number of elements and many
bromine, and iodine, one of Döbereiner’s observations about their properties and behavior. As more and more facts become
triads of elements with similar chemical known, people try to organize the data in ways that make sense until ultimately a
properties. consistent hypothesis emerges.
A good hypothesis must do two things: It must explain known facts, and it must
make predictions about phenomena yet unknown. If the predictions are tested and
found true, then the hypothesis is a good one and will stand until additional facts are
discovered that require it to be modified or discarded. Mendeleev’s hypothesis about
how known chemical information could be organized passed all tests. Not only did
the periodic table arrange data in a useful and consistent way to explain known facts
about chemical reactivity, it also led to several remarkable predictions that were later
found to be accurate.
Using the experimentally observed chemistry of the elements as his primary
organizing principle, Mendeleev arranged the known elements in order of the
relative masses of their atoms with hydrogen = 1 (called their atomic masses, Section
2.6) and then grouped them according to their chemical reactivity. On so doing, he
realized that there were several “holes” in the table, some of which are shown in
Figure 1.2. The chemical behavior of aluminum (relative mass L 27.3) is similar to
that of boron (relative mass L 11), but there was no element known at the time that
fit into the slot below aluminum. In the same way, silicon (relative mass L 28) is sim-
ilar in many respects to carbon (relative mass L 12), but there was no element
known that fit below silicon.
H=1
Li = 7 Be = 9.4 B = 11 C = 12 N = 14 O = 16 F = 19
Na = 23 Mg = 24 Al = 27.3 Si = 28 P = 31 S = 32 Cl = 35.5
Figure 1.2
A portion of Mendeleev’s periodic table. The table shows the relative masses of
atoms as known at the time and some of the holes representing unknown elements.
Looking at the holes in the table, Mendeleev predicted that two then-unknown
elements existed and might be found at some future time. Furthermore, he predicted
with remarkable accuracy what the properties of these unknown elements would be.
The element immediately below aluminum, which he called eka-aluminum from a
Sanskrit word meaning “first,” should have a relative mass near 68 and should have
a low melting point. Gallium, discovered in 1875, has exactly these properties. The
1.3 ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 5
element below silicon, which Mendeleev called eka-silicon, should have a relative
mass near 72 and should be dark gray in color. Germanium, discovered in 1886, fits
the description perfectly (Table 1.2).
In the modern periodic table, shown in Figure 1.3, elements are placed on a grid
with 7 horizontal rows, called periods, and 18 vertical columns, called groups. When
organized in this way, the elements in a given group have similar chemical properties.
Lithium, sodium, potassium, and the other metallic elements in group 1A behave
similarly. Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, and the other elements in group 2A
behave similarly. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and the other elements in group 7A
behave similarly, and so on throughout the table. (Mendeleev, by the way, was com-
pletely unaware of the existence of the group 8A elements—He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and
Rn—because none were known when he constructed his table. All are colorless,
odorless gases with little or no chemical reactivity, and none were discovered until
1894, when argon was first isolated.)
The overall form of the periodic table is well accepted, but chemists in different
countries have historically used different conventions for labeling the groups. To
resolve these difficulties, an international standard calls for numbering the groups
from 1 to 18 going left to right. This standard has not yet found complete acceptance,
however, and we’ll continue to use the U.S. system of numbers and capital letters—
group 3B instead of group 3 and group 7A instead of group 17, for example. Labels
for the newer system are also shown in Figure 1.3.
One further note: There are actually 32 groups in the periodic table rather than 18,
but to make the table fit manageably on a page, the 14 elements beginning with lan-
thanum (the lanthanides) and the 14 beginning with actinium (the actinides) are pulled
out and shown below the others. These groups are not numbered.
We’ll see repeatedly throughout this book that the periodic table of the elements
is the most important organizing principle in chemistry. The time you take now to
6 Chapter 1 CHEMISTRY: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT
Atomic Number
Chemical symbol
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Figure 1.3
The periodic table. Each element is identified by a one- or two-letter symbol and is
characterized by an atomic number. The table begins with hydrogen (H, atomic
number 1) in the upper left-hand corner and continues to the yet unnamed element
with atomic number 118. The 14 elements beginning with lanthanum (La, atomic
number 57) and the 14 elements beginning with actinium (Ac, atomic number 89)
are pulled out and shown below the others.
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II.
Solomon Notredame.
"Jos olisit irralla, niin mahtuisitko tästä ikkunasta?" kysyi mies. Hän
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rengasta, joka jo on kulunut enemmän kuin puolitiehen. Ymmärrätkö,
poika?"
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pudonnut hänen jalkoihinsa. "Tiedän."
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Mies ja vaimo.
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"En tiedä."
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"En tiedä."